First Notebook

History - Copy

6 ) PEOPLE RESISTANCE AGAINST BRITISH

BEFORE 1857

Factors Responsible for People’s Resistance

Colonial land revenue settlements; heavy burden of new taxes and
eviction of peasants from their land
Growth of intermediary revenued collectors, tenants, and
moneylenders
Expansion of revenue administration over tribal lands Destruction
of indigenous industry and promotion of British manufactured
goods.
End of patronage to priestly and scholarly classes Foreign
character of the British rule

● Forms of People’s Uprisings Civil Uprisings

Peasant Movements
Tribal Revolts
Military Revolts

● Civil Uprisings Before 1857

Sanyasi Revolt ( 1763 - 1800)Bihar and Bengal; Manju Shah,Musa

Shah, Bhawani Pathak, and Debi Chaudhurani were some
important leaders.
Rebellion in Midnapore and Dhalbhum (1766–67)—Bengal;
Damodar Singh, Jagannath Dhal, etc.
Revolt of Moamarias (1769–99)—Assam and parts of present
Bangladesh;Krishnanarayan was important leader.
Civil Uprisings in Gorakhpur, Basti and Bahraich (1781)—
UttarPradesh.
Revolt of Raja of Vizianagaram—Northeren Circars; Vizieram Rauze
(Chinna Vijayaramaraju) was supported by his subjects.
Revolt in Bednur (1797–1800)—Karnataka; Dhundia Wagh. Revolt
of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (1797–1805)—Kerala;Kerala Varma.
Civil Rebellion of Awadh (1799)—Eastern Uttar Pradesh; Wazir Ali
Khan (Vizier Ali).
Uprising in Ganjam and Gumsur (1800, 1935–37)—Eastern Orissa;
Strikara Bhanj, Dhananjaya Bhanj and Doora Bisayi. Uprisings in
Palamau (1800–02)—Chhotanagpur of Jharkhand;
Bhukhan Singh was the leader of the revolt.
Poligars’s Revolt (1795–1805)—Tinnevelly, Ramnathapuram,
Sivagiri, Madurai and North Arcot of Tamil Nadu; Kattabomman
Nayakan was an important leader.
Revolt of Diwan Velu Thampi (1808–09)—Travancore; led by
Diwan of State, Velu Thampi.
Disturbances in Bundelkhand (1808–12)—Regions of Bundelkhand
in present Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh; Lakshaman Dawa,
the Killadar of Ajaygarh Fort, Darya Singh, the Killadar of
Kalanjar, and Gopal Singh, a military adventurer were the
important insurgents.
Parlakimedi Outbreak (1813–34)—Orissa; Narayan Deo and
Gajapathi Deo.
Kutch Rebellion (1819)—Gujarat; Rao Bharamal.
Rising at Bareilly (1816)—Uttar Pradesh; Mufti Muhammad
Aiwaz, a religious leader; a resistance against municipal tax turned
into a religious jehad.
Upsurge in Hathras (1817)—Aligarh and Agra in Uttar
Pradesh;Dayaram and Bhagwant Singh were the important
insurgents. Paika Rebellion (1817)—Orissa; Bakshi Jagabandhu
Bidyadhar, Mukunda Deva, and Dinabandhu Santra were important
leaders.
Waghera Rising (1818–20)—Baroda region of Gujarat; led by
Waghera chiefs of Okha Mandal.
Ahom Revolt (1828)—Assam; led by Gomdhar Konwar and
Maharaja Purandhar Singh. Narendra Gadadhar Singh andKumar
Rupchand were other leaders.
Surat Salt Agitations (1844)—Gujarat; attacks on the Europeans
by the locals of Surat; over the issue of increase in salt duty.
Gadkari Revolt (1844)—Kolhapur of Maharashtra; Gadakaris,
hereditary military class, revolted in the wake of unemployment
and agrarians grievances.
Revolt of Savantavadi (1844–59)—North Konkan Coast; Phond
Savant, Subana Nikam, Daji Lakshman, and Har Savant Dingnekar
were important insurrectionists.
Wahabi Movement (1830–61)—Bihar, Bengal, North West Frontier
Province, Punjab, etc., an Islamist revivalist movement
started by Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly.
Kuka Movement (1840–72)—Punjab; A religious movement
started by Bhagat Jawahar Mal transformed into political one.
Ram Singh, a noted leader, deported to Rangoon.

● Peasant Movements

Narkelberia Uprising (1831)—24 Parganas (Bengal); Titu Mir

inspired the Muslim tenants in West Bengal against
Hindulandlords.
Pagal Panthis (1825–35)—Mymensingh district (Bengal); Karam
Shah and his son Tipu rose against zamindars.
Faraizi Revolt (1838–57)—Faridpur in Eastern Bengal; Shariat-
Allah, son of Dadu Mian, was the founder of the religious sect
 (Faraizi).
Moplah Uprisings ( 1836 - 1854 ) —Malabar region of Kerala;
againsthike in revenue demand and reduction in field size.

● Tribal Revolts

Pahariyas’ Rebellion (1778)—Raj Mahal Hills against british

expansion on their land.
Chuar Uprisings (1766 to 1772, 1795–1816)—Midnapore district of
Bengal; important leaders—Sham Ganjan, Durjan Singh and
Madhab Singh. Against rise in demand and economic privatisation
by british.
Kol Mutiny (1831)—Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamau and
Manbhum; Buddho Bhagat was an important leader. Transfer of
their land to outsider.

Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820–22, 1831–37, 1899–1900)

a) by Ho tribals by led of Raja Parahat (1827; Singhbhum
and Chottanagpur); against occupation of Singhbhum by British.
(b) by Ho tribals and the Mundas (1831); against the newly
introduced farming revenue policy.
(c) by the Mundas led by Birsa Munda (1899–1900; south of
Ranchi); Birsa was captured and imprisoned.
(d) the ulghan uprising ,supportedbyBirsaMunda 1860–1920);
against introduction of feudal, zamindari tenures, and exploitation
by moneylenders and forest contractors.

Santhal Rebellion (1855–56)—Rajmahal Hill (Bihar); Sidhu and

Kanhu were important leaders.
Khond Uprisings (1837–1856)—Hilly tracts extending from
TamilNadu to Bengal; Chakra Bisoi, an important leader.
Koya Revolts (1803, 1840–62, 1879–80)—Eastern Godavari region
 of Andhra Pradesh; Tomma Sora and Raja Anantayyar were
important leaders.
Bhil Revolts (1817–19, 1913)—Khandesh, Dhar, Malwa, Western
Ghats and southern Rajasthan.
Koli Risings (1829, 1839 and 1844–48)—Western Ghats. Ramosi
Risings (1822–29, 1839–41)—Western Ghats; Chittur Singh was
an important rebel leader.
Khasi Uprising (1829–33)—Hilly region between Garo and
JaintiaHills, Sylhet; Khasis, Garos, Khamptis and Singhphos
organised themselves under Tirath Singh.
Singhphos’ Rebellion (1830–31, 1843)—Assam-Burma
Border;Nirang Phidu led an uprising in 1843.

● Sepoy Mutinies

Vellore Mutiny (1806)

Mutiny of 47th Native Infantry Unit (1824) Revolt of Grenadier
Company (1825), Assam Mutiny in Sholapur (1833)
Mutiny of 34th Native Infantry (1844)
Mutiny of 22nd Native Infantry (1849)
Mutiny of 66th Native Infantry (1850)
Mutiny of 37th Native Infantry (1852)

Muslim
1. wahabi movement
2. Kuka movement
3. Narkelberia uprising
4. Faraizi revolt

South India
1. Revolt of raja of viziagnagaram
 2. Poligars revolt
3. Diwan velu tampi revolt
4. Rampa revolt.

North India
1. Wahabi
2. Kuka

Western India
1. Bhill uprising Khandesh region
2. Cutch rebellion
3. Waghera rebellion
4. Koli rising
5. Ramoshi rising
6. Surat salt agitation
7. Kolhapur and vasantwadi revolt

Bengal and Eastern India

1. Sanyashi

2. Chaur
3. Ho rising
4. Kol mutiny
5. Kandh uprising
6. Santhal
7. Ahom Revolt
8. Khasi revolt
9. Pagal panthis
10. Faraizi revolt
11. Munda revolt

Why failed ?
● These uprisings drew a large number of participants but were, in
fact, localised and occurred at different times in different regions.
● They mostly arose out of local grievances.
● The leadership was semi-feudal in character, backward- looking,
traditional in outlook, and their resistance did not offer alternatives to
the existing social set-up.
● If many of these revolts seemed similar to one another in wanting
to oust the alien rule, it was not because of some ‘national’ impulse
or common effort, but because they were protesting against
conditions that were common to them.
● These rebellions were centuries-old in form and ideological / cultural
content.
● Those who were not so uncooperative or obstinate were pacified
through concessions by the authorities.
● The methods and arms used by the fighters in these uprisings were
practically obsolete compared to the weapons and strategy—as well as
deception and chicanery—employed by their opponents.

7 ) 1857 Revolt.

Revolt
a product of character and policies of colonial rule GG lord
canning 1856-57 , est university at Calcutta, Madras , Bombay in
1857

Economic causes—

heavy taxation under new revenue settlement

summary evictions
discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products
destruction of traditional handicrafts industry
absence of concomitant industrialisation on modern lines that hit
peasants, artisans, and small zamindars.

Political causes—

greedy policy of aggrandisement

absentee sovereigntyship character of British rule
British interference in socio-religious affairs of the Indian public.

Military causes

Discontent among sepoys for economic, psychological, and religious

reasons, coupled with a long history of revolts.

Administrative cause
Rampat corruption

Socio Religious cause

Racial discrimination
Inferiority complex
Socio religious reforms such as sati abolition, widow remarriage,
womens education
Religious disablities act 1856 - modified hindu custom , son can
claim father prop even after covert religion.

Influence outside events.

1838 1st Afgan war

1845 - 49 Punjab war
1854 -56 Crimean war
Discontent among sepoys

(i) discrimination in payment and promotions;

(ii) mistreatment of the sepoys by the British officials; (iii)
refusal of the government to pay foreign service
allowance while fighting in remote regions; (iv) religious
objections of the high-caste Hindu sepoys to Lord Canning’s
General Service Enlistment Act (1856) ordering all recruits to be
ready for service both within and outside India.

Centres of Revolt and Leader

Delhi - General Bakht Khan
Kanpur - Nana Saheb
Lucknow - Begum Hazrat Mahal
Bareily - Khan Bahadur
Bihar - Kunwar Singh
Faizabad- Maulvi Ahmadullah
Jhansi - Rani Laxmibai
Baghpat- Shah Mal

The British Resistance

Delhi - Lieutenant Willoughby, John Nicholson,Lieutenant Hudson

Kanpur - Sir Hugh Wheeler, Sir Colin Campbell
Lucknow- Henry Lawrence, Brigadier Inglis, Henry Havelock,
James Outram, Sir Colin Campbell
Jhansi - Sir Hugh Rose
Banaras - Colonel James Neill

Causes of Failure

Limited territorial and social base

Crucial support of certain sections of Indian public to British
authorities
Lack of resources as compared to those of the British Lack of
coordination and a central leadership
Lack of a coherent ideology and a political perspective

Nature

R.C. Majumdar and S.N. Sen— “Not an organised ‘national’

revolt”
R.C. Majumdar— “Neither first, nor National War of
Independence”
V.D. Savarkar—“War of independence”
Eric Stokes—“Elitist in character”
Lawrence and Seeley—“Mere sepoy mutiny”
T.R. Holmes—“A conflict between civilisation and barbarism”
James Outram—“A Mohammedan conspiracy making capital
of Hindu grievances”
Percival Spear—Three phases of the revolt

Conclusion: Not quite the first war of independence but sowed

the seeds of nationalism and quest for freedom from alien rule

Effect

Crown took over;

Company rule abolished.
Queen’s Proclamation altered administration.
Army reorganised.
Racial hatred deepened.
White Mutiny.
8) Socio religious reforms.

Ideological Base

Rationalism, religious universalism, humanism, secularism.There

were two categories of movement. Revivalist and reformist.
Revivalist like Brahma Samaj ,Prarthana Samaj ,the Aligarh
movement and revivalist movements like Arya Samaj ,the Deoband
movement.

Factors which gave Rise to Reform Movements

Presence of colonial government on Indian soil.

Various ills plaguing Indian society—obscurantism, superstition,
polytheism, idolatry, degraded position of women, exploitative
caste hierarchy.
Spread of education and increased awareness of the world. Impact
of modern Western culture and consciousness of defeat by a
foreign power.
Rising tide of nationalism and democracy during the late 19th
century.

Social Reform Components

Betterment of Position of Women Degraded position due to

Purdah system
Early marriage
Lack of education
Unequal rights in marriage, divorce, inheritance Polygamy
 Female infanticide
Restrictions on widow remarriage
Sati

Legislative Measures for Women

Bengal Regulation (1829) banning sati in. Bengal, 1830 in madras

and bombay.
Bengal Regulations (1795, 1804)—declaring infanticide illegal.
Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act, 1856.
Age of Consent Act, 1891
Sarda Act, 1930
Special Marriage Act, 1954
Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
Hindu Succession Act, 1956
Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act
Maternity Benefits Act, 1961
Equal Remuneration Act, 1976
Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act, 1978 Suppression of
Immoral Traffic Act in Women and Girls, 1956 (amended in 1986)
Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 (amended in 1986)

Important Hindu Socio-Religious Reform Movements.

Socio-Religious Leaders Significance

Reform Movement

Brahmo Samaj 1828 Raja Rammohan Its primary

Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Keshub goal was to
Roy also called as a Chandra Sen, led worship the
by Debendranath eternal God.
father of Indian
Tagore. he believed
renaissance .
in monTheism
Started anti sati It was
struggle.work for opposed to
abolition of Purdah the
System discourage priesthood,
child marriage and ceremonies,
polygamy and sacrifices.
It centered
on prayers,
meditation,
and scripture
reading. It
was a firm
believer in
the oneness
of all religions.
It was
contemporary
India's first
intellectual
reform
movement.
It resulted in
the rise of
rationality
and
enlightenment
in India,
which aided
the
nationalist
cause
indirectly.
It was the
progenitor of
all
contemporary
India's social,
religious, and
political
movements.
In 1866, it
separated
into two
organizations:
the Brahmo
Samaj of
India, led by
Keshub
Chandra Sen,
 and the Adi
Brahmo
Samaj, led by
Debendranath
Tagore.

Atmiya Sabha Raja Rammohan Roy To promote

1814 Vedanta's
Society of friends in monotheistic
ideas and to
calcutta
fight idolatry,
caste
rigidities,
useless
rituals, and
other societal
problems.
Raja Ram
Mohan Roy,
who was
heavily
inspired by
rationalist
beliefs, said
that Vedanta
is founded on
reason and
that, if
reason
demanded it,
even
deviation
from the
scriptures is
allowed.

Tattvabodhini Sabha Debendranath Tattvabodhini

Tagore Sabha was
founded in
1839 by
Debendranath
Tagore, the
father of
Rabindranath
 Tagore.
When he
joined the
Brahmo
Samaj in
1842, he
gave it fresh
vitality.
He
committed
himself to a
methodical
and
reasonable
study of
India's past.
He spread
Roy's views.

Prarthana Samaj Atmaram Keshab

Pandurang, Keshab Chandra Sen
Chandra Sen assisted
Atmaram
Pandurang in
establishing
the
Prarthana
Samaj in
Bombay in
1867.
The
Paramahansa
Sabha, a kind
of secret club
that
promoted
liberal ideals
and
encouraged
the
dissolution of
caste and
communal
boundaries,
 was a
forerunner of
the
Prarthana
Samaj.
The samaj's
strategy was
based on
teaching and
persuasion
rather than
conflict with
Hindu
orthodoxy.
Along with
Ranade,
Dhondo
Keshav Karve
and Vishnu
Shastri were
social
reformers.
Young Bengal Henry Vivian Derozio The Hindu
Movement College of
Calcutta
intellectuals
were at the
forefront of
the new
Bengal
movement.
These
philosophers
were also
referred to as
Derozians.
Derozio
supported
radical views
through his
teaching and
by forming a
debate and
 discussion
group on
literature,
philosophy,
history, and
science.
They revered
the ideas of
the French
Revolution
(1789 A.D.)
and British
liberalism.
The
Derozians
were also
advocates for
women's
rights and
education.
Arya Samaj Swami Dayanand The Arya
Saraswati Samaj
focused on
the mission
of
modernizing
Hinduism in
western and
northern
India.
Swami
Dayanand
thought that
greedy and
stupid priests
had distorted
Hinduism
with the help
of the
Puranas,
which he
said
contained
erroneous
 doctrines.
Swami
Dayanand
sought
inspiration
from the
Vedas, which
he believed
infallible as
the divine
word of God
and the font
of all
knowledge.
Some of
Swami
Dayanand's
disciples
eventually
established a
network of
schools and
universities
around the
country to
provide
western-style
education.
Lala Hansraj
was a driving
force behind
this endeavor.

Ramakrishna Swami Vivekananda Ramakrishna's

Mission religious
lessons were
popularised
through
Vivekananda.
He
attempted to
adapt it to
the demands
of current
 Indian society.
Simultaneously
, he was
convinced of
the
superiority of
the Indian
philosophical
tradition's
approach.
Vivekananda
chastised
Indians for
becoming
static and
mummified
after losing
contact with
the rest of
the world.
Vivekananda
was an
outspoken
opponent of
the caste
system and
the Hindu
emphasis on
rituals and
superstitions.

Socio-Religious Leaders Significance

Reform Movements

Wahabi Movement Syed Ahmed Syed Ahmed

criticized
Western
influences on
Islam and
argued
for the
restoration
of genuine
Islam and
Arabian
culture as it
was during
the Prophet's
time.
Syed Ahmed
was hailed as
the ideal
leader
(Imam).
A nationwide
organization
was
established,
with an
extensive
secret code
for operating
under
spiritual vice-
regents
(Khalifas).
The Wahabis
played a
significant
role in
instilling anti-
British
attitudes.
A series of
British
military
assaults on
the Wahabi
base at
Sithana in
the 1860s, as
well as many
court
proceedings
of sedition
against the
 Wahabis,
weakened the
Wahabi
resistance,
while
intermittent
interactions
with the
government
lasted until
the 1880s
and 1890s.

Ahmadiyya Mirza Ghulam The

Movement Ahmad Ahmadiyya
are a Muslim
group that
emerged in
India.
It referred to
itself as the
standard-
bearer of the
Mohammedan
Renaissance.
Like the
Brahmo
Samaj, it was
founded on
the ideas of
universal
religion for
all humanity,
rejecting
jihad (holy
war against
non-Muslims).
The initiative
provided
Indian
Muslims with
Western
liberal
education.
 The
Ahmadiyya
community is
the only
Islamic group
that believes
the Messiah,
Mirza Ghulam
Ahmad, came
to end
religious
strife and
bloodshed
and to
restore
morality,
peace, and
justice.
Aligarh Movement Syed Ahmad Khan Syed Ahmad
Khan was a
fervent
believer in
religion's
essential
underlying
oneness,
often known
as 'practical
morality.'
He also spoke
on the
inherent
similarities
between
Hindu and
Muslim
objectives.
In 1862, he
founded the
Scientific
Society to
translate
English
literature on
 science and
other
subjects into
Urdu.
He also
founded an
English-Urdu
periodical
through
which he
propagated
ideas for
social
transformation
.
His endeavor
led in the
founding of
the
Mohammedan
Oriental
College,
which
expanded into
the Aligarh
Muslim
University.
Deoband Movement Muhammad Qasim Deobandis
Nanautavi, Rashid saw Islam as
Ahmad Gangohi having two
primary
points:
Shariat (law
based on
texts and
religious
knowledge)
and tariqah
(religious
knowledge)
As a result,
they
embraced
Sufism and
 its different
kinds of
discipline, as
well as the
function of
the ulama in
interpreting
Islamic law's
four schools.
While they
accepted
Sufism, the
Deobandis
rejected
certain rites
as well as
the authority
of pirs who
claimed
holiness via
lineage rather
than learning.

Barelvi Movement Syed Ahmad Rai Syed Ahmad

Barelvi Rai Barelvi
was India's
leading
Wahhabi
exponent, a
firm
proponent of
puritanical
extremism
and physical
jihadism.
Sufi
organizations
and silsilas
such as
Naqsyabandiya
h, Chishtiya,
and Qadriyah
first
influenced
 him.
For Indian
Muslims,
Syed
Ahmad's
Mujahidin
movement is
now gone,
but his
religious
exhortations
for jihad as
"an act of
devotion
greater than
spiritual
prayer in
merit and
rewards"
continue to
impact
millions.
As a result,
some
extreme
jihadist
organizations
have declared
the
resurrection
of Rai
Barelvi's
Mujahidin
movement in
the
subcontinent.

Important Sikh Socio-Religious Reform Movements

Sikh Socio-Religious Leader Significance
Reform Movement

Akali Movement The Akali

Movement
(also known
as the
Gurdwara
Reform
Movement)
sprang out of
the Singh
Sabha
Movement.
Its goal was
to free the
Sikh
gurudwaras
from the grip
of corrupt
Udasi
mahants
(the position
had become
hereditary).
These
mahants
were a
faithful and
conservative
bunch who
benefited
from official
favor.
It passed the
Sikh
Gurdwaras
Act in 1922
(amended in
1925), which
gave the Sikh
masses
control of
gurudwaras
to be
administered
through the
Shiromani
Gurudwara
 Prabandhak
Committee
(SGPC) as
the apex body.

Nirankari Movement Baba Dayal Das The

Nirankaris
emphasized
appropriate
religious
practice,
producing
hukamnamas
to clarify
what was
acceptable
and
establishing a
network of
worship
centers
staffed by
their own
priests.
They did not
clash or fight
the British
but grew as
a result of
British
control in
Punjab,
which
liberated
them from
the restraints
of the Sikh
government.
As a result,
the
Nirankaris
became a
permanent
subgroup of
 the Sikh
faith,
assisting in
the
clarification
of the lines
that separate
Sikhs from
Hindus.
Namdhari Movement Baba Ram Singh Initially, the
movement
followed a
series of
ceremonies
fashioned by
Guru Gobind
Singh's
foundation of
Khalsa.
With the
exception of
the Kripan,
the
Namdharis
were
compelled to
wear the five
Sikhism
insignia
(sword).
They were,
however,
forced to
carry a Lathi
(bamboo
stave).
The
Namdharis
repudiated
the worship
of gods,
goddesses,
idols,
cemeteries,
 tombs, trees,
and snakes,
as well as
popular saints
and
ceremonies
performed by
Brahman
priests.
The
Namdharis
also opposed
the authority
of the
hereditary
caretakers of
Sikh
Gurdwaras
(places of
worship).

Singh Sabha Thakur Singh The Sabha's

Sandhawalia and goals were to
Giani Gian Singh restore
Sikhism to
its original
purity, to
print
historical
religious
literature and
magazines,
spread
information,
to sing
Punjabi, to
return Sikh
apostles to
their religion,
and enlist
Englishmen
in the Sikh
educational
 program.
Later, the
Amritsar
Singh Sabha
was imitated
by a newer,
more
democratic
institution,
the Lahore
Singh Sabha.
After a time,
the Singh
Sabhas were
swamped by
other
organizations
like Khalsa
Diwani and,
in 1920, a
fight for
control over
Sikh places
of worship.

Socio Religious Reform Movements in South India

Socio Religious Leaders Significance

Reform movement

SNDP (Sree Sree Narayana Sree

Narayana Guru Guru, Dr. Narayana
Dharma Paripalana Padmanabhan Palpu Guru Dharma
Movement) Paripalana
Movement
(SNDP) was
a Kerala-
based
regional
movement
founded by
Shree
Narayan Guru
Swami.
 This
movement
was fueled
by
antagonism
between the
lower and
upper castes.
He
maintained
mirrors
instead of
idols in one
of the
temples he
dedicated at
Kalavancode.
This
represented
his message
that the
divine existed
inside every
one of us.
In Kalady, he
also
established
an Advaita
Ashram.

Vokkaligara Sangha In Mysore,

the
Vokkaligara
Sangha
started an
anti-Brahmin
movement in
1905.
It is an
Indian caste
from the
state of
Karnataka.
As a warrior
 and farmer
community,
they have
traditionally
wielded
tremendous
demographic,
political, and
economic
dominance in
Old Mysore.

Justice Movement C.N. Mudaliar, It started in

T.M.Nair, P. the Madras
Tyagaraja Presidency to
secure jobs
and
participation
in the
parliament
for non-
brahmins
In 1917, the
Madras
Presidency
Association
was created
to urge that
the lower
classes be
given distinct
representation
in the
legislature.

Self Respect E.V. Ramaswamy It was an

Movement Naicker egalitarian
movement
that
advocated for
the abolition
of
Brahminical
rule, equal
rights for
backward
groups and
women in
society, and
the
resuscitation
of Dravidian
languages
such as
Telugu, Tamil,
Kannada, and
Malayalam.
The Self-
Respect
Movement's
aims have
been
articulated
and stated in
two booklets,
"Namathu
Kurikkol" and
"Tiravitakkalak
a Lateiyam.’
The
movement
seeks to
eliminate
societal
structures in
which one
class of
people claims
to be superior
to another
and some
males claim
to be of
higher birth
than others.
Year Location President Importance

1885 Bombay W C Bonnerjee 1st session

attended by 72
delegates

1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji National Congress

and National
Conference

1887 Madras Syed Badruddin Appeal made to

Tyabji Muslims to join
hands with other
national leaders

1888 Allahabad George Yule First English

president

1889 Bombay Sir William –

Wedderburn

1890 Calcutta Feroz Shah Mehta Kadambini Ganguly

women addressed
session.1st women
to do so.

1891 Nagpur P. Ananda Charlu –

1892 Allahabad W C Bonnerjee –

1893 Lahore Dadabhai Naoroji –

1894 Madras Alfred Webb –

1895 Poona Surendranath –

Banerjee

1896 Calcutta Rahimtullah M. National song

Sayani ‘Vande Mataram’
sung for the first
time

1897 Amravati C. Sankaran Nair –

1898 Madras Ananda Mohan Bose –

1899 Lucknow Romesh Chandra –

 Dutt
1900 Lahore N G Chandavarkar –

1901 Calcutta Dinshaw E. Wacha –

1902 Ahmedabad Surendranath –

Banerjee

1903 Madras Lal Mohan Ghosh –

1904 Bombay Sir Henry Cotton –

1905 Benares Gopal Krishna Expressed

Gokhale resentment against
the partition of
Bengal

1906 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji The word ‘Swaraj’

was mentioned for
the first time

1907 Surat Rash Behari Ghosh Party splits into

extremists and
moderates

1908 Madras Rash Behari Ghosh Previous session

continued

1909 Lahore Madan Mohan Indian Councils

Malaviya Act, 1909

1910 Allahabad Sir William –

Wedderburn

1911 Calcutta Bishan Narayan ‘Jana Gana Mana’

Dhar sung for the first
time

1912 Bankipore (Patna) Raghunath –

Narasinha
Mudholkar

1913 Karachi Syed Mohammed –

1914 Madras Bhupendra Nath –

Basu

1915 Bombay Satyendra Prasanna –

Sinha

1916 Lucknow Ambica Charan Lucknow Pact –

1916 Lucknow Ambica Charan Lucknow Pact –
Mazumdar joint session with
the Muslim League

1917 Calcutta Annie Besant First woman

(1847 – 1933) president of the
INC

1918 Bombay And Delhi Syed Hasan Imam Two sessions were
(Bombay) And held. First in
Madan Mohan Bombay in
Malaviya (Delhi) August/September
Second in Delhi in
December

1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru Jallianwala Bagh

massacre strongly
condemned

1920 Nagpur C –
Vijayaraghavachariar

1921 Ahmedabad Hakim Ajmal Khan –

(acting President
For C R Das)

1922 Gaya C R Das –

1923 Kakinada Maulana –

Mohammad Ali,

1924 Belgaum M K Gandhi –

1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu First Indian woman

(1879 – 1949) president

1926 Guwahati S Srinivasa Iyengar –

1927 Madras M A Ansari –

1928 Calcutta Motilal Nehru All India Youth

Congress formed

1929 Lahore Jawaharlal Nehru Resolution for

‘Poorna Swaraj.’
Civil Disobedience
movement for
complete
independence to be
 launched, 26
January to be
observed as
‘Independence Day’.
1930 No Session – –

1931 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel Resolution on

fundamental rights
and national
economic progress.
Gandhi-Irwin pact
endorsed. Gandhi
nominated to
represent INC in
the second round
table conference

1932 Delhi Amrit –

Ranchhorddas Seth

1933 Calcutta Malaviya Was –

Elected But Mrs
Nellie Sengupta
Presided

1934 Bombay Rajendra Prasad –

1937 Lucknow Jawaharlal Nehru –

1936 Faizpur Jawaharlal Nehru First rural

session/first
session to be held
in a village

1938 Haripura Subhas Chandra National planning

Bose committee set up
under Nehru

1939 Tripuri Subhas Chandra Bose was elected

Bose but had to resign
since Gandhi
supported Pattabhi
Sitaramayya.
Instead, Rajendra
Prasad was
appointed

1940 Ramgarh Abul Kalam Azad –

1940 Ramgarh Abul Kalam Azad –

1941-45 – – No session because

of arrest

1946 Meerut Acharya Kripalani Last session before

independence

1948 Jaipur Pattabhi First session after

Sitaramayya independence

1950 Nashik Purushottam Das Resigned in 1951;

Tandon Nehru became
President

1951 Delhi Jawaharlal Nehru –

1953 Hyderabad Jawaharlal Nehru –

1954 Kalyani Jawaharlal Nehru –

1955 Avadi(madras) U. N. Dhebar –

1956 Amritsar U. N. Dhebar –

1958 Gauhati U. N. Dhebar –

1959 Nagpur Indira Gandhi –

1960 Bangalore Neelam Sanjeeva –

Reddy

1961 Bhavnagar Neelam Sanjeeva –

Reddy

1962 Bhubaneshwar Damodaran –

Sanjvayya

1963 Patna Damodaran –

Sanjvayya

1964 Bhubaneshwar K. Kamaraj –

1965 Durgapur K. Kamaraj –

IMPORTANT ACTS
Charter Act of 1853
Due to vastness of British Empire in India, the demands for
decentralization increased not only in India but also in Britain.
Under these circumstances the Charter Act of 1853 was enacted.
It brought out separation in the legislative and executive functions
of the Governor-General’s council.• Access to compete civil services
 for Indians.• Local representation of 4 members was provided in
the Central Legislative Council.

Government of India Act, 1858

The rule and aggressive territorial policies of East India Company
in India led to resentment among the aristocrats and ruling class
in India, which resulted in the revolt of 1857.
India was to be governed by and in the name of crown through
Viceroy, who would be the representative of crown in India. The
designation of Governor General of India was changed to Viceroy.
Thus, Governor General Lord Canning became the first Viceroy of
India• Board of Control and Board of directors were abolished
transferring all their powers to British Crown• A new office
‘secretary of state was created with a 15 member council of India
to assist him. Indian Councils Act, 1861The major focus of the act
was on administration in India. It was the first step to
associate Indians to legislation.• The act provided that the
viceroy should nominate some Indians as non-official members in
legislative council.• The legislative powers of Madras and Bombay
presidencies were restored.• It provided for the establishment of
legislative councils for Bengal, North-Western Frontier Province
(NWFP) and Punjab.• Viceroy was empowered to issue ordinances
during an emergency without the concurrence of the legislative
council

Government of India Act, 1935

The powers between centre and states were divided in terms of
Federal list, Provincial list and Concurrent list.
Dyarchy in the provinces was abolished.• Diarchy was adopted at
the centre with Transferred and Reserved subjects (such as
defence, administration of tribal areas etc). •
The legislature of Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Bihar, Assam and
 United province were made bicameral. Bicameral legislature
consisted of a Legislative Council and a Legislative Assembly.
The principle of Separate Electorate was extended to depressed
classes, women and workers.• Provided for the formation of
Reserve bank of India.

Indian Independence Act, 1947

The act formalized the Lord Mountbatten Plan regarding
independence of India on June 3, 1947.
The Act ended the British rule in India and declared India as an
independent and sovereign nation with effect from August 15,
1947.• Provided for the partition of India into two dominions of
India and Pakistan• The office of Viceroy was abolished and a
Governor General was to be appointed in each of the dominion.
The Constituent Assemblies of the two dominions were to have
powers to legislate for their respective territories.• Princely states
were free to join any of the two dominions or to remain
independent.

PEASANT MOVEMENT AFTER 1857

Causes of the Movements:

Peasant Atrocities: The peasants suffered from high rents, illegal
levies, arbitrary evictions and unpaid labour in Zamindari areas.
The Government levied heavy land revenue.
Massive Losses for Indian Industries: The movements arose when
British economic policies resulted in the ruin of traditional
handicrafts and other small industries leading to change of
ownership and overburdening of agrarian land, and massive debt
and impoverishment of peasantry.
Unfavourable Policies: The economic policies of British government
used to protect the landlords and moneylenders and exploited the
 peasants. The peasants rose in revolt against this injustice on
many occasions.

Rise of Peasant Organisations:

Between 1920 and 1940 peasant organisations arose.

The first organisation to be founded was the Bihar Provincial
Kisan Sabha (1929) and in 1936 the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS).
In 1936, at the Lucknow session of the Congress, All India Kisan
Sabha was formed with Sahajanand as its first president.
It later issued a Kisan manifesto which demanded abolition
of zamindari and occupancy rights for all tenants.

19th Peasant Movements (Pre-Gandhian Phase)

Indigo Rebellion (1859-62):

In order to increase their profits, the European planters persuaded
the peasants to plant Indigo instead of food crops.
The farmers were discontent growing indigo because:
Low prices were offered for growing indigo.
Indigo was not lucrative.
Indigo planting decreased the fertility of the soil.
The peasants suffered at the hands of the traders and the
middleman. Consequently, they launched a movement for non
cultivation of indigo in Bengal.
They were supported by the press and the missionaries.
Harish Chandra Mukherjee, a Bengali Journalist, described the
plight of peasants of Bengal in his newspaper ‘The Hindu Patriot’.
Dinabandhu Mitra, Bengali writer and dramatist, in his play ‘Nil
Darpan’ depicted the treatment of the Indian peasantry by the
indigo planters. It was first published in 1860.His play created a
huge controversy which was later banned by the East India
Company to control the agitation among the Indians.
The government appointed an Indigo Commission and issued an
order in November 1860, notifying that it was illegal to force the
ryots to cultivate indigo. This marked the victory for the peasants.
Pabna Movement (1870s-80s)
In larger parts of Eastern Bengal, landlords forcefully collected
rents and land taxes, often enhanced for the poor peasants.
The peasants were also prevented from acquiring Occupancy Right
under Act X of 1859.
In May 1873 an Agrarian League was formed in the Yusufshahi
Pargana of Pabna district, Patna (East Bengal).
Rent strikes were organised, funds were raised and the
struggle spread throughout Patna and to other districts of
East Bengal.
The struggle was mainly legal resistance and little violence.
The discontent continued till 1885 when the Government by the
Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885 enhanced the occupancy rights.
The struggle was supported by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, R.C.
Dutt and the Indian Association under Surendranath Banerjea.

Deccan Riots (1875):

The Deccan peasants uprising was directed mainly against the
excesses of the Marwari and Gujarati money lenders.
The ryots suffered heavy taxation under the Ryotwari system. The
land revenue was also raised by 50% in 1867.
Social Boycott: In 1874, the ryots organised a social boycott
movement against the moneylenders.
They refused to buy from the moneylenders’ shops and
cultivate their fields.
The barbers, washermen, and shoemakers refused to serve
them.
This social boycott spread rapidly to the villages of Poona,
Ahmednagar, Solapur and Satara and was transformed into
agrarian riots with systematic attacks on the moneylenders’
houses and shops.
The Government succeeded in repressing the movement. As a
conciliatory measure, the Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act was
passed in 1879.
20th Century Peasant Movements (Gandhian Phase)
Champaran Satyagraha (1917):
The peasantry on the indigo plantations in the Champaran district
of Bihar was excessively oppressed by the European planters and
compelled to grow indigo on at least 3/20th of their land and sell
it at prices fixed by the planters.
In 1917, Mahatma Gandhi reached Champaran and began to
conduct a detailed inquiry into the condition of the peasantry.
He defied the orders of district officials for leaving Champaran.
In June 1917, the Government appointed an enquiry committee
with Gandhiji as one of the members.
The enactment of the Champaran Agrarian Act, 1918 freed
the tenants from the special imposts levied by the indigo
planters.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918):

It was chiefly directed against the Government.
In 1918, the crops failed in the Kheda district of Gujarat but the
government refused to remit land revenue and insisted on its full
collection.
Gandhiji along withSardar Vallabhai Patel supported the
peasants and advised them to withhold payment of revenues
till their demand for its remission was met.
The satyagraha lasted till June 1918. The Government conceded
the demands of the peasants.

Moplah Rebellion (1921):

The Moplahs were the Muslim tenants inhabiting the Malabar
region where most of the landlords were Hindus.
Their grievances centred around lack of security of tenure, high
rents, renewal fees and other oppressive exactions.
The Moplah movement merged with the ongoing Khilafat agitation.
Mahatma Gandhi, Shaukat Ali and Maulana Abul Kalam
Azadaddressed Moplah meetings.
 Many Hindus were seen by the Moplahs to be helping the British
authorities. The anti-government and anti-landlord movement
acquired communal overtones.
Communalisation isolated the Moplah from the Khilafat &
Non-Cooperation Movement.
The movement was called off by December 1921.

Bardoli Satyagraha (1928):

Enhancement of land revenue by 30% in the Bardoli district of
Gujarat by the British government led to the organisation of a
‘No-Revenue Campaign’ by the Bardoli peasants under the
leadership of Vallabhai Patel.
A woman in Bardoli gave Vallabhai Patel the title of ‘Sardar’.
Unsuccessful attempts of the British to suppress the movement
by large scale attachment of cattle and land resulted in the
appointment of an enquiry committee.
The enquiry came to the conclusion that the increase had been
unjustified and reduced the enhancement to 6.03%.
27 Survey of British Policies in India

Administrative Policies-
Divide and Rule-Determined to avoid a united mass action
challenging their authority, the British rulers in India decided to
practice a naked policy of divide and rule.
Hostility Towards Educated Indians-At a time when the
nationalist movement was born (Indian National Congress was
founded in 1885), the British interpreted the moves as a
challenge to their authority and adopted a hostile attitude to such
leadership.
Attitude Towards the Zamindars-In their pursuit of reactionary
policies and hope to expand their social base, the British looked
for alliances with the most reactionary of social groups—the
princes, zamindars, etc.
Attitude Towards Social Reforms-Having decided to side with the
reactionary elements of Indian society, the British withdrew
 support to social reforms,
Underdeveloped Social Services- A disproportionately large
expenditure on army and civil administration and the cost of wars
left little to be spent on social services
Labour Legislations-The Indian Factory Act, 1881 dealt primarily
with the problem of child labour (between 7 and 12 years of
age). Its significant provisions were:
1. employment of children under 7 years of age prohibited,
2. working hours restricted to 9 hours per day for children,
3. children to get four holidays in a month,
4. hazardous machinery to be properly fenced off.

The Indian Factory Act, 1891

1. increased the minimum age (from 7 to 9 years) and the

maximum (from 12 to 14 years) for children,
2. reduced maximum working hours for children to 7 hours a day,
3. fixed maximum working hours for women at 11 hours per day with
an one-and-a-half hour interval (working hours for men were left
unregulated),
4. provided weekly holiday for all.

Restrictions on Freedom of the Press- Lytton, fearing an

increased influence of the nationalist press on public opinion,
imposed restrictions on Indian language press through the
infamous Vernacular Press Act, 1878. This Act had to be repealed
under public protest in 1882.

White Racism-The notion of white superiority was maintained very

carefully by the colonial rulers by systematically excluding the
Indians from higher grades of services—both civil and military.

British Social and Cultural Policy in India-emergence of new

interests and ideas in Britain of the nineteenth century in the
wake of significant changes in Europe during the 18th and the
 19th centuries. Some of these changes were—
1.
Industrial Revolution which began in the 18th century and resulted
in the growth of industrial capitalism. The rising industrial
interests wanted to make India a big market for their goods and
therefore required partial modernisation and transformation of
Indian society.
2. Intellectual Revolution which gave rise to new attitudes of mind,
manners, and morals.
3. French Revolution which with its message of liberty, equality and
fraternity, unleashed the forces of democracy and nationalism.

Characteristics of New Thought-Some of the characteristics of

the new wave of thought were—
1. Rationalism which advocated faith in reason and a scientific
attitude.
2. Humanism which advocated the love of man. These ideals gave
rise to liberalism, socialism and individualism.
3. Doctrine of Progress according to which nothing is static and all
societies must change with time.
Schools of Thought
1. Conservatives advocated introduction of as few changes as possible.

2. Paternalistic Imperialists were sharply critical of Indian society

and culture and used to justify economic and political enslavement

of India.
3. Radicals went beyond the narrow criticism and imperialistic

outlook of the Conservatives and the Imperialists and applied

advanced humanistic and rational thought to the Indian situation.

Indian Renaissance-There were many Indians who instigated social

reform and caused legislations to be brought about so as to
control and eradicate social evils imbedded in so-called tradition.

Dilemma Before the Government-The government feared that too

much modernisation might generate forces hostile to their interests

Role of Christian Missionaries-The missionaries regarded

 Christianity to be a superior religion and wanted to spread it in
India through westernization. Towards this end, the Christian
missionarie.

supported the Radicals whose scientific approach, they believed,

would undermine the native culture and beliefs;
supported the Imperialists since law and order and the British
supremacy were essential for their propaganda; and
sought business and the capitalist support holding out the hope to
them that the Christian converts would be better customers of
their goods.

British Retreat-The Indians proved to be apt pupils and shifted

rapidly towards modernisation of their society and assertion of
their culture.

British Policy Towards Princely States-

subordination of princely states to British authority was
completed when the fiction of Indian states standing in a status
of equality with the Crown as independent, sovereign states ended
with the Queen adopting the title of Kaiser-i- Hind (Queen
Empress of India) in 1876, to emphasise British sovereignty over
entire India.
1. British Foreign Policy in India-
pursuance of a foreign policyled to India’s conflicts with
neighbouring countries. These conflicts arose due to various
reasons. Firstly, political and administrative consolidation of the
country. Secondly, the British Government had as its major aims
in Asia and Africa—
1. protection of the invaluable Indian empire;
2. expansion of British commercial and economic interests;
3. keeping other European imperialist powers, whose colonial interests
came in conflict with those of the British, at an arm’s length in
Asia and Africa.
30 Development of Education - Under Company Rule

Charter Act, 1813

The Act authorized missionaries to travel to India and spread

education. According to the 1813 Charter Act, the Company had
taken on a portion of the responsibility for education in India.
A sum of not less than one lakh rupees had been set aside each
year for the purpose of promoting scientific knowledge and "the
revival and improvement of literature" among the people of the
British territories in India.
The amount set aside is insufficient to meet the educational
needs of millions of people.
In comparison to the magnitude of the problem, adequate funds
were not forthcoming, and educational progress was rather slow.

Lord Macaulay’s Minute, 1835

On June 10, 1834, Lord Macaulay arrived in India as a law

member of the Governor General's Executive Council.
He was also named President of the General Committee of Public
Instruction.
As a result, he was tasked with resolving the conflict between
Orientalists and Anglicizers. His appointment marked a watershed
moment in Indian education history.
In his capacity as a Law Member, he had been asked to provide
his legal opinion on any other possible use of one lakh rupees set
aside for education other than Oriental education alone.
He was also asked to interpret the meaning of Section 43 of the
1813 Charter Act.
As a result, when the papers concerning the dispute were
presented to him in the Council, he wrote his famous Minute
concerning the new educational policy.
Wood’s Despatch(1854)
Several educational experiments had been tried since the Charter
Act of 1813; a number of agencies had been at work in their own
ways to spread education among the people; several controversies
had been raised, and some of them still required final decision.
As a result, by 1853, there was a strong desire to conduct a
comprehensive survey of the entire field of education in India and
to develop a detailed policy for educational reconstruction in the
future based on the findings of the survey.
As a result, a Committee was formed under the presidency of Sir
Charles Wood to conduct a comprehensive survey of the entire
field of education in India.
Following the survey, the educational report, which was submitted
on July 19, 1854, was popularly known as Wood's Despatch
because it was written in his instances, despite the fact that
famous thinker John Stuart Mill had a significant contribution in
the report's preparation.
It is also known as the "Magna Carta of English Education in
India" because it was the first comprehensive plan to envision
mass education in India.

Education - Under Crown Rule

Hunter Education Commission (1882-83)

It was formed in 1882 to assess the achievements of the Wood
Dispatch of 1854 under W.W Hunter.
It emphasized the role of the state in the expansion and
improvement of primary and secondary education.
It emphasized the delegation of authority to district and municipal
boards.
It advocated for two types of secondary education: literary up to
university and vocational for a commercial career.

The Indian Universities Act, 1904

 The Act placed the government in charge of all Indian universities.
The act's main provisions were:
more emphasis on study and research in universities rather
than revolutionary activities.
The number of fellows was reduced and the government was
to nominate them.
The government now has veto power over university senate
decisions.
Stricter affiliation regulations.
Government Resolution on Education Policy 1913
The government refused to comply with the demand of national
movement leaders to implement compulsory primary education in
British India; they did not want the responsibility of mass
education.
However, he announced a future policy to eradicate illiteracy.
Provincial governments were asked to assume responsibility for
providing free elementary education to the poorer and more
disadvantaged classes.
Secondary education quality and private efforts to improve.
Each province will have its own university.

Sadler University Commission (1917-19)

It was originally formed to investigate and report on the causes of
Calcutta University's poor performance, but it ended up reviewing
all of the country's universities.
Seven new universities were established in Mysore, Patna,
Benares, Aligarh, Dacca, Lucknow, and Osmania.
As part of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, education was
shifted under provinces, and the Saddler commission
recommendations were handed over to the provincial government.
This resulted in a financial crisis in the educational sector.

Under Dyarchy

Hartog Committee (1929)

 There is no need for a compulsory education system if primary
education is provided.
Only deserving students should be permitted to attend high
schools and intermediate schools, while average students should
be diverted to vocational courses.
University admissions have been restricted in order to improve
standards.

Sergeant Plan of Education

The Central Advisory Board of Education devised the Sergeant
Plan in 1944.
Sargeant's Education Plan Recommendation 1944
Pre-primary education for children aged 3-6,
free, universal, and compulsory elementary education for
children aged 6-11,
high school education for children aged 11-17,
a three-year university course after higher secondary high
schools, with two options: academic & technical and vocational.
The goal was to achieve the same levels of educational
attainment as existed in England in 40 years. Despite being a
bold and comprehensive scheme, it proposed no methodology for
implementation.

Development of Vernacular Education

William Adam's reports on vernacular education in Bengal and
Bihar, published in 1835, 1836, and 1838, identified flaws in the
system.
As lieutenant-governor of the NorthWest Provinces (UP) from
1843 to 1853, James Jonathan's experiments included the
establishment of one government school as a model school in
each tehsildari and a normal school for teacher training for
vernacular schools.
Lord Dalhousie expresses his strong support for vernacular
education in a famous minute in 1853.
The following provisions for vernacular education were included in
Wood's Despatch in 1854:
 standardization
Government supervision
Teachers will be trained in ordinary schools.
From 1854 to 1871, the government prioritized secondary and
vernacular education. The number of vernacular schools has more
than fivefold increased.
The Hunter Commission recommended that the state make
special efforts to expand and improve vernacular education in
1882. Mass education was to be viewed as instructing the masses
in vernaculars.
In 1904 education policy prioritized vernacular education and
increased funding for it.
The Hartog Committee painted a bleak picture of primary
education in 1929.
In 1937 Congress ministries encouraged the establishment of
these schools.

Development of Technical Education

The Roorkee Engineering College was founded in 1847, and the
Calcutta College of Engineering was founded in 1856.
Overseers' School in Poona was elevated to the status of Poona
College of Engineering and affiliated with Bombay University in
1858.
Madras University was affiliated with Guindy College of
Engineering.
The establishment of a medical college in Calcutta in 1835
marked the beginning of medical education.
Lord Curzon contributed significantly to broadening the overall
basis of professional courses—medicine, agriculture, engineering,
veterinary sciences, and so on.
He founded an agriculture college in Pusa, which served as a
model for similar institutions in other

Evaluation of British Policy on Education

Even the insufficient measures taken by the government to
expand modern education were motivated by factors other than
philanthropic concerns.
The traditional system of Indian learning gradually declined due to
a lack of support, particularly after 1844, when it was mandated
that applicants for government employment must be fluent in
English.
Mass education was neglected, resulting in widespread illiteracy
(1911—84% and 1921—92%) and a wide linguistic and cultural
chasm between the educated few and the masses.
Because education had to be paid for, it became a monopoly of
the upper and wealthy classes, as well as city dwellers.
Because the government did not want to enrage the orthodox
sections, women's education was almost completely neglected.
Scientific and technical education was largely ignored. By 1857,
there were only three medical colleges in Calcutta, Bombay, and
Madras, as well as one good engineering college in Roorkee that
was only open to Europeans and Eurasians.