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An updated introduction to the Spiti geology

Article  in  Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India · January 2008

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Jour. Palaeontological Society of India, Vol. 53, No. 2, pp. 113-129, 2008.

AN UPDATED INTRODUCTION TO THE SPITI GEOLOGY

O.N.Bhargava
103, Sector 7, Panchkula 134109
E-mail. onbhargava@yahoo.co.in

ABSTRACT

The paper discusses controversies pertaining to the nomenclatures of the Ordovician Thango
(Shian), Ordovician-Silurian Takche (Pin) and Triassic-Jurassic Lilang sequences. The latest
classification of the Lilang, raised to supergroup level and various time boundaries with in the Triassic
are also described. Also listed are the latest palaeontological contributions to the Early-Middle Cambrian
(Kunzam La Formation), Ashgill-Wenlock (Takche Formation), Givetian-Tournaisian (Lipak Formation)
and Induan-Early Carnian (Mikin, Kaga and Chomule formations). A short review of the entire sequence
together with that of the structure updates the geology of the Spiti Valley.

Key words: Spiti Valley, Peri-Gondwana Tethyan Himalaya, lithostratigraphy, sedimentation,

structure.

INTRODUCTION

The Himalayan Mountain Chain extending over a distance of more than 2000km is
traditionally subdivided into the following zones:

1.1.The Siwalik Foothills of the Sub-Himalaya constituted of the Neogene-Quaternary

molassic deposits of the Siwalik Group.
1.2. The Lesser Himalaya exposing from the outer to the inner parts (i) the Palaeogene
sediments juxtaposed against the Siwalik Group in south along the Main Boundary
Fault s.s., and against the Proterozoic rocks in north along the Main Boundary Thrust,
(ii) isolated Early Cambrian, Early Permian and Late Cretaceous outliers over the
Proterozoic rocks, (iii) crystalline thrust sheets and (iv) windows of Proterozoic/
Paleogene rocks within the crystalline/Proterozoic rocks along the antiformal valleys.
1.3. The Higher Himalaya consisting of the crystalline thrust sheets with the Vaikrita
Thrust Sheet (=Main Central Thrust, Bhargava and Bassi, 1994) occupying the highest
tectonic level. The Vaikrita Thrust Sheet known by different names (e.g. Salkhala in
Kashmir, Thimphu in Bhutan) extends through out the Himalaya.
1.4. The Tethyan Himalaya made up of the Neoproterozoic-Eocene succession resting
as detached synclinoria over the Vaikrita Crystalline or its strike equivalents. The main
synclinoria often referred as basins, from west to east are (i) Kashmir, (ii) Chamba-
Bhadarwah-Tandi, (iii) Zanskar-Spiti, (iv) Kinnaur-Kumaon, (v) Nepal, (vi) Sikkim-
Bhutan and (vii) Arunachal.
1.5. The Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone representing rocks associated with the Suture
between the Indian and Asian plates.
 2

The Spiti Valley, located north of the Pir Panjal Range, exposes an excellent section
of Neoproterozoic-Cretaceous rocks in the Tethyan Himalaya of Himachal Pradesh
(Fig. 1). The Spiti Tethyan rocks towards NW through the Lahaul Valley extend into
the Zanskar area.
Hutton (1841), Stoliczka (1865), Griesbach (1889), Hayden (1904), Srikantia
(1981), Fuchs (1982), Ranga Rao et al, (1984) Bagati (1990) and Bhargava and Bassi
(1998) have dealt with the geology of the Spiti Valley. Main palaeontological
contributions have come from Blanford (1863, 1864), Stoliczka (1864), Davidson
(1864), Diener (1895, 1897, 1903, 1907, 1908, 1912, 1915), Mojsisovics (1899), Reed
(1910,1912), Holdhaus (1913), Bhatt et al. (1977), Goel (1977), Goel and Srivastava
(1978), Bhatt and Joshi (1978), Bhatt and Arora (1984), Goel et al. (1984. 1987), Ravi
Shanker et al. (1993), Dragnits et al. (2000; 2001), Bhatt et al. (1981; 2004), Krystyn et
al. (2004) and Suttner (2003). The manuscript of the Memoirs, Geological Survey of
India 124 was submitted to the Publication Division of the Geological Survey of India
in 1990, though it was published only in 1998. (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998), thus
included references only up to 1990. Since 1990, several important contributions to the
geology of the Spiti Valley have been made. The present paper gives an updated
summarized version of the geology of the Spiti Valley.

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND PALEOENVIRONMENT

Proceeding from the Rohtang Pass in west and from Karcham in east, the
metamorphic grade of the rocks of the Vaikrita Group gradually decreases and these are
succeeded by the Neoproterozoic-Cretaceous sequence, referred to as the Peri-
Gondwana Tethyan succession (Matsuda, 1985). The contact between the Tethyan
succession and the crystalline rocks is variously regarded as tectonic (Thakur, 1992),
conformable and gradational (Srikantia, 1981; Ranga Rao et al, 1984) and
unconformable (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998). Such conflicting views are peculiar not
only to the Western Himalaya but are also prevalent in the Eastern Himalaya. For
example in Bhutan, Gansser (1981) considered the contact between the crystalline
rocks and the Tethyan rocks as gradational, Tangri and Pande (1995) due to discovery
of a 150m thick volcanic pile (Singhi Volcanics) below the Tethyan sequence regarded
the contact as non-conformable, while Grujic et al. (2002) visualize a tectonic contact.
The lithostratigraphy of the Tethyan sequence in the Spiti Valley is furnished in
Table 1.

Haimanta Group

This group is divisible in two formations viz. the Batal and Kunzam La formations.

Batal Formation: From a distance, the Batal Formation is recognizable as a dark

grey to light grey sequence forming rather steep slopes. It comprises grey, locally
carbonaceous slaty shale and local lenses of grit and conglomerate in its basal part. The
basal part of this formation is shale/slate dominated while in the upper part silt/sand
content is common. The conglomerate has rounded clasts of quartzite, vein quartz, slate
 3

and schist. The basal part the Batal Formation locally encloses basic flows. The Batal
Formation is devoid of fossils.
The rocks show ripple layers, lenticular bedding and local graded bedding of limited
thickness indicating a peritidal, partly inter-tidal setting in somewhat poorly circulated
basin. The basin gradually shallowed and got aerated and witnessed occasional storms.
The contact of the Batal Formation with the Vaikrita rocks is faulted in the Chandra
Valley and unconformable in the Sutluj and Parahio valleys.

Kunzam La Formation (Parahio Formation): Stoliczka (1865) had proposed the

name Babeh (also spelt as Bhabeh) Series for sandstone, slates and quartzite exposed at
the Bhabeh Pass and assigned these a Lower Silurian age. This sequence was included
by Griesbach (1891) in the Haimanta and was found to be of Cambrian age by Hayden
(1904). However, Reed (1910) proposed the name Parahio Series for the oldest
fossiliferous sequence of Middle Cambrian age. This definition left out the Batal
Formation and unfossiliferous part of the Kunzam La Formation, which contains Early
Cambrian trace fossils. If the principle of precedence has to be followed the name
Bhabeh should be adopted, rather than the Parahio as has been recently done by Myrow
et al. (2006), but as discussed above the Bhabeh as well as Parahio suffer from
stratigraphic infirmities. Moreover the term Parahio has fallen in disuse, whereas the
term Kunzam La has taken roots in the modern literature. Due to these anomalies the
name Kunzam La Formation was suggested, whose mappability has been proved from
Spiti to Kinnaur in east and in Lahul-Zanskar in west. Hayden (1904) considered Part
of the Haimanta “System” as “upper-possibly also of middle Cambrian age”. Bhargava
et al. (1982), divided the Kunzam La Formation into Debsa Khad and Parahio
members.

The Kunzam La Formation is identifiable by its greenish colour and gentler slopes
as compared to the Batal Formation. It consists of greenish grey siltstone, sandstone
and shale. In its upper part occur dolomitic bands that enclose small algal buildups
(Fig.2). The dolomite bands are much thicker in Lahaul and Zanskar areas, in the latter
area it has been called Karsha Limestone. Locally lenticular pebbly beds have also been
recorded. The basal part of the Kunzam La Formation encloses Phycodes palmatum,
Plgiogmus, Diplichnites, Dimorphichnus, Rusophycus and Monomorphichnus
(Bhargava et al., 1982). From the Kinnaur area Phycodes pedum (Bhargava and Bassi,
1998) is also known, indicating earliest Cambrian age for the basal part of the Kunzam
La Formation. The overlying sequence has yielded a rich crop of trilobites comprising
Redlichia noetlingi, Pagetia significanis, Oryctocephalus indica and Kunmigaspis
pervulgata of Early Cambrian age, K. stracheyi, Shantungaspis himalaica,
Paramecephalus defossus of Early Middle Cambrian (Maochungian) age, Opsidiscus
haimantensis, Oryctocephalus salteri, Xingrenaspis maopoensis, Solenoporia
talingensis, Douposiella hostilis, Hundwarella memor, Iranoleesa butes and
Xingrenaspis dardopurensis of middle Middle Cambrian (Hsuchuangian) and Serapsis
conjuntiva (from float) of upper Middle Cambrian (Changian) age (Jell and Hughes,
1997).
Besides trilobites, the Kunzam La Formation also contains paraconodont of Middle
Cambrian age (Bhatt and Kumar, 1980) and brachiopods Nisusia depsaensis, Acrotreta
 4

parahioensis, Obolella cf. crass and Acrothele praestans. The Kunzam La Formation
ranges in age from upper most Early Cambrian (Lungwangmiaoan Stage) to middle
Middle Cambrian (Hsuchuangian Stage) (Myrow et al. 2006).
Ripple bedding, lenticular bedding, low angle-truncation, sand partings with mud
drapes, festoon cross-bedding and ripple marks are common in the sequence. Locally
load and flute casts are present. In upper part the dolomite beds showing stromatolites
are locally associated with mudcracks. The environment of sedimentation of the
Kunzam La Formation varied from low energy, mainly sub-tidal with mild bottom
currents in basal part, with influence of storm in middle part and inter-tidal to tidal flat
with local lagoonal undathem in upper part. Myrow et al. (2006) based on bed-by-bed
study of this formation recognize numerous medium-scale shoaling cycles ranging from
storm-dominated offshore to fluvial environments. Possibly under deltaic phase the
pebble beds were deposited as channel fills. The vector mean of the paleocurrent
direction for the entire Spiti Valley is towards NNE (Bhargava et al. 1991). The heavy
mineral suite in the Kunzam La Formation includes staurolite, chlorite, zircon, zoicite,
tourmaline and haematite. Zircons belong to several age groups, most important being
of Early Cambrian (525Ma) age (Myrow et al. 2003). There is a gradual reduction in
the thickness of the Kunzam La Formation from NW to SE. The thickness of the
Kunzam La Formation and that of the overlying conglomerate of the Thango Formation
are inversely proportionate. The reduction in thickness of the former is, thus, attributed
to higher degree of pre-Thango erosion.

Sanugba Group

This group includes the Thango and Takche formations. The Thango Formation
rests over the Kunzam La Formation along a plane of angular unconformity (Fig. 3)
(Bhargava and Bassi, 1998). Wiesmayr and Grasseman (2002) have interpreted pre-
Thango folds to be close-tight upright having NW-SE trending axes and planes- co-
axial with the Tertiary folds.

Thango Formation (Shian Formation): Srikantia (1977) and Srikantia et al. (1977)
and Goel and Nair (1977) simultaneously proposed the names Thango and Shian
respectively. The name Thango is considered more suitable due to following reasons
and hence adopted (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998):
(i) Thango type area besides exposing better section, even now despite
construction of a road up to Mud (Muth), is more easily accessible as
compared to Shian locality
(ii) The detailed stratigraphy of the Thango Formation is furnished along a
measured section in the type area (Srikantia, 1981)
(iii) Top and bottom limits of the Thango Formation, as required by the Code of
Stratigraphic nomenclature, are precisely defined. On contrary the name Shian
just finds a mention in a table with no reference even to its lithology.
(iv) Mappability of the Thango Formation, as per Code of the Stratigraphic
nomenclature on a regional scale of 1:50,000, has been demonstrated from
 5

Zanskar to Kinnaur, whereas the Shian Formation was never mapped and the
name was suggested during a casual traverse.
The Thango Formation is recognizable by its red colour and rugged slopes. It shows
a sharp and angular contact with the Kunzam La Formation. The sequence in almost all
the sections commences with two levels of conglomerates intervened by sandstone;
upward it is succeeded by a thick sequence of sandstone, which has minor shale
partings, especially in the upper most part. The clasts in the lower conglomerate band
show close affinity with the rocks of upper part of the Vaikrita Group, and the Batal
and Kunzam La formations. The upper conglomerate has clasts of Thango affinity as
well. The clasts are mainly well rounded and well sorted. The conglomerate varies from
clast supported to matrix supported. The sandstone comprises moderately to poorly
sorted, subangular to subrouned quartz (70-75%) showing moderate to good sphericity
in a clayey to cryptocrystalline matrix having opaques, epidote, muscovite, zircon and
tourmaline (Bhargava et al. 1991).
The sandstone sequence shows tabular, trough and herrigbone cross-bedding, tidal
bundles, mud cracks and current crescents.
The entire sequence in lower part, but for fragmentary bryozoa in thin sections
(personal communication S.K.Tangri, G.S.I.), casts of brachiopod and marine algae
Prismocorollina sp. (Sinha and Misra, 2006), is unfossiliferous. The upper part of the
Thango Formation associated with shale partings encloses trace fossils. In the Kinnaur
area Phycodes circinatum of Early Ordovician age in basal part and pentamerids in
upper part are known (Bhargava et al., 1984). The sequence in Spiti appears to range
from Early Ordovician to early Late Ordovician as revealed by Phycodes circinatum
and algae Prismocorollina sp in the Thango Formation and algae and conodonts in the
conformably overlying Takche Formation, discussed in the sequel. In Kinnaur in view
of pentamerid casts the Thango Formation possibly may extend in the Silurian.
The Thango sequence has been regarded as a fluviatile deposit (Garzanti et al.,
1986) specially, in lower 170m (approximately) part (Bagati et al. 1991). The entire
Thango sequence on contrary by the present author is considered marine due to
following reasons:
(i) Had the conglomerate been of fluvial origin it would have been athwart the
strike of the sequence, been of ribbon type and of limited thickness i.e. would
have been confined to the river channels joining the marine basin at an angle
and its clasts would have shown imbrication. On contrary the conglomerate
forms continuous outcrops parallel to the strike of the rocks through out the
basin from Zanskar to Nepal; also its pebbles lack imbrication.
(ii) Thick clean quartzite (70-90% quartz) sequences, as a rule are not formed in
fluvial regime and are a product of winnowing, which takes place along a
beach.
(iii) Besides fragmentary bryozoa and brachiopod casts and marine algae (Sinha
and Misra, 2006) in the quartzite in basal part, and the shale layers, where
ever present show abundant marine trace fossils (Bhargava et al. 1984).
(iv) Remarkably uniform lithologic assemblage and facies of the Thango
Formation over a distance of about 500km from Zanskar to Kinnaur are not
expected in fluvial sequences and are characteristic of marine environment.
 6

Much of the fluvial features described by previous workers, thus, look exaggerated.
The conglomerate of the Thango Formation constitutes clasts brought by high-energy
rivers flowing along steep slopes raised during the pre-Thango orogeny (Bhargava et al.
Mss under preparation). This fluvial material was thoroughly reworked on a rough
transgressive beach thereby destroying the pebble imbrication and filling the voids by
suspended material. The sandstone represents inter- tidal to supra- tidal environment
(Bhargava and Bassi, 1998). The paleocurrent direction in Spiti is mainly towards NE
(Bhargava et al., 1991), with variations in NW direction (Bagati et al. 1991).

Takche Formation (Pin Formation and Thanam Formation): Srikantia (1977) and
Srikantia et al. (1977) proposed the name Takche, while for the same sequence Goel
and Nair (1977) simultaneously proposed the name Pin for the 102 m thick basal part of
the Takche Formation and Thanam for a 15 m thick limestone occurring about 20 m
below the top of the Takche Formation (thickness as per Goel and Nair, 1977). The
term Takche has been preferred due to following reasons:

(i) Takche locality falls along a State Highway and is easily accessible, whereas
Pin is the name of a river, which cuts across several formations (Batal to
Kioto), this sequence in the Pin Valley, even in the year 2006 was difficult to
approach.
(ii) Lithostratigraphy of the Takche section was described in great detail with
well-defined top and bottom relationship, such details are lacking for the Pin
and Thanam formations. The Pin and Thanam formations of Goel and Nair
(1977) in fact represented only a part of the Takche Formation. These authors,
overlooked the unconformity between the Takche and the Muth formations
and included the upper part of the Takche Formation in the Muth Formation,
as a result they assigned a Silurian age to the latter formation.
(iii) Mappability of the Takche Formation has been well established on a regional
scale of 1:50,000 from Zanskar to Kinnaur. On the other hand Goel and Nair
(1977) never mapped their truncated Pin and Thanam formations.
The Thango Formation in its upper part shows development of carbonate bands,
which is taken to demarcate beginning of the Takche Formation. The Takche Formation
comprises limestone, marl, nodular limestone, well bedded limestone, dolomite,
siltstone, shale, calcareous sandstone and is characterized by small coral-
stromatoporoid buildups with minor algal input (Ranga Rao et al. 1984; Bhargava and
Bassi, 1985; Suttner et al., 2005). The sequence is more siliciclastic towards NW;
carbonate becomes dominant towards SE (Parahio, Pin, Gyamthing and Tidong
valleys). The sandstone comprises fine angular quartz (75%), minor felspar, opaques
and bioclasts in an argillaceous matrix. It shows low-angled, hummocky and
herringbone cross-beddings. The carbonate microfacies include bioclastic quartz
wackestone, fossil wackestone, Thamnopora framestone, Halysites boundstone (Fig. 4),
Plasmoporella boundstone, and sponge-stromatoporoid boundstone. In Leo part of the
Spiti Synclinorium, the microfacies are pack/grainstone, bioclastic floatstone
containing bioclasts of stromatoporoid, coral, brachiopod, bindstone with (a)
Ecclimadictyon encrusting colonies of Halysites and solitary corals, (b) Parachaetetes
framestone constituted of stromatoporoid, Halysites and Favosites. Mehrotra et al.
 7

(1982) and Khanna et al. (1983) reported Silurian chitinozoa from the Takche
Formation; Khanna et al. (1983) have also listed acritarhs of this formation. Kumar and
Kashkari (1987) reported trace fossil Paleodictyon from the Takche Formation, which
was later re-identified as alga Cyclocrinites (Maithy et al. 1999). Both the
identifications are suspect as this fossil seems to be a of remain of Favosites (or
Palaeofavosites) colony, so very common in the Takche Formation (Bhargava and
Bassi, 1985). Maithy et al. (1998) have also reported sponges from this formation.
Based on coral and algal remains the Takche Formation was assigned an age ranging
from Late Ordovician to Middle/early Late Silurian (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998).
Suttner and Ernst (2007) reported 29 species of bryozoa from this formation. These
include eight new species: Trematopora minima, Ulrichostylus bhargavai, Ptilodictya
exiliformis, Phaenopora ordinarius, Oanduellina himalayaica, Pesnastylus?
vesiculosum, Ralfina? originalis and Pinocladia trinangulata. This bryozoan
community is quite similar to faunas reported from Laurentia, the Baltic, Siberia and
Southern China of Early-Late Ordovician age. Discovery of conodonts
Amorphognathus superbus, A. ordovivicicus, Milaculum, Icriodella cf. praecox,
Panderodus sp. (Suttner, 2003) indicates a definite Ashgill age to the middle part of the
sequence. From somewhat younger sequence Erich Draganits (Vienna University,
unpublished work) has discovered Llanddovery conodonts. The sequence above this
level is made-up of stromatoporoid buildups, which proved to be barren of conodont;
this level obviously shall represent a still younger age. The Takche Formation in
Kinnaur having greater thickness may range up to Middle/early Late Silurian
(Llandovery-Wenlock) age as also indicated by coral Radiastraea (Bhargava and Bassi,
1985).
The Takche Formation according to Ravi Shanker et al. (1993) shows strong
influence of storm processes on a regressive shallow shelf. Bhargava and Bassi (1998)
regarded it to represents several shoaling cycles beginning from middle-lower shore
face and ending in upper shore face near undathem (microfacies belt 7 of Wilson, 1975)
and subtidal-intertidal interface, with periodic storm episodes. Buildups were formed
on the platform part mainly in low energy regime. The paleocurrent directions vary
mainly from NW to NE direction, the latter being more common. Locally,
palaeocurrent direction is due SE in the Pin Valley. The heavy mineral suite in the
Takche Formation is akin to that of the Thango Formation. The uneven thickness and
variable younger age limit of the Takche Formation is considered due to pre-Muth
erosion.

Kanawar Group

Initially, the Kanawar Group included the Lipak, Po and Ganmachidam formations.
As the Lipak Formation has a conformable and gradational contact with the underlying
Muth Formation, the Muth Formation was also placed under the Kanawar Group.

Muth Formation: It is the most characteristic marker formation in the Tethyan

sequence developed from Kashmir to Kumaon. It is visible from a distance as a white
horizon, having a sharp contact with the Takche Formation. The Muth Formation
comprises compact to friable white quartzarenite made up of moderately to well sorted
 8

and subrounded to well rounded quartz (90-95%) varying in size from 60 to 250
microns (common size being 125microns) showing profuse authigenic growth. Felspar
(0.2%), quartzite fragments (0.15%) and iron oxide grains occur as accessories. Matrix
is cryptocrystalline (2-5%), primary silica cement has been replaced by ferruginous
cement. The heavy mineral crop includes pink-purple zircon, brown tourmaline and
haematite. The bedding features in this formation are low-angle truncation, subordinate
low angle cross-bedding, subparallel low angle truncation, locally minor trough and
festoon cross-bedding, ripple marks, channel fills, sporadic herringbone cross-bedding,
mud cracks and interference ripple marks. Draganits et al., (2001) also reported finely
laminated dune foreset; tear shaped ridges due to wind erosion. Domal structures,
present in the quartzite beds in the Khar-Mikin area, have considered as siliciclastic
stromatolites (Draganits and Noffke, 2004). Draganits et al. (2003) described pipes and
spring pits from the Muth Formation, which they attribute to groundwater phenomenon
or paleoseismicity.
Bhargava and Bassi (1988) reported Paleophycus, Planolites, Skolithos and
arthropod track ways. Draganits et al., (2001) further reported Diplichnites gouldi,
Diplododichnus biformis, Palmichnium antacrcticum, Selenichnites sp., and Taenidium
barretti and compared this assemblage with a similar ichnofossil assemblage of Early
Devonian age known from Australia and Antarctica. Ameta and Gaur (1980) recorded
orthoceratid and Bassi (1988) described Orthis aff. rustica from the Muth Formation.
Due to presence of Tentaculites and Devonian corals in the basal part and Tournaisian
conodonts in the upper part of the conformably overlying Lipak Formation, Middle to
Late Devonian age was proposed to the Muth Formation (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998).
Discovery of Givetian conodonts (Draganits et al. 2002) in the basal part of the Lipak
Formation points to a late Early-early Middle Devonian age for the Muth Formation.
There is no unanimity regarding the environment of deposition of the Muth
Formation. Dasgupta (1971) opined that the upper part of the Muth sequence is of
aeolian origin. Bhargava et al. (1991) suggested it to represent coastal sand, mainly of
beach type and foreshore deposit with possible aeolian and fluvial mixing. Shanker et
al. (1993) regarded the Muth Formation to have represent sedimentation on inner- to
mid-shelf region during a transgressive phase. Bhargava and Bassi (1998) concluded a
transgressive upper shoreface to beach environment with some shallow channels,
aeolian sand (? beach bar) with occasional subaerial exposures to produce mud cracks,
while Draganits (2000) suggested Muth Formation to represent a barrier island system.
The paleocurrent direction in the Muth Formation is polymodal (Bhargava et al. 1991);
dominant being in NE (Draganits, 2000) and NW (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998). Heavy
mineral suite comprises pink-purple zircon, brown tourmaline, haematite. The heavy
minerals and recycled quartz indicate a mixed low-grade metamorphic, igneous and
sedimentary provenance.

Lipak Formation: In upper part, the Muth Formation shows development of

limestone bands. First appearance of a limestone band is taken to demarcate the Muth-
Lipak contact. Since the carbonate bands are discontinuous the Muth-Lipak boundary
may appear zigzag, or in other words, the contact between the Muth and Lipak
formations is intercalated.
 9

The Lipak Formation comprises micritic limestone, oolitic limestone, limestone with
hardground, siltstone, finegrained sandstone, shale, calcareous algal mat, small coral-
algal buildups and locally gypsum in upper part. Microfacies are represented by
mudstone, bioclastic wackestone, peloidal packstone, cortoidal packstone, peloidal
grainstone, algal bindstone and coral framestone (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998). Close to
Devonian-Carboniferous boundary exist incipiently developed hardgrounds (Bhargava
and Bassi). These hardgrounds were interpreted to represent sea-level high-strand
condition and condensation of horizons (Ravi Shanker et, 1993).
The Lipak Formation was considered to range in age from Late Devonian to Early
Carboniferous (Hayden, 1904; Fuchs, 1981) due to presence of Tentaculites and
hexagonorid in its basal part (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998) and Tournaisian conodonts in
upper part (Vannay, 1993). Discovery of Givetian conodonts Icriodus and Bipennatus
in basal part and Famennian-Early Tournaisian Clydagnathus gilwernensis, Hindeodus
cristulus, Mitrellataxis sp. cf. M. cornella, Polygnathus communis and
Pseudopolygnathus primus (Draganits et al. 2002) precisely fixes the age of the Lipak
Formation between Givetian and Tournaisian. In the Takche section about 80m above
the base, corals Lithostrontian and hexagonorids and thamnoporids characterizing
Devonian and Carboniferous are found within a stratigraphic thickness of about 3.5m
(Bhargava and Bassi, 1998). This section thus can be a candidate for delineating
Devonian-Carboniferous boundary. In the Pin Valley section, about 33m above the base
of the Lipak Formation, based on conodont biostratigraphy, Draganits et al. (2002)
have propounded a time gap covering large part of Givetian, whole of Frasnian and a
bit of Famennian. In the Takche section a 20cm limestone marks the beginning of the
Lipak Formation (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998, Appendix VI, p.192), 33m level above it
is occupied by calcareous fine-grained sandstone showing rippled layers and low angle
discordances. No clear evidence, as mentioned by Draganits et al. (2002) in the Pin
Valley section also, to identify any sedimentological break exists. However, there are a
few local ferruginised levels, which may indicate surfaces of local diastem.
Alternatively, the absence of Late Givetian, Frasnian and Early Famennian conodonts
could be facies controlled, that period being represented by an arenaceous facies in the
Spiti Valley, and there may not be any sedimentological break.
Sedimentary structures include low-angled discordance, ripple bedding and cross-
bedding. The Lipak Formation represents several shoaling cycles varying from low to
high energy in a subtidal to intertidal sea and restricted platform environment as
indicated by coral buildups. Towards the terminal part the Lipak basin acquired beach
to sabkha-like condition when gypsum was precipitated. The paleocurrent direction, in
the Takche section, varies between NW and NE (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998).
The thickness of the Lipak Formation in the Pin-Parahio valley is much less as
compared to the Takche, Pinglung and Lahaul due to pre-Gechang erosion. The upper
age of the fully developed Lipak thus may extend into Late Tournaisian.

Po Formation: The contact of the Lipak Formation with the Po Formation is well
exposed in the Lahaul Valley, Pinglung nala and Hurling-Lipak sections. The Lipak
Formation shows more abundant quartzite beds in upper part and passes into the Po
Formation; the delineation of this contact is, thus discretionary. The Po Formation
forms stepped steep slopes.
 10

The Po Formation comprises a thick sequence of quartzite-shale alternation with

local development of pebble beds in its upper part. The quartzite is made up of
moderately sorted, subangular to subrounded quartz in an argillaceous to ferruginous
matrix with primary silica cement replaced by ferruginous cement. Cross-bedding,
parallel bedding and ripple marks are common sedimentary structures present in this
formation. The ichnofossil assemblage includes Asteriactes, Gyrochorte, Phycodes,
Planolites, Rhizocorallium, Rusophycus and Skolithos. Characteristic fossils in the Po
Formation are Buxtonia scabriculus, B. spitiensis, Linoproductus lineatus, Dielasma
sp., Athyris (Cleiothyridina) cf. gerardi, Aviculopecten aff. hiemalis, Fenestella aff.
plebeia and Protoretepora ampla. Locally (e.g. at Losar, near Tabo on way to Angla),
plant fossils Rhacopteris inaequilatera, R. ovata and Sphenopteridium (?) furcillatum
are known. In Losar section, about 150 from the base Lepidodendropsis schurmani of
Visean age is known (Ranga Rao et al. 1984) The Po Formation is thus assigned a
Visean-Serpukhian age. Singh et al. (1995), though have not cited any reason, consider
it to represent an Upper Carboniferous age
The Po Formation constitutes several shoaling cycles commencing from mid-shelf
and culminating in upper shore face. Each succeeding cycle represents shallower milieu
of sedimentation (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998). Ranga Rao et al. (1984) consider it as a
deposit beach-lagoon barrier bar complex. Palaeocurrent direction in the Po Formation
measured in the Po and Losar sections vary from north to south. The heavy mineral
suite is represented mainly by zircon, tourmaline and haematite, indicating a
provenance constituted of low grade metamorphic rocks.

Ganmachidam Formation: The Ganmachidam Formation comprises sandstone and

shale alternations that are conglomeratic and in addition also contain well developed
conglomerate lenticular beds. Many conglomerate lenses having arenaceous matrix
occur as channel fills with in shaly beds, this aspect is well observed in the along the
road a little down stream of Attargoo.
Though Hayden (1904) mentioned a gradation from the Po to the conglomerate
(=Ganmachidam), yet he propounded a sedimentologic break at the base of the
Ganmachidam Formation. Later workers have largely followed this concept. As
mentioned earlier, the Po Formation shows presence of sporadic pebble beds in its
upper part and then gradually passes into the overlying Ganmachidam sequence. In
some sections there are no pebble beds in the Po Formation and its contact with the
Ganmachidam conglomerate apparently looks abrupt. However, the conglomerate beds
are lenticular with varying thickness and strike length, and where they lens out, the
sequences below (Po Formation) and above (Ganmachidam Formation) are
indistinguishable. Besides the gradational relationship, the regional distribution of
various formations is more eloquent. The Ganmachidam Formation is always observed
above the Po Formation and nowhere it rests over any older formation. Where the Po
Formation is absent, the Ganmachidam Formation too is missing. Had the
Ganmachidam Formation been transgressive (i.e. unconformable), it would have
certainly occurred independent of the Po Formation and would have rested over the
older formations. In general this formation forms steep slopes
The Ganmachidam Formation is constituted of cycles of diamictite-gritty sandstone-
finely laminated gritty shale-shale repeated at various stratigraphic levels. Clasts in
 11

diamictite are moderately sorted, mostly subangular to subrounded, a few well rounded
with sphericity between four and six (Power‟s Scale) and vary in size from granule to
rare pebble, with 4-16mm pebble size being most common. These are made up of gray
sandstone, white sandstone, brown sandstone, gray limestone, black shale, vein quartz
and rare granite.
No fossil was found in the Ganmachidam Formation. Presence of Eurydesma of
Asselian age in the basal part of the overlying Gechang Formation delimits its upper
age limit with in the Early Permian/latest Carboniferous. The lower age limit can be
determined as early Late Carboniferous due to its conformable contact with underlying
Po Formation of Visean-Serpukhian age. The diamictite sequence in the western
Himalaya seems to be a diachronous horizon; in Kashmir Eurydesma occurs in upper
part of the conglomerate, whereas in Lahul, Spiti and Kinnaur this index fossil occurs
about 30m stratigraphically above the Ganmachidam Formation. Singh et al. (1995)
assigned it a Permian age.
The shallowing of the Po basin leading to Ganmachidam sedimentation seems to be
as a response to the Late Carboniferous-Early Permian Gondwana ice age. Due to
lowering of the sea-level shallower parts of the basins were raised and contributed
clasts to the Ganmachidam conglomerates. Ganmachidam Formation represents several
shoaling cycles commencing from upper shore face and culminating at beach where
riverine conglomerate was reworked and redeposited in a marine environment. The
palaeocurrent current directions are mainly in NE quadrant. Heavy mineral suite
comprises chlorite, zircon, zoicite, tourmaline, and epidote. The provenance for the
Ganmachidam Formation was mainly sedimentary terrain with subordinate low-grade
metamorphic rocks.

Kuling Group

The Gechang and Gungri formations, separated by a possible hiatus make the
Kuling Group.

Gechang Formation: In fully developed sections, at least apparently, the

Ganmachidam Formation gradually passes into the Gechang Formation. It forms
somewhat steeper slopes and from distance is indistinguishable from the underlying
Ganmachidam Formation. In incomplete sections (e.g. Pin-Parahio), the Gechang
Formation rests over the Lipak Formation and in Kinnaur over the Muth Formation. It
consists of off white to coarse-grained cross-bedded sandstone. Locally conglomerate
lenses are present in the basal part and some shale partings in the upper part. These
conglomerate being mainly clast supported in an arenaceous matrix are different from
the Ganmachidam diamictites. In several sections just above the base occur coquina
bands resembling bioclastic lag. The sandstone in composition varies from
quartzarenite to quartzwacke. The quartzwacke comprises moderately sorted rounded to
well rounded quartz in size range of 100-250microns and 300-650microns with a few
grains as large as 1000microns in a micritic, ferron-calcitic to silty-quartzose matrix
constituting about 35-40% of the rock. The primary ferruginous cement has been
replaced by silica cement. The rock fragments are mainly of sedimentary rocks.
 12

Based on Eurydesma in basal part and Waagenophyllum near the top, this formation
is assigned an age ranging from Asselian to Sakamarian, possibly extending into early
Artinskian.
The Gechang Formation represents a deposit of fore shore to upper shore face
environment. The vector mean of the palaeocurrent direction in Losar, Pin-Parahio
section falls in NW quadrant. Heavy minerals include chlorite, zircon, and epidote. It
shows a provenance of recycled orogen constituted of arenaceous sedimentary rocks
and low grade metamorphic rocks (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998).

Gungri Formation: This formation can be recognized from a great distance by its
black colour and gentler slopes. It rests over the Gechang Formation along a sharp
contact. The Gungri Formation consists of dark gray shale, clay shale, locally
micaceous with fine silty layers with cherty, phosphatic and calcareous nodules of
variable size. A ferruginous layer occupies the top of the Gungri Formation. Bhandari
et al. (1992) reported europium anomaly from this ferruginous layer. However,
Bhargava and Bassi (1998), on a centimeter scale, sampling found the europium
anomaly to be confined to the top most one cm. layer of the black shale of the Gungri
Formation, immediately below the ferruginous horizon.
The Gungri Formation, based on the occurrence of Cyclolobus, Xenaspis and
Waagenoconcha, is regarded to range in age from Dzulfian to Early Dorashmian.
Absence of Midian and Late Dorashmian elements suggests possible breaks between
the Gungri Formation and the underlying Gechang and the overlying Mikin formations
respectively.
The Gungri Formation represents deposits of mid-shelf area with a limited
circulation well below the wave base. The basin had occasional influence of storm that
brought fine silty layers. The provenance seems to be sedimentary and low-grade
metamorphic terrain. Shukla et al. (2002) recorded minor increase in uranium
concentration and a positive cerium anomaly at the Permian-Triassic boundary and
interpreted anoxia at this level
Bhargava and Bassi (1998) have provided the lithostratigraphic details of the
Palaeozoic sequences.
Based on palynomorphs Singh et al. (1995) assigned Lower and Upper Permian age
to the Gechang and Gungri formations respectively.

Lilang Supergroup

Originally described as Lilang System, it was divided by Diener (1912) into 18

biostratgraphic subdivisions. Srikantia (1981) re-designated it as the Lilang Group and
subdivided into five formations the mappability of which was not proved. Bhargava
(1987) established eight formations that could be mapped all over the Spiti Valley, his
Sanglung Formation was further subdivided into three members, which though could be
mapped, were, however, not delineated due to terrain constraints. Similarly, the Para
and Tagling members of the Kioto Formations though mapped, were still retained as
members to keep the load of the stratigraphic nomenclature low. Garzanti et al. (1995)
gave an account of the Triassic sequences of the Spiti Valley. In the latest detailed
classification, the Lilang has been raised to a supergroup and various members of the
 13

Sanglung and Kioto groups referred to above have been designated as formations
(Bhargava et al., 2004; Bhargava, 2005).
Exhaustive studies by Krystyn et al., (2004, 2005) have led to revision and
supplementing the biostratigraphy of the Early and Middle Triassic part of the Lilang
Group. For palaeontological details reference may be made to Krystyn et al. (2004,
2005). Bhargava et al. (2004, 2005) have provided detailed lithocolumns of various
formations of the Lilang Supergroup.

Tamba Kurkur Group

The Tamba Kurkur Formation of Srikantia (1981) was redefined to include the
Mikin, Kaga and Chomule formations representing deeper water facies (Bhargava et
al., 2004).

Mikin Formation (Otoceras Beds to Upper Muschelkak): The Mikin Formation rests
over the late Permian Gungri Formation (Kuling Group). The sedimentologic break
nevertheless is strongly indicated by the absence of Late Dorashmian fossils and
truncation of beds (e.g. Otoceras bed in Guling section) of the basal part of the Mikin
Formation. Bhatt et al. (1980) regarded this break as subaerial. Since no gullying or any
evidence of erosion is visible, the break between the Gungri Formation and the Mikin
Formation is regarded as a sub-marine one. The Mikin Formation is divisible into four
members Bhargava et al. 2004, Figs. 3-5) viz., (i) Lower Limestone Member, (ii)
Limestone-Shale Member, (iii) Niti Member (Nodular Limestone Member) and (iv)
Upper Limestone Member. Bhatt et al. (1999) established eight conodont zones viz. (i)
Neogondolella orientalis-N.carinata Zone forming the basal 54 cm sequence
(=Otoceras bed), which included Hindeodus typicalis, H. sp. cf. H. latidentatus,
Neogodolella sp. cf. N. behnkeni, N. deflecta deflecta, N. deflecta subdeflecta, N.
orientalis, and N.subcarinata subcarinata, (ii) Neospathodus kummeli Zone (spanning
Ophiceras and seven cms. of Meekoceras beds), (iii) Neospathodus dieneri Zone
(spanning lower half of Meekoceras beds), (iv) Neospathodus cristagalli Zone
(covering about two-third of Meekoceras beds), (v) Neospathodus pakistanensis Zone
(60 cm thick includes Hedenstroemia beds), (vi) Neospathodus waageni Zone (spans
upper one metre of Hedestroemia mojsisovicsi bed and up to Pseudomonotis himalaica-
Rhynchonella greisbachi beds), (vii) Neogodolella elongata Zone (4.2 m thick), and
(viii) Neospathodus timorensis Zone (1.90m above the Nodular Limestone up to top of
the Keyserlingites bed). N. subcarinata changxingensis and N. carinata assemblage of
Neogondolella orientalis-N.carinata Zone was correlated by Bhatt et al.(1981, 1984,
1999) with Dorashmian conodont microfauna of China, which was later reverted to
Griesbachian by Krystyn and Orchard (1996). Krystyn et al. (2004, Figs 2-3) have
divided the Otoceras beds in four ammonoid zones viz. (i) Otoceras woodwardi Zone
beds 2+3/1), Ophiceras tibeticum Zone (beds 3/2+4/1), Discophiceras zone (beds V
4/3+ V4/4 GU 4/4) and “Pleurogyronites” planidorsatus Zone (interval 5+6). Krystyn
et al. (2004) recorded Hindeodus parvus, Isaricella staeschei, Neogodolella
nassichucki (from basal-most 20 cm, underlying the Otoceras woodwardi Zone),
Neogodolella carinata, N. krystyni (from base to almost 50 cm, stretching from parvus
 14

level to Pleurogyronites” planidorsatus Zone) and N. discreta and N. kummeli (from

approximately 50 to 60cm confined to Pleurogyronites” planidorsatus Zone). Kapoor
(1977) redesignated the Meekoceras and Hedenstroemia beds of the Spiti as
Konincknites beds and Meekoceras beds respectively. Following Diener (1912), Kapoor
(1978) pointed to an intimate lithologic similarity of the Meekoceras bed with the
Ophiceras bed (or zone) in faunistic subdivision, which therefore, needed precise
definition. Spath (in Kapoor, 1978) had placed the Meekoceras beds of Spiti and the
Central Himalaya under Celtites radiosus Zone of Gyronitan age. Krystyn et al. (2004)
too found „Meekoceras beds‟ to be a misnomer and misleading as these beds instead of
containing Meekoceras are dominated by gyronitids and as compared to mid-
Smithsonian Meekoceras level, are older-- representing a pre-Olenikian age. The Mikin
Formation ranges in age from Induan to early Late Ladinian. The Induan-Olenekian
boundary is located around one meter above the base with in the Flemingites beds,
between the LA of C. nepalensis and FA of Neospathodus waageni waageni and N.
discretus (Krystyn et al., 2004, Figs 5-6). Orchard and Krystyn (2007) have given an
account of the conodont fauna from the Induan-Olenekian boundary level.
Chemostratigraphic studies at this level indicated a positive excursion of the Carbon
isotope, this peak at Mud can be correlated with the biostratigraphic boundary ((Richoz
et al. 2007). The integrated conodont-ammonoid biostratigraphy combined with
chemostratigraphy has enabled to define the Induan-Olenekian boundary in the Mud
section of Spiti and can be a global type section (Krystyn et al. 2007).
The Olenekian-Anisian boundary has been demarcated at the FAD of Chiosella
timorensis in the upper part of the Niti Limestone Member slightly more than a meter
below the hardground at the top of this member in the Lalung section. The sequence is
poor in ammonoid fauna thus calibration with conodonts has not been feasible;
Preflorianitoides (form bed 7) is the first and the only cephalopod occurring in the
lowermost Aegean part (Krystyn et al. 2004, Fig 7). Rich fauna appears in the topmost
Niti Limestone and extends into the lower beds of the Muschelkalk (Krystyn et al.
2004, Fig. 8). An integrated ammonoid and conodont biostratigraphic studies of the
Muschelkalk Member enabled Krystyn et al., (2004) to identify further subdivisions of
the Muschelkalk. The FA of Protrachyceras about 120cm below the contact of the
Mikin Formation with the Kaga Formation marks the Anisian-Ladinian boundary.
Several hardgrounds, some minor other major, present in the Mikin Formation
indicate sea-level high-strand condition with possible condensation of horizons. The
carbonate microfacies is represented by bioturbated thin to thick-shelled packstone,
whole fossil wackestone and thin-shelled filamentous packstone with local calcitised
radiolarian and calcispheres. The environment in the basal most part with thick shelled
fauna seems to represent a shallow marine environment below mean wave base. The
overlying sequence of parallel bedded carbonates, beds with hummocky cross-bedding
and gutter casts represents several shoaling cycles ranging from below the storm wave
base to below normal wave base with mild bottom currents, which provided alignment
to filamentous shells..

Kaga Formation (Daonella Shale): This formation overlies the Mikin Formation
along a pronounced hardground (Bhargava et al. 2004, Fig. 6), though no
palaeontological break is decipherable between the Kaga and the Mikin formations.
 15

The Kaga Formation mainly comprises earthy to gray shale, marl and silty marl with
sporadic thin-bedded gray limestone and marly-limestone intercalations, especially in
the basal and middle parts. Presence of Daonella cf. lommeli, D. indica, Spirigera
hunica, Hungarites pradoi, Rimkinites nitiensis, Protrachyceras spitiensis, Ptychites
gerardi, and Joannites cf. proavus indicate an Early to Late Ladinian age.
The carbonate microfacies represented by bioclastic mudstone, wacke/packstone,
layered thin-shelled packstone together with fossil assemblage represents deposition in
neritic shelf below wave base, locally above storm base.

Chomule Formation (Daonella and Halobia limestones): Resting conformably over

the Kaga Formation, the Chomule Formation is made up of thin to medium bedded dark
gray to black limestone and marly limestone with little shale, showing planar to nodular
bedding and cyclicity (Bhargava et al. 2004, Fig. 7). There are several hardgrounds of
different maturity with in this formation, which indicate acquisition of high-strand sea-
level conditions, possibly no sedimentologic break
The Chomule Formation ranges in age from late Late Ladinian to Early Carnian
Since Daonella and Halobia, traditionally used to demarcate the Ladinian-Carnian
boundary, were found to overlap, this boundary has been delineated on the basis of first
appearance of Daxatina, Trachyceras and Paragondolella polygnathiformis, about 39m
above the base of the Chomule Formation in the Guling section (Krystyn et al. 2004,
Fig. 9).
The carbonate microfacies in the Chomule Formation comprise mudstone to
bioclastic mudstone with sporadic bioclastic wackestone enclosing pelagic bivalve,
crinoid, ammonoid and nautiloid, radiolarian wackestone (in Lalung section) and thin
shelled/gastropod wackestone/packstone. This formation was deposited on a neritic
carbonate shelf environment that deepened towards NE as indicated by radiolarians in
the Chomule and the Mikin formations in the Lalung section. There was local but
strong supply of terrigenous material.

Sanglung Group

The Sanglung Group is equivalent of the members A and B of the Sanglung

Formation of Bhargava (1987). Bhargava et al. (2004, Figs. 8-10) renamed these
formations as the Rama and Rongtong formations. There is a sudden change from
carbonate-dominated sequences of the Tamba Kurkur Group to the siliciclastic
sediments of the Rama Formation (Sanglung Group). Hornung et al. (in press)
attributed the change from carbonate productivity to siliciclastic to onset of humid
climate change, which became prevalent in the entire Tethys and has been termed as.
Reingraben Event in the Alps.
Rama Formation (Grey Beds, Member A): This formation conformably succeeds the
Chomule Formation. It is composed of gray, locally carbonaceous fine-grained siltstone
and limestone repeated in cyclic order. Based on Trachyceras aff. ariae, Joannites cf.
cybiformis, Monophyllites cf. simonyi, Rhynchonella laucana, R. himiaca, Spiriferina
shalshalensis, Dielasma julicum, Lilangina nobilis, and Pomarangina haydeni it is
regarded to ranges in age from latest Early Carnian to early Middle Carnian.
 16

Mixed carbonate microfacies of thin-shelled packstone and coral, oolite and algae
indicate its deposition in environment varying from shallow subtidal shelf to deeper
neritic basin below wave base during ephemeral transgressive phases.

Rongtong Formation (Tropites Limestone; Member B): The Rongtong Formation is

divisible in three members (Bhargava et al. 2004, Figs 9-10). The Lower Member is
constituted of the nodular limestone with shale, the Middle Member comprises
sandstone and siltstone in the basal part and fossiliferous splintery limestone in upper
part and the Upper Member comprises thick to medium bedded cliff-forming limestone
and dolomite with common emersion horizons in upper part. It is assigned an age range
from Middle to Late Carnian on the bases of Tropites cf. subbullatus, T. discobullatus,
Clydonautilus acutilobatus, Dielasma julicum, Spiriferina aff. Shalshalensis and Lima
cf. austriaca.
The carbonate microfacies in the Rongtong Formation are mudstone, bioclastic
wackestone/packstone with mollusk shell, crinoid and coral, rare whole coral
wackestone, peloidal-bioclastic wackestone and bioclastic grainstone mainly in the
upper part of the Lower Member and lower part of the Upper Member The environment
of the sedimentation of the Rongtong Formation varied from quiet water below wave
base, occasionally visited by storm to high energy shallow basin affected by storms.

Nimoloksa Group

The Nimoloksa Formation of Srikantia (1981) was redefined and redesignated as a

group by Bhargava et al. (2004). Under it are classified the Rangrik, Hangrang, Alaror
and Nunuluka formations.

Rangrik Formation (Juvavites Beds Member C): The Rangrik Formation in lower
part is limestone dominated with little marl and siltstone, while the upper part
comprises siltstone, in part iron-oolitic sandstone (Garzanti et al. 1995), gray to
greenish-gray shale with phosphatic nodules and rare limestone (Bhargava et al. 2004,
Fig 11). These lithounits form prograding cycles represented by limestone-shale-
siltstone-sandstone; some of the cycles are incomplete and truncated. The Rangrik
Formation encloses Juvavites aff. ehrlichi, Anatomites aff. melchioris, Tibetites cf.
ryalli and ranges in age from Early to Middle Norian.
The carbonate microfacies in this formation are bioclastic grain/packstone with
numerous bivalves and crinoids, lithoclastic grainstone, rare ooidal pack/grainstone and
mudstone with Fe-rich layers. Trace fossil Zoophycus (common in lower part) and
sedimentary structures like ripple bedding, low-angle cross-bedding indicate low to
moderate energy with occasional high energy to even circa-littoral environments.

Hangrang Formation (Coral beds): This formation is made up of dark gray massive
to bedded limestone and knoll coral reefs (Bhargava et al. 2004, Fig 12). In most areas
the sequence begins with bioclastic grain/wackestone with fragments of reef forming
organisms. Intercalation of dasycladacean shows shallowing of the knolls. In parts
sponges are predominant dwellers. Branching corals are common in basal and middle
parts and platy coral in upper part. The reefs terminate with coarse-grained bioclastic
 17

grainstone commonly rich in rhynchonellids, topped by the Alaror Formation. The

Hangrang Formation based on mega fauna was assigned a Middle Norian age, which
has been confirmed by conodonts (Leopold Krystyn, unpublished work). The Hangrang
Formation mainly characterized by peloidal facies and general absence of
oolites/grainstone represents a low-energy reef (knoll reef) of subtidal environment. It
got destroyed due to shallowing and introduction of clastics of the Alaror Formation.
Some doubtful plant fossils (mostly twigs) are also reported from this formation.

Alaror Formation (Monotis Shale): Regionally it shows onlap relationship with the
underlying Hangrang Formation. The Alaror Formation at the base is made of a thin
brachiopod-rich bed (Spiriferina greisbachi). Followed by shale, siltstone showing
interference ripple marks, hummocky cross-bedding and gutter casts; this cycle is
repeated several times, representing prograding cycles; each succeeding cycle is thicker
and has thinner carbonate and thicker sandstone interbeds (Bhargava et al. 2004, Fig.
13). However, in the upper part Heterastridium is common and Monotis salinaria is
prolofic in a 10cm thick bed in upper part, which show deeper neritic environment,
indicating temporary drowning. The Alaror Formation is regarded to represent early
Late Norian age. The basal part of the Alaror Formation represents shallow marine
environment affected by storm, towards upper part it show deepening and then another
cycle of shallowing towards the Nunuluka contact.

Nunuluka Formation (Quartzite Series): Succeeding conformably the Alaror

Formation, the Nunuluka Formation is composed of moderately sorted sandstone,
siltstone, shale and thick, medium to finely bedded carbonates in decreasing order of
abundance (Bhargava et al. 2004, Fig. 14). Carbonate-shale-sandstone sequence forms
several shoaling cycles of varying thickness. In its upper part, a limestone bed in the
Nunuluka Formation contains Megalodon in abundance. The common sedimentary
structures are wave/interference ripple marks, large scale cross-bedding and wavy
cross-bedding. Sandstone contains abundant subangular to angular felspar grains
indicating short transport, and possibly arid climate. Its diagnostic fossil of the
Nunuluka Formation is Spirigera maniensis, it possibly represents Late Norian to Early
Rhaetian age.
The Nunuluka Formation represents palaeoenvironment varying from coastal to
intertidal with local shoal and winnowed shelf condition in its upper part.

Kioto Group

The Kioto Group is divisible into the Para and Tagling formations.

Para Formation: The Para Formation rests conformably over the Nunuluka
Formation. It is constituted of gray, thin to medium bedded limestone in basal part,
while in upper part dolomite predominates (Bhargava et al. 2004, Fig. 14). In the Hanse
area about 15m from base the Nunuluka Formation contains Megalodon ladakhensis in
abundance. The other fossils are Entolium cf. subdemissum, Petcen chabrangensis,
Lima cumaunica, Diceracardium himalayaensis and Spirigera noetlingi The Para
Formation is provisionally assigned to Rhaetian age.
 18

The carbonate microfacies in the Para Formation are lithoclastic wacke/packstone

with clasts of peloidal-filled bivalve, ooiods, faecal pellets, quinquilinoid-ooidal-oolitic
grain/packstone and peloidal aggregate bio/lithoclastic float/packstone. Crinoidal
fragments are important constituent of the bioclasts. Cortoids and black pebbles are
frequent; blackening agent seems mainly from the decaying algae and sea grass and
also due to iron sulphide coating under anoxic conditions. It was deposited at storm
dominated winnowed shelf edge sand area with tidal channels and partly in shoal area.
Its overall condition of deposition was deeper than that of the Nunuluka depositional
environment.

Tagling Formation: The Tagling Formation mostly forms gentler slopes. It

comprises dark grayish-blue fine-grained ferruginous cherty and arenaceous
limestone/dolomite. The upper part shows development of a hardground in several
sections and also development of ferruginous oolites. It was deposited at winnowed
shelf edge to restricted platform edge (Bhargava, 1987). Megalodon and Stephanoceras
coronatum are typical of this formation. It is assigned Lias/Dogger age. The Triassic-
Jurassic boundary may lie along the Para-Tagling contact.

The Kioto Group is found to rest over various older formations. Fuchs (1982)
regarded this discordant relationship due to thrust at the base of the Kioto Group. The
Para Formation as compared to the underlying Nunuluka Formation shows relative
deepening of basin. This deepening in some coastal areas could lead to transgression.
Such a relationship is actually observed in the upper Lingti valley, where the Para
Formation rests over the metamorphosed Batal Formation. The disposition of the Para
Formation over the older formations, thus was explained by Bhargava (1987) due to
sedimentologic overlap. This plane of overlap since separates rocks of various
competences has been tectonised/detached in several sections with the Kioto Formation
moving as a superficial nappe (cf. Fuchs, 1982).
The Lilang Supergroup ranges in age from Scythian to Lias.

The Permian-Triassic Boundary: The Mikin Formation rests over the late Permian
Gungri Formation (Kuling Group). A ferruginous horizon occurs at the base of the
Mikin Formation; it was considered to mark a sedimentologic break between these two
formations. A close examination revealed that veins of this ferruginous material
penetrate the carbonate of the Mikin Formation as well. This ferruginous layer is, thus,
reinterpreted to have formed due to expulsion of iron-rich water from the Gungri shale
due to loading by the rocks of the Lilang Supergroup. This water got trapped mainly
between the Gungri and the impervious carbonates of the overlying Mikin Formation.
The sedimentologic break, nevertheless, is strongly indicated by the absence of Late
Dorashmian fossils and truncation of beds (e.g. Otoceras bed in Guling section) of the
basal part of the Mikin Formation. Since no gullying or any evidence of erosion is seen,
the break between the Gungri Formation and the Mikin Formation is regarded as a sub-
marine one. The Permian (Gungri Formation) ends with Cyclolobus-Waagenoconcha
fossils (Early Dorashmian?) and the Triassic Mikin Formation begins with Hindeodus
parvus-Otoceras association. Tiwari (1997) has described palynological changes at the
Permian-Triassic transition.
 19

Lagudarsi Group

It comprises the Spiti, Giumal and Chikkim formations exposed around the
Lagudarsi Pass.

Spiti Formation: This formation forms dark-coloured gentle slopes and can be
identified from a distance. The Spiti Formation rests with a sharp contact over the Kioto
Formation. It comprises dark gray to black splintery friable shale, minor chert flakes,
local sandstone beds which are calcareous towards the top and rare conglomerate
lenses. In the upper part the shale gradually become light grey in colour and have fine
flakes of detrital mica. Phosphatic, cherty and calcareous nodules, mostly enclosing
fossils as nucleus occur through out the sequence. Hardground are common in this
formation indicating high-strand conditions. Sandstone of the Spiti Formation is made
up of poorly sorted rounded to subrounded 250-350micron-size quartz (80%), felspar
(10%) in a silty to clayey homogenous matrix. The primary ferruginous cement has
been replaced by siliceous cement.
Zoophycos and nektonic body fossils (Belemnites) are common in the Spiti
Formation. Based on rich ammonoid fauna, the Spiti Formation has been regarded to
range in age from Oxfordian to Valanginian (Pascoe, 1959). Mayaites, Epimayites
(Oxfordian), ?Torquatispinctes, Pachysphinctes, Subdichotomoceras, ?Taramelliceras,
Streblites (Kimmeridgian), Aulacosphinctoides and Hildoglochiceras assemblages
(Early Tithonian), Virgatosphinctes and Himalayites assemblages (Late Tithonian) and
Neocosmoceras and Odontodiscoceras assemblages (Berriiasian-Valinginian) are
known from the Spiti Formation (Pathak and Krishna, 1993).
Pachysphinetes linquiferus, P. granti, Torquatisphinctes torquatus, Katroliceras cf.
pottingeri, Hybonoticeras hybonotum, Aspidiceras ephiceroides, A. subwynnei and
Taramelliceras sp. help in recognition of Kimmeridgian Stage and Kimmeridgian-
Tithonian boundary (Pathak, 1997).
The Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary has been delineated near the contact with the
Guimal Formation on the bases of last appearance of Virgatosphinctes and first
appearance of Odontoodiscoceras and/or Neoccosmoceras in the Gete section (Pathak,
2007).

Based on faunal affinities Krishna (1983) proposed a continuous and termed it as

Indo-East African province
The Spiti Formation was deposited on mid-shelf with low rate of sedimentation and
poor circulation with occasional hurricane and local turbidity currents/mudflows.

Giumal Formation: It forms a conspicuous topography over the softer shales of the
Spiti Formation. The Spiti Formation develops sandstone beds in upper part and passes
in to the Giumal Formation, which comprises sandstone, glauconitic sandstone, silty
sandstone, calcareous shale, gritty sandstone with a few pebbles. At the base, in most of
the sections, occurs a calcareous sandstone/arenaceous oolitic limestone with bivalve
shells (mostly complete). Sandstone is quartzarenite to quartzwacke in composition and
made up of poorly sorted, rounded, subrounded to subangular bimodal quartz (85-90%)
 20

and felspar of moderate sphericity in an argillaceous matrix (8-10%) with pigmentary

glauconite, accessory minerals are K-felspar, Na-felspar and clay. Authigenic silica,
ferruginous matter and pigmentary glauconite form the cement.
Based on Holostephanus (Astieria) aff. atherstoni, Stephanoceras sp., Perisphinctes
sp., Cardium gieumalense, Pseudomonotis superstes and Gryphaea aff. baylei it is
assigned a Late Valanginian/Early Huaterivian to Albian age.
The Giumal Formation as revealed by coarser sandstone, at places cross-bedded,
oolitic limestone and complete bivalve shells in the basal part represents sedimentation
in shallow marine basin, possibly somewhat deeper part of the basin experienced
occasional turbidity currents. The sequence, however, does not look like a proximal
turbidite as advocated in its strike extension in the Zanskar area.

Chikkim Formation: Due to colour contrast it can be viewed forming a conspicuous

topography. It is divisible into two members, viz. (a) Limestone Member and (b) Shale
Member. The Limestone Member conformably rests over the Giumal Formation and is
made up of bluish gray to grayish blue dolomitic limestone, argillaceous in upper part,
a few siliciclastic and shale bands and sporadic dark gray pyritous limestone. The
carbonate microfacies include (i) mudstone and (ii) foraminiferal wackestone with
globotruncanids, ostracodes, gastropods and radiolarians. Kohli and Sastri (1956) on
the basis of various species of Globotruncana regarded it to range from Cenomanian to
Turonian. Bertle and Suttner (2005), who redesignated the Limestone Member as the
Lower Chikkim Member, on the basis of occurrence of Biticinella breggiens and
Planomalina buxforti in basal part assigned an Albian age. At about 26m above the
base Whiteinella archaeocretacaea registers Oceanic Anoxic Event 2 representing
Cenomanian/Turonian boundary (Bertle and Suttner, 2005). The Shale Member (Upper
Chikkim Limestone Member of Bertle and Suttner, 2005) intervened by an iron oxide
bearing bioturbated hardground of Santonian age (Bertle and Suttner, 2005)
conformably rests over the Limestone Member. It consists of gray, ash gray silty shale,
shaly limestone, marl and fine silty beds. The carbonaceous marl of this member has
rotaliids, Globotruncana elevata, G. stuartiformis, G. stuarti and G. gansseri of
Campanian age, co-occurrence of G. elevata and G. gansseri according to Bertle and
Suttner (2005) could be due to condensation of the section or reworking. The Shale
Member may range up to Campanian/Early Maastrichtian in age (Bhargava and Bassi,
1998).
The Limestone Member represents sedimentation in shelf to off-basinal environment
with occasional periods of restricted circulation. The Shale Member was deposited in
outer shelf (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998).

Quaternary Deposits

Excellent development of Quaternary sediments is observed in the Spiti Valley. Glacial,

rock glacier, fluvioglacial, fluvial, lacustrine, talus and locally aeolian sediments
(Ameta, 1978, Bagati and Suresh, 1991; Mazari and Bagati, 1991; Bagati and Thakur,
1993; Bagati and Mohindra, 1997; Bhargava and Bassi, 1998) constitute the Quaternary
deposits. The lacustrine were deposited in series of lakes formed due to landsides that
dammed the Spiti River (Fig. 5).
 21

STRUCTURE

The Late Precambrian-Cretaceous sequence resting unconformably over the Vaikrita

Crystalline has been translated along the Vaikrita Thrust (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998).
The Vaikrita Thrust coincides with the South Tibetan Detachment Fault (STDF) of
Vannay and Grasemann (2001). The STDF marked by Vannay and Grasemann along
the NH 22 was found to be non-existent. Though Vannay and Grasemann (2001)
consider the STDF as a high angle plane, yet the outcrop pattern of this plane as shown
in their Fig. 1 suggests it to be a rather low angle tectonic plane. However, actual
mapping on ground on 1:50,000 scale by Bassi (1989) has not substantiated this
outcrop pattern for this important tectonic plane. The only tectonic plane of regional
significance below the Tethyan sequence is the Vaikrita Thrust. The Vaikrita Thrust
(designated by different names) is continuous all over the Himalaya (Bhargava, 2000)
at the back of which the Tethyan rocks have been translated. This thrust has been
designated as the Main Central Thrust (MCT) by Bhargava and Bassi (1994) and is
different from the Kulu and Jutogh thrusts, which too have been designated as the MCT
by several authors (Vannay and Grasseman, 2001; Mukhopadhyay et al., 1997). The
Kulu Thrust Sheet has obviously traveled over the Lesser Himalayan Basement (Jeori-
Wangtu-Bandal Complex), slices of which occur at the base of the Kulu Thrust Sheet as
Gahr/Baragaon/Lingtse/Gachang gneiss; the Kulu Thrust Sheet, therefore, has a unity
with the Lesser Himalaya. The Kulu/Jutogh thrust sheets since have outliers neither of
the Lesser Himalayan nor of the Tethyan Himalayan sequences are regarded to have
formed a Geological-no-man’s-land between the Lesser Himalayan and Tethyan
Himalayan basins, though had a Lesser Himalayan affinity. The Vaikrita Thrust Sheet
on contrary is everywhere overlain by the Tethyan sequence and therefore definitely
belongs to the Tethyan Basin. The Vaikrita Thrust that delimits the Lesser Himalayan
Terrain on one side and the Tethyan on other is a significant thrust of fundamental
importance, thus named as the MCT (Bhargava, 2000). The Tethyan sequence traveled
over the back of the Vaikrita Thrust Sheet, shows decoupling in several sections, but by
no means it can be termed as a regional feature (cf. STDF). Several workers accept the
STDF as a regional feature; however, location of the STDF of each author on map
varies, thus exposing the bias.
The Late Precambrian-Cretaceous Tethyan sequence is folded in a major
synclinorium having a NW-SE trend in western Spiti and an E-W trend in the eastern
part. The swing from NW-SE to E-W is a regional feature that cuts across all tectonic
belts and is visible in Jutogh Thrust Sheet, Kulu Thrust Sheet, Larji-Rampur Window,
Shali-Deoban antiforms, Krol Belt and even in Paleogene and Siwalik belts. The axial
trace of the most important anticline, designated as the Spiti Anticline, is located along
the Spiti River. On either side of this anticline occur several doubly plunging synclines.
The area NE/N of the Spiti Anticline is structurally more depressed where younger
sequences up to Cretaceous are preserved in the cores of various synclines (Fig. 6),
 22

while towards south the sequence goes mainly up to Kioto Group, with rare small
outcrops of the Spiti Formation (e.g. Manirang Pass).
As compared to other sequences the Lilang rocks are intensely folded. This feature
is attributed to detachment of the Lalung rocks at the base and also at the top with the
carbonaceous Gungri and Spiti formations respectively. Several faults exist within the
Spiti Synclinorium, most important being along the axis of the Spiti Anticline. This
fault initiates near Hal and dies downstream of Atargoo. The faults in the area are high
angled, though some of them show sinuous outcrop pattern. These are considered as
basement controlled listric-like folded faults (Bhargava and Bassi, 1998). However,
Steck et al., (1993; 1998) consider them as thrust planes involving considerable
translation. Fuchs (1982) similarly demarcates a thrust at the base of the Kioto Group
where it rests over the older formations. It is difficult to accept such an interpretation
due to following reasons:
(i) Once a thrust involving translation has been initiated it is difficult to die it along
strike and there will be no normal stratigraphic relationship on either side of the
tectonic plane.
(ii) On contrary the throw/amount of dislocation decreases on either extremities of
these faults and normal stratigraphic relationship between the sequences is fully
restored.
(iii) Some of these faults are located along the valleys where their inclination cannot
be determined. However, many such faults can be traced into the hill-sections
(e.g. Lingti in Lahaul-Zanskar; Baralacha-Chandra in Lahaul), where their high
angle nature is clearly visible.
Steck et al., (1998) too highlighted several local dislocations along the bedding as
major thrusts. Such dislocations due to varying competence of the beds involved
commonly develop during the folding and in regional perspective are of little
consequence. Auden (1934) alluded to a similar situation in the Krol Belt area as
“…almost every plane separating rocks of different hardness, and every boundary
plane between different stages, is a minor or major thrust.” Obviously such
dislocations need not be exaggerated and given names.
The Kioto Group at places rests over the older formations, which along strike also
rests with normal stratigraphic contact over the Nunuluka Formation. It is for this
reason the contact between the Kioto Group and the older formations was considered as
a plane of disconformity (Bhargava, 1987) that has been locally tectonised (plane of
detachment) to form superficial nappe of local dimension, as discussed under the Kioto
Group.
Features relatable to Precambrian, Late Cambrian (Bhargava et al., Mss under
preparation), Early Carboniferous and Cretaceous tectonic events are identifiable in the
Vaikrita-Tethyan succession (Bhargava et al, 1991; Bhargava and Bassi, 1998).
Draganits et al., (2005) have interpreted an Early Carboniferous or Late Carnian/Norian
deformation in the Muth Formation. Since north of Tariya, a dolerite dike cuts through
the Muth Formation along a fault and does not extend in to the overlying sequence
(Bhargava and Bassi, 1998, p.34), an Early Carboniferous age for the cataclastic
deformation recorded by Draganits et al., (2005) is most probable. The weak planes
formed during this phase were intruded by dolerite subsequently during the Panjal
Volcanicity. The Tertiary Himalayan tectonics has resulted in three phases of folds,
 23

later disrupted by faults. Basement structures have exercised control on the moulding of
various folds and also possibly the faults (Bhargava et al., 1991).
Neotectonic movements in Ladakh, Lahaul and Spiti have been recorded
(Bhargava, 1991). Recumbent folds, at places associated with thrusts and brittle
structure (faults) are extensively developed in the lacustrine sediments of Quaternary
age (Bagati and Suresh, 1991; Bagati and Mohindra, 1997; Singh and Jain, 2001). Most
of these recumbent folds have been related to neotectonic reactivation of adjacent faults
and have been described as seismites. Reactivation of faults e.g. Kaurik-Chango Fault,
which was reactivated in 1975 to cause the Kinnaur Earthquake (Bhargava et al., 1979)
is more likely to generate high angle faults rather than thrusts and exclusive recumbent
folds. Much of the so-called seismites are, therefore, possibly soft sediment slumps.
The TL dates of the sediments enclosing the soft-sediment deformation at four levels
given by Singh and Jain (2001) are: 90±10.5, 61±9.5, 37±5.2, 26±4.3 Ka from the lake
sediments deposited due to blockade of the Spiti-Parechu rivers. These dates suggest
that the lake lasted for more than 64 Ka, as there is enough sequence below the 90±10.5
Ka level. In an active mountain lakes formed due to ponding of turbulent rivers are
ephemeral and are unlikely to last for such a long span of time. The glaciers of last
glacial age (i.e. 18 Ka) that occupied these U-shaped valleys in all probability would
have bulldozed older sediments. Thus the dates older than 18 Ka, therefore, seem
incongruous as the lacustrine/fluvio-lacustrine sediments post-date this event. The TL
dates for sediments other than aeolian seem to be erratic.

PROBABLE IMPACT OF THE TETHYAN EVENTS IN THE PENINSULA

The transgressive and regressive events recorded in the Tethyan part are likely to be
recorded in the peninsular basins. The Cambrian transgressive phase seems to have
been an event of protracted duration. In the Peninsular part mainly it commenced in the
Vendian time with obliteration of the Vindhyan basin and culminated in the Ganga
Basin in Middle/Late Cambrian (Prasad and Asher, 2001). The Cambrian and younger
sequence in the Ganga Basin has been identified on the basis of acritarchs (Prasad and
Asher, 2001) and so far no other fossil has been found, hence the report be viewed with
caution. During the Ordovician (Thango) and Early Devonian (Muth) transgressions the
sea was shallow and could not invade the raised parts of the Peninsula. The Early
Permian transgression was associated with the rifting; it was recorded at Bhadaura,
Umaria, Manendragarh and Daltonganj. The regression during the Midian (top of
Gechang) resulted in restoring the fluvial conditions in the Peninsula. The Dzulfian
(Gungri) marine transgression was deeper and widespread. It is with this event that the
phosphorite in the Gondwana sequence was possibly associated. Late Dorashmian
regression reverted terrestrial environment in the Peninsula. The Induan transgression
with continuous deepening till Carnian has so far not been recorded in the Peninsula;
this event should be carefully looked into the Gondwana sequence as it can be of
applied aspect. The Jurassic (associated with the Spiti) and Cretaceous (associated with
Giumal/Chikkim deepening) transgressions are well known in the Peninsula.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
 24

The author has been greatly benefited with discussion in field with Prof. L. Krystyn
and Dr. E. Draganits. The manuscript is greatly improved in light of comments by Shri.
H.M. Kapoor.
_____________________________________________________________________
 25

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Explanation of figures

Fig. 1. Geological map of a part of the Spiti Valley

Fig. 2. Algal mounds in the limestone (mapped as Karsha Limestone in parts of the
Zanskar Valley) of the Kunzam La Formation.

Fig. 3. Angular unconformity between the Kunzam La and the Thango formations in
the Pin Valley.

Fig. 4. Halysites framestone, Takche Formation.

Fig. 5. Lacustrine sediments resting over a paleolandslide that had blocked the Spiti
River.

Fig. 6. Section across the Chikkim and Spiti Valley (Redrawn after Section B-B‟ of
Bhargava and Bassi, 1998). Expl. 1-2. Haimanta Group- 1. Batal Fm., 2. Kunzam La
Fm.; 3-4. Sanugba Group -3. Thango Fm., 4. Takche Fm.; 5-6. Kanawar Group- 5.
Muth Fm., 6. Lipak Fm.; 7-8. Kuling Group- 7. Gechang Fm., 8. Gungri Fm., 9-17.
Lilang Supergroup-9-11. Tambakurkur Group- 9. Mikin Fm, 10. Kaga Fm, 11.
Chomule Fm, 12. Sanglung Group; 13-15.Nimoloksa Group- 13. Rangrik and
Hangrang Fms, 14. Alaror Fm., 15. Nunuluka Fm.; 16-17. Kioto Group- 16. Para Fm.,
17. Tagling Fm., 18-21. Lagudarsi Group- 18. Spiti Fm., 19. Giumal Fm., 20-21.
Chikkim Fm.-20. Limestone, 21. Shale.

Fig. 7. Section across the Parahio River (Redrawn after Hayden, 1904). Expl. 1.
Kunzam La Fm (Haimanta Group); 2-4. Sanugba Group; 2-3. Thango Fm., 2-
conglomerate, 3-quartzitearenite; 4. Takche Fm.; 5. Muth Fm (Kanawar Group); 6.
Gungri Fm. (Kuling Group); 7. Mikin Fm.; 8. Kaga Fm.; 9. Chomule Fm.; 10. Rama
Fm.; 11. Rongtong Fm.; 12. Rangrik Fm; 13. Hangrang Fm.; 14. Alaror Fm.; 15.
Nunuluka Fm., 16.Para Fm.

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