DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION

BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
Tagum College

Department of Teacher Education

BEED Program

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning

(SDL)

Course/Subject: EDUC 110 - The Teacher and the Community,

School Culture and Organizational Leadership

Name of Teacher: LADY LOU C. PIDO, MALT

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT

FOR REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF
ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE
USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY
ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Table of Contents
Page

Part 1. Course Outline and Policies ...................................................... 4

Part 2. Instruction Delivery
CC’s Voice ............................................................................…….. 7
Course Outcomes ........................................................................... 7
Big Picture A: Unit Learning Outcomes ............................................. 8
Big Picture in Focus:ULOa ……………………………………………… 8
Metalanguage .......................................................................... 8
Essential Knowledge ............................................................... 8
Self-Help .................................................................................... 88
Let’s Check .................................................................................... 89
Let’s Analyze ......................................................................... 90
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................... 92
Q&A List .................................................................................... 93
Keywords Index ........................................................................... 93

Big Picture B: Unit Learning Outcomes ............................................. 93

Big Picture in Focus:ULOa ……………………………………… 93
Metalanguage .......................................................................... 93
Essential Knowledge ............................................................... 93
Self-Help .................................................................................... 171
Let’s Check .................................................................................... 172
Let’s Analyze ......................................................................... 174
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................... 179
Q&A List .................................................................................... 180
Keywords Index ........................................................................... 180

Big Picture C: Unit Learning Outcomes ............................................. 181

Big Picture in Focus:ULOa ……………………………………………… 181
Metalanguage .......................................................................... 181
Essential Knowledge ............................................................... 181
Self-Help .................................................................................... 238
Let’s Check .................................................................................... 239
Let’s Analyze ......................................................................... 243
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................... 243
Q&A List .................................................................................... 244
Keywords Index ........................................................................... 244

Big Picture D: Unit Learning Outcomes ............................................. 245

Big Picture in Focus:ULOa ……………………………………………… 245
Metalanguage .......................................................................... 245
Essential Knowledge ............................................................... 245
Self-Help .................................................................................... 301
Let’s Check .................................................................................... 302
Let’s Analyze ......................................................................... 302

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

In a Nutshell ...................................................................................... 303

Q&A List .................................................................................... 304
Keywords Index ........................................................................... 304

Part 3. Course Schedule ......................................................................... 305

Online Code of Conduct................................................................... 305
Monitoring of OBD and DED............................................................. 306

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Course Outline: EDUC 110: The Teacher and the Community, School Culture
and Organizational Leadership and Learning Principles

Course Coordinator: LADY LOU C. PIDO, MALT

Email: pidoladylou@gmail.com
Student Consultation: By appointment
Mobile: 0907-3737962
Phone: (084) 216-1538
Effectivity Date: August 2020
Mode of Delivery: Online Blended Delivery
Time Frame: 54 Hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites: None
Credit: 3
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at
all scheduled Virtual or face to face
sessions.

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is designed
for online blended mode of instructional delivery. The
expected number of hours will be 54 including the
supplemented traditional contact and/or social media
platform (if necessary).
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on done base
on the course schedule indicated in the manual. The
assessment paper shall be attached with a cover page
indicating the title of the assessment task (if the task is
performance), the name of the course coordinator,
date of submission and name of the student. The
document should be emailed to the course coordinator.
It is also expected that you already paid your tuition and
other fees before the submission of the assessment
task.
Turnitin Submission (if necessary) To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment
tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This
means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the
students will either opt to redo her/his paper or explain
in writing addressed to the course coordinator the
reasons for the similarity.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

In addition, if the paper has reached more than 30%

similarity index, the student may be called for a
disciplinary action in accordance with the University’s
OPM on Intellectual and Academic Honesty.

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to
complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).

Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day
or part day that the assessment item is late.

However, if the late submission of assessment paper

has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.

Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
Assessments after the submission. This will be returned by email or
through social media platform.

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

require some or few of the students for online or virtual
sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to
ensure that all the group members are involved.

Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course

coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an assessment
task. The resubmission is premised on the student’s
failure to comply with the similarity index and other
reasonable grounds such as academic literacy standards
or other reasonable circumstances e.g. illness, accidents
financial constraints.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the program

Papers and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the score
given to an assessment task. The letter should explicitly
explain the reasons/points to contest the grade. The
program coordinator shall communicate with the
students on the approval and disapproval of the
request.

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean with
the original letter of request. The final decision will
come from the dean of the college.

Grading System Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual
University system and procedures.
Assignment 5%
Oral Recitation 10%
Quiz 10%
Research 15%
Prelim Assessment 15%
Midterm Assessment 15%
Final Assessment 30%
Preferred Referencing Style Depends on the discipline; if uncertain or inadequate,
use the general practice of the APA 6th Edition.

Student Communication You are required to create an email account as part of

the requirement for this course. All the assessment
shall be submitter through email. All communication
formats: chat, submission of assessment tasks,
requests etc. shall be through email and other
university recognized platforms.

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.

For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program head.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Gina Fe G. Israel

Email: deansofficetagum@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 09158325092
Contact Details of the Dr. Monalisa Chagas
Program Head Email: monachagas04@gmail.com
Phone: 082-3050647 local 102
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate
with the course coordinator about the nature of his
or her special needs. Depending on the nature of
the need, the course coordinator with the approval
of the program coordinator may provide alternative
assessment tasks or extension of the deadline of
submission of assessment tasks. However, the
alternative assessment tasks should still be in the
service of achieving the desired course learning
outcomes.
Help Desk Contact 09771712622
Library Contact lictagum@umindanao.edu.ph
0927-395-1639

Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Quipper LMS

CC’s Voice: Hello students! Welcome to this course Educ 110: The Teacher and the
Community, School Culture and Organizational Leadership. Every Education student
shall undergo this subject for it is deemed essential to the course you are taking.
Hopefully, after this you would learn the different types of learners and learning
principles both for children and adolescents.

CO: This course focuses on society as a context upon which the schools have been
established. Educational philosophies that are related to the society as a foundation
of schools and schooling shall be emphasized. Further, principles and theories on
school culture, and organizational leadership shall be included to prepare prospective
teachers to become leaders and manager.

Let us begin!

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Big Picture A

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to:
a. Discuss the philosophical thoughts on education, state the relationship of
society and school, prove that school transmit cultural values through facts
from Philippine and history of education, explain the meaning of socialization
as a function of school and explain social science theories and their
implications to education and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the
Filipino character and cite ways to which schools can counteract such
weaknesses.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Discuss the philosophical thoughts on education,

state the relationship of society and school, prove that school transmit cultural
values through facts from Philippine and history of education, explain the
meaning of socialization as a function of school and explain social science
theories and their implications to education and discuss the strengths and
weaknesses of the Filipino character and cite ways to which schools can
counteract such weaknesses.

Metalanguage
Please proceed immediately to the “Essential Knowledge” part since the first
lesson is also definition of essential terms.

Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first three
(3) weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential
knowledge that will be laid down in the succeeding pages. The textbook entitled The
Teacher and the Community, School Culture and Organization Leadership by Prieto,
N. G., Arcangel, C. N. & Corpuz, B. B. (2019) of Lorimar Publishing, Inc is the mainly
used reference for this course. You are also expected to utilize other books, research
articles and other resources that are available in the university’s library e.g. ebrary,
search.proquest.cometc.

Philosophical Thoughts on Education

• John Locke (1632-1704)

John Locke was born August 29, 1632, in Wrington, Somerset,

England. Regarded as one of the most influential Enlightenment
thinkers, he was known as the Father of Classical Liberalism. He
was an economist, political operative, physician, Oxford scholar,
and medical researcher as well as one of the great philosophers of
the late 17th and early 18th centuries.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Locke created the philosophy that there was no legitimate government under
the Divine Right of Kings theory, which emphasized that God chose some people to
rule on earth in His will. Therefore, the monarch’s actions were the will of God and to
criticize the ruler meant you were challenging God. However, Locke did not believe
in this theory and wrote his own to challenge it.

Locke’s writings also greatly influenced the founding fathers of the United States
when writing the Constitution. They implemented his idea that the power to govern
was obtained from the permission of the people. He believed the purpose of
government was to protect the natural rights of its citizens. He stated that natural
rights were life, liberty, and property, and that all people automatically earned these
simply by being born.

When a government did not protect those rights, the citizen had the right to
overthrow the government. These ideas were incorporated into the Declaration of
Independence by Thomas Jefferson. Once they took root in North America, the
philosophy was adopted in other places as justification for revolution.

Locke believed that children are born with their mind a blank sheet of paper, a
clean slate, a tabula rasa. He also maintained that children are potentially free and
rational beings, and that the realization of these human qualities tends to be
disillusioned through imposition of the sort of prejudice that perpetuates oppression
and fallacy. Locke believed it was the upbringing and education that hindered the
development of children's humanity. Locke noted two consequences of the doctrine
of the tabula rasa: egalitarianism and vulnerability.

Locke believed the purpose of education was to produce an individual with a

sound mind in a sound body so as to better serve his country. Locke thought that the
content of education ought to depend upon one's station in life. The common man
only required moral, social, and vocational knowledge. He could do quite well with
the Bible and a highly developed vocational skill that would serve to support him in
life and offer social service to others. However, the education of gentlemen ought to
be of the very highest quality. The gentleman must serve his country in a position of
leadership.

For gentlemen, Locke believed that the he must have a thorough knowledge of
his own language. The schools of the Puritans in England broke with tradition
completely. They sought to educate one for the society in which he would live. The
schools were called, therefore, schools of social realism. Locke, in keeping with
Milton and other Puritans, held that the content of the curriculum must serve some
practical end. He recommended the introduction of contemporary foreign languages,
history, geography, economics, math and science.

Locke proposed the following for the education of the gentleman:

a. Moral Training. All Christians must learn to live virtuously.
b. Good Breeding. The gentleman must develop the poise, control and
outward behavior of excellent manners. Education must aim, therefore, at

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

developing correct social skills.

c. Wisdom. The gentleman ought to be able to apply intellectual and moral
knowledge in governing his practical affairs.
d. Useful Knowledge. The gentleman must receive education which will lead to
a successful life in the practical affairs of the society, as well as that which leads to
the satisfaction derived from scholarship and good books.

In his final years he lived in the country at Oates in Essex at the home of Sir
Francis and Lady Masham. Before his death, Locke saw four more editions of An
Essay Concerning Human Understanding. He died at Oates in Essex on October 28,
1704.
Source: https://educationalroots.weebly.com/john-locke.html

John Locke’s Philosophy on Education

By Hannah S. Bowers
Source: https://coffeeshopthinking.wordpress.com/2013/10/25/john-lockes-
philosophy-of-education/

John Locke was an English philosopher and physician in the 17 th century who
is known as the “Father of Classical Liberalism.” He was also one of the most
influential Enlightenment thinkers. Locke is well-known for his tabula rasa view of
the human mind, his social contract theory, and his belief that knowledge is derived
through experience of the senses. His political theories influenced the writings of
other philosophers and the key ideas behind the United States’ Declaration of
Independence. Locke is famous for three works: A Letter Concerning
Toleration, The Second Treatise on Civil Government, and Some Thoughts
Concerning Education. Locke has also been labeled “the father of modern education
in England” (Locke, 205).
Locke outlined every detail on how to educate the human mind in Some
Thoughts Concerning Education. He wrote about how students should be dressed,
fed, exercised, instructed, and assessed (Baldwin, 186). He also advocated for a
close relationship between teacher and pupil, just like the American educational
model (Baldwin, 184). Locke’s work in psychology helped him develop the idea of
“associationism,” where he warned parents not to allow their children to develop
negative associations that would hurt their education (Yolton, 28-29). He denounced
scholasticism and advocated for experimentation in learning. He also promoted
training students in wisdom and virtue rather than focusing on main content.
Most educators have ignored Locke’s educational works, but some critics argue that
Locke’s educational theories are best applied to private tutoring instead of real
educational systems (Baldwin, 187). Locke’s rejection of classical education
annoyed the educators of his day, but his advocacy for hands-on learning predated
modern progressive educators by several centuries (Locke, 206). Locke believed
that play is just as essential as learning because play can reinforce learning. So
teachers should have some elements of “fun” in the classroom (Yolton, 84-85).

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Locke had many profitable ideas about education but his approach to Biblical
training is a concern for Christian educators. Locke believed that the only virtue in
reading the Bible was for moral values (Yolton, 27). The Bible should be read so
people learn about the Gospel, not just as a moral guide. Classical education should
be combined with hands-on activities to provide a well-rounded education for the
students. Locke was right on his approach to combining physical education with
mental study as evidenced by the physical education programs that have been
added to the American school system.

• Spencer
Spencer on Education
By: CHARLES W. ELIOT (2016)
THE four essays on education which Herbert Spencer published in a single
volume in 1861 were all written and separately published between 1854 and 1859.
Their tone was aggressive and their proposals revolutionary; although all the
doctrines—with one important exception—had already been vigorously preached by
earlier writers on education, as Spencer himself was at pains to point out. The
doctrine which was comparatively new ran through all four essays; but was most
amply stated in the essay first published in 1859 under the title “What Knowledge is
of Most Worth?” In this essay Spencer divided the leading kinds of human activity
into those which minister to self-preservation, those which secure the necessaries of
life, those whose end is the care of offspring, those which make good citizens, and
those which prepare adults to enjoy nature, literature, and the fine arts; and he then
maintained that in each of these several classes, knowledge of science was worth
more than any other knowledge. He argued that everywhere throughout creation
faculties are developed through the performance of the appropriate functions; so that
it would be contrary to the whole harmony of nature “if one kind of culture were
needed for the gaining of information, and another kind were needed as a mental
gymnastic.” He then maintained that the sciences are superior in all respects to
languages as educational material; they train the memory better, and a superior kind
of memory; they cultivate the judgment, and they impart an admirable moral and
religious discipline. He concluded that “for discipline, as well as for guidance, science
is of chiefest value. In all its effects, learning the meaning of things is better than
learning the meaning of words.” He answered the question “what knowledge is of
most worth?” with the one word—science.
This doctrine was extremely repulsive to the established profession of
education in England, where Latin, Greek, and mathematics had been the staples of
education for many generations, and were believed to afford the only suitable
preparation for the learned professions, public life, and cultivated society. In
proclaiming this doctrine with ample illustration, ingenious argument, and forcible
reiteration, Spencer was a true educational pioneer, although some of his scientific
contemporaries were really preaching similar doctrines, each in his own field.
The profession of teaching has long been characterised by certain habitual
convictions, which Spencer undertook to shake rudely, and even to deride. The first
of these convictions is that all education, physical, intellectual, and moral, must be
authoritative, and need take no account of the natural wishes, tendencies, and
motives of the ignorant and undeveloped child. The second dominating conviction is

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

that to teach means to tell, or show, children what they ought to see, believe, and
utter. Expositions by the teacher and books are therefore the true means of
education. The third and supreme conviction is that the method of education which
produced the teacher himself and the contemporary or earlier scholars, authors, and
publicists, must be the righteous and sufficient method. Its fruits demonstrate its
soundness, and make it sacred. Herbert Spencer, in the essays included in the
present volume, assaulted all three of these firm convictions. Accordingly, the ideas
on education which he put forth more than fifty years ago have penetrated
educational practice very slowly—particularly in England; but they are now coming to
prevail in most civilised countries, and they will prevail more and more. Through him,
the thoughts on education of Comenius, Montaigne, Locke, Milton, Rousseau,
Pestalozzi, and other noted writers on this neglected subject are at last winning their
way into practice, with the modifications or adaptations which the immense gains of
the human race in knowledge and power since the nineteenth century opened have
shown to be wise.
For teachers and educational administrators it is interesting to observe the
steps by which Spencer’s doctrines—and especially his doctrine of the supreme
value of science—have advanced towards acceptance in practice. In general, the
advance has been brought about through the indirect effects of the enormous
industrial, social, and political changes of the last fifty years. The first practical step
was the introduction of laboratory teaching of one or more of the sciences into the
secondary schools and colleges. Chemistry and physics were the commonest
subjects selected. These two subjects had been taught from books even earlier; but
memorising science out of books is far less useful as training than memorising
grammars and vocabularies. The characteristic discipline of science can be imparted
only through the laboratory method. The schoolmasters and college faculties who
took this step by no means admitted Spencer’s contention that science should be the
universal staple at all stages of child development. On the contrary, they believed, as
most people do to-day, that the mind of the young child cannot grasp the processes
and generalisations of science, and that science is no more universally fitted to
develop mental power than the classics or mathematics. Indeed, experience during
the past fifty years seems to have proved that fewer minds are naturally inclined to
scientific study than to linguistic or historical study; so that if some science is to be
learnt by everybody, the amount of such study should be limited to acquiring in one
or two sciences knowledge of the scientific method in general. So much scientific
training is indeed universally desirable; because good training of the senses to
observe accurately is universally desirable, and the collecting, comparing, and
grouping of many facts teach orderliness in thinking, and lead up to something which
Spencer valued highly in education—“a rational explanation of phenomena.”
Science having obtained a foothold in secondary schools and colleges, an
adequate development of science-teaching resulted from the introduction of options
or elections for the pupils among numerous different courses, in place of a
curriculum prescribed for all. The elaborate teaching of many sciences was thus
introduced. The pupil or student saw and recorded for himself; used books only as
helps and guides in seeing, recording, and generalising; proceeded from the known
to the unknown; and in short, made numerous applications of the doctrines which
pervade all Spencer’s writings on education. In the United States these methods
were introduced earlier and have been carried farther than in England; but within the

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

last few years the changes made in education have been more extensive and rapid
in England than in any other country;—witness the announcements of the new high
schools and the re-organised grammar schools, of such colleges as South
Kensington, Armstrong, King’s, the University College (London), and Goldsmiths’,
and of the new municipal universities such as Victoria, Bristol, Sheffield,
Birmingham, Liverpool, and Leeds. The new technical schools also illustrate the
advent of instruction in applied science as an important element in advanced
education. Such institutions as the Seafield Park Engineering College, the City
Guilds of London Institute, the City of London College, and the Battersea Polytechnic
are instances of the same development. Some endowed institutions for girls illustrate
the same tendencies, as, for example, the Bedford College for Women and the
Royal Holloway College. All these institutions teach sciences in considerable variety,
and in the way that Spencer advocated,—not so much because they have distinctly
accepted his views, as because modern industrial and social conditions compel the
preparation in science of young people destined for various occupations and
services indispensable to modern society. The method of the preparation is
essentially that which he advocated.
Spencer’s propositions to the effect that the study of science was desirable for
artisans, artists, and, in general, for people who were to get their livings through
various skills of hand and eye, were received with great incredulity, not to say
derision—particularly when he maintained that some knowledge of the theory which
underlies an art was desirable for manual practitioners of the art; but the changes of
the last fifty years in the practice of the arts and trades may be said to have
demonstrated that his views were thoroughly sound. The applications of science in
the arts and trades have been so numerous and productive, that widespread training
in science has become indispensable to any nation which means to excel in the
manufacturing industries, whether of large scale or small scale. The extraordinary
popularity of evening schools and correspondence schools in the United States rests
on the need which young people employed in the various industries of the country
feel of obtaining more theoretical knowledge about the physical or chemical
processes through which they are earning a livelihood. The Young Men’s Christian
Associations in the American cities have become great centres of evening instruction
for just such young persons. The correspondence schools are teaching hundreds of
thousands of young people at work in machine-shops, mills, mines, and factories,
who believe that they can advance themselves in their several occupations by
supplementing their elementary education with correspondence courses, taken while
they are at work earning a livelihood in industries that rest ultimately on applications
of science.
Spencer’s objection to the constant exercise of authority and compulsion in
schools, families, and the State is felt to-day much more widely than it was in 1858,
when he wrote his essay on moral education. His proposal that children should be
allowed to suffer the natural consequences of their foolish or wrong acts does not
seem to the present generation—any more than it did to him—to be applicable to
very young children, who need protection from the undue severity of many natural
penalties; but the soundness of his general doctrine that it is the true function of
parents and teachers to see that children habitually experience the normal
consequences of their conduct, without putting artificial consequences in place of
them, now commands the assent of most persons whose minds have been freed

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

from the theological dogmas of original sin and total depravity. Spencer did not
expect the immediate adoption of this principle; because society as a whole was not
yet humane enough. He admitted that the uncontrollable child of ill-controlled adults
might sometimes have to be scolded or beaten, and that these barbarous methods
might be “perhaps the best preparation such children can have for the barbarous
society in which they are presently to play a part.” He hoped, however, that the
civilised members of society would by and by spontaneously use milder measures;
and this hope has been realised in good degree, with the result that happiness in
childhood is much commoner and more constant than it used to be. Parents and
teachers are beginning to realise that self-control is a prime object in moral
education, and that this self-control cannot be practised under a regime of constant
supervision, unexplained commands, and painful punishments, but must be gained
in freedom. Some large-scale experience with American secondary schools which
prepare boys for admission to college has been edifying in this respect. The
American colleges, as a rule, do not undertake to exercise much supervision over
their students, but leave them free to regulate their own lives in regard to both work
and play. Now it is the boys who come from the secondary schools where the closest
supervision is maintained that are in most danger of falling into evil ways when they
first go to college.
Spencer put very forcibly a valuable doctrine for which many earlier writers on
the theory of education had failed to get a hearing—the doctrine, namely, that all
instruction should be pleasurable and interesting. Fifty years ago almost all teachers
believed that it was impossible to make school-work interesting, or life-work either;
so that the child must be forced to grind without pleasure, in preparation for life’s
grind; and the forcing was to be done by experience of the teacher’s displeasure and
the infliction of pain. Through the slow effects of Spencer’s teaching and of the
experience of practical teachers who have demonstrated that instruction can be
made pleasurable, and that the very hardest work is done by interested pupils
because they are interested, it has gradually come to pass that his heresy has
become the prevailing judgment among sensible and humane teachers. The
experience of many adults, hard at work in the modern industrial, commercial, and
financial world, has taught them that human beings can make their intensest
application only to problems in which they are personally interested for one reason or
another, and that freemen work much harder than slaves, because they feel within
themselves strong motives for exertion which slaves cannot possibly feel. So, many
intelligent adults, including many parents and teachers, have come to believe it
possible that children will learn to do hard work, both in school and in after life,
through the free play of interior motives which appeal to them, and prompt them to
persistent exertion.
The justice of Spencer’s views about training through pleasurable sensation
and achievement in freedom rather than through uninterested work and pain inflicted
by despotic government, is well illustrated by the recent improvements in the
discipline of reformatories for boys and girls and young men and women. It has been
demonstrated that the only useful reformatories are those which diminish the
criminal’s liberty of action as little as possible, require him to perform productive
labour, educate him for a trade or other useful occupation, and offer him the reward
of an abridgment of sentence in return for industry and self-control. Repression and
compulsion under penalties however severe fail to reform, and often make bad moral

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conditions worse. Instruction, as much freedom as is consistent with the safety of

society, and an appeal to the ordinary motives of emulation, satisfaction in
achievement, and the desire to win credit, can, and do, reform.
Many schools, both public and private, have now adopted—in most cases
unconsciously—many of Spencer’s more detailed suggestions. The laboratory
method of instruction, for example, now common for scientific subjects in good
schools, is an application of his doctrines of concrete illustration, training in the
accurate use of the senses, and subordination of book-work. Many schools realise,
too, that learning by heart and, in general, memorising from books are not the only
means of storing the mind of a child. They should make parts of a sound education,
but should not be used to the exclusion of learning through eye, ear, and hand.
Spencer pointed out with much elaboration that children acquire in their early years a
vast amount of information exclusively through the incessant use of their senses. To-
day teachers know this fact, and realise much better than the teachers of fifty years
ago did, that all through the school and college period the pupils should be getting a
large part of their new knowledge through the careful application of their own powers
of observation, aided, indeed, by books and pictures which record the observations,
old and new, of other people. The young human being, unlike the puppy or the kitten,
is not confined to the use of his own senses as sources of information and discovery;
but can enjoy the fruits of a prodigious width and depth of observation acquired by
preceding generations and adult members of his own generation. A recent illustration
of this extension of the method of observation in teaching to observations made by
other people is the new method of giving moral instruction to school children through
photographs of actual scenes which illustrate both good morals and bad, the
exhibition of the photographs being accompanied by a running oral comment from
the teacher. In this kind of moral instruction it seems to be possible to interest all
kinds of children, both civilised and barbarous, both ill-bred and well-bred. The
teaching comes through the eye, for the children themselves observe intently the
pictures which the lantern throws on the screen; but the striking scenes thus put
before them probably lie in most instances quite outside the region of their own
experiences.
The essay on “What Knowledge is of Most Worth?” contains a hot
denunciation of that kind of information which in most schools used to usurp the
name of history. It is enough to say of this part of Spencer’s educational doctrine that
all the best historical writers since the middle of the nineteenth century seem to have
adopted the principles which he declared should govern the writing of history. As a
result, the teaching of history in schools and colleges has undergone a profound
change. It now deals with the nature and action of government, central, local, and
ecclesiastical, with social observances, industrial systems, and the customs which
regulate popular life, out-of-doors and indoors. It depicts also the intellectual
condition of the nation and the progress it has made in applied science, the fine arts,
and legislation, and includes descriptions of the peoples’ food, shelters, and
amusements. To this result many authors and teachers have contributed; but
Spencer’s violent denunciation of history as it was taught in his time has greatly
promoted this important reform.
Many twentieth - century teachers are sure to put in practice Spencer’s
exhortation to teach children to draw with pen and pencil, and to use paints and
brush. He maintained that the common omission of drawing as an important element

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in the training of children was in contempt of some of the most obvious of nature’s
suggestions with regard to the natural development of human faculties; and the
better recent practice in some English and American schools verifies his statement;
nevertheless some of the best secondary schools in both countries still fail to
recognise drawing and painting as important elements in liberal education.
Modern society as yet hardly approaches the putting into effective practice of
the sound views which Spencer set forth with great detail in his essay on “Physical
Education.” The instruction given in schools and colleges on the care of the body
and the laws of health is still very meagre; and in certain subjects of the utmost
importance no instruction whatever is given, as, for example, in the normal methods
of reproduction in plants and animals, in eugenics, and in the ruinous consequences
of disregarding sexual purity and honour. In one respect his fundamental doctrine of
freedom, carried into the domain of physical exercise, has been extensively adopted
in England, on the Continent, and in America. He taught that although gymnastics,
military drill, and formal exercises of the limbs are better than nothing, they can
never serve in place of the plays prompted by nature. He maintained that “for girls as
well as boys the sportive activities to which the instincts impel are essential to bodily
welfare.” This principle is now being carried into practice not only for school-children,
but for operatives in factories, clerks, and other young persons whose occupations
are sedentary and monotonous. For all such persons, free plays are vastly better
than formal exercises of any sort.
The wide adoption of Spencer’s educational ideas has had to await the advent
of the new educational administration and the new public interest therein. It awaited
the coming of the state university in the United States and of the city university in
England, the establishment of numerous technical schools, the profound
modifications made in grammar schools and academies, and the multiplication in
both countries of the secondary schools called high schools. In other words, his
ideas gradually gained admission to a vast number of new institutions of education,
which were created and maintained because both the governments and the nations
felt a new sense of responsibility for the training of the future generations. These
new agencies have been created in great variety, and the introduction of Spencer’s
ideas has been much facilitated by this variety. These institutions were national,
state, or municipal. They were tax-supported or endowed. They charged tuition fees,
or were open to competent children or adults without fee. They undertook to meet
alike the needs of the individual and the needs of the community; and this
undertaking involved the introduction of many new subjects of instruction and many
new methods. Through their variety they could be sympathetic with both
individualism and collectivism. The variety of instruction offered is best illustrated in
the strongest American universities, some of which are tax-supported and some
endowed. These universities maintain a great variety of courses of instruction in
subjects none of which was taught with the faintest approach to adequacy in
American universities sixty years ago; but in making these extensions the
universities have not found it necessary to reduce the instruction offered in the
classics and mathematics. The traditional cultural studies are still provided; but they
represent only one programme among many, and no one is compelled to follow it.
The domination of the classics is at an end; but any student who prefers the
traditional path to culture, or whose parents choose that path for him, will find in
several American universities much richer provisions of classical instruction than any

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university in the country offered sixty years ago. The present proposals to widen the
influence of Oxford University do not mean, therefore, that the classics, history, and
philosophy are to be taught less there, but only that other subjects are to be taught
more, and that a greater number and variety of young men will be prepared there for
the service of the nation.
The new public interest in education as a necessary of modern industrial and
political life has gradually brought about a great increase in the proportional number
of young men and women whose education is prolonged beyond the period of
primary or elementary instruction; and this multitude of young people is preparing for
a great variety of callings, many of which are new within sixty years, having been
brought into being by the extraordinary advances of applied science. The advent of
these new callings has favoured the spread of Spencer’s educational ideas. The
recent agitation in favour of what is called vocational training is a vivid illustration of
the wide acceptance of his arguments. Even the farmers, their farmhands, and their
children must nowadays be offered free instruction in agriculture; because the public,
and especially the urban public, believes that by disseminating better methods of
tillage, better seed, and appropriate manures, the yield of the farms can be improved
in quality and multiplied in quantity. In regard to all material interests, the free
peoples are acting on the principle that science is the knowledge of most worth.
Spencer’s doctrine of natural consequences in place of artificial penalties, his view
that all young people should be taught how to be wise parents and good citizens,
and his advocacy of instruction in public and private hygiene, lie at the roots of many
of the philanthropic and reformatory movements of the day.
On the whole, Herbert Spencer has been fortunate among educational
philosophers. He has not had to wait so long for the acceptance of his teachings as
Comenius, Montaigne, or Rousseau waited. His ideas have been floated on a
prodigious tide of industrial and social change, which necessarily involved wide-
spread and profound educational reform.
This introduction deals with Spencer’s four essays on education; but in the
present volume are included three other famous essays written by him during the
same period (1854-59) which produced the essays on education. All three are
germane to the educational essays, because they deal with the general law of
human progress, with the genesis of that science which Spencer thought to be the
knowledge of most worth, and with the origin and function of music, a subject which
he maintained should play an important part in any scheme of education.

• John Dewey

John Dewey Theory

BY: BEN JANSE (2019)
Source: https://www.toolshero.com/change-management/john-dewey-theory/
This article provides a practical explanation of the John Dewey theory. After
reading, you’ll understand the basics of this powerful change management tool.
What Is the John Dewey Theory?
John Dewey is one of the big names in the history of educational theories.
John Dewey was influential in countless fields and had lots of ideas concerning

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educational reform. His collection of views, philosophies and radically different ideas
on education have been combined in the John Dewey theory.
In many countries, the modern educational system looks the way it does thanks to
John Dewey. His approach to schooling was revolutionary for his time and proves to
be fundamentally important for modern education to this day. John Dewey probably
gained the most publicity thanks to his role in the studies into progressive
education. Progressive education in essence is a vision of education that
emphasises the necessity of learning by doing. According to the John Dewey theory,
people learn best through a hands-on approach. As a result, the philosophies and
views of John Dewey are placed in the educational philosophy of pragmatism.
John Dewey and other pragmatists are convinced that students or other persons
who are learning must experience reality as it is. From John Dewey’s educational
point of view, this means that students must adapt to their environment in order to
learn. The John Dewey theory shows that the great thinker had the same ideas
about teachers. His view of the ideal classroom had many similarities with
democratic ideals. Dewey posits that it isn’t just the student who learns, but rather
the experience of students and teachers together that yields extra value for both.

Reformation of the Educational System

Children learn better when they interact with their environment and are involved in
the school’s learning plan, according to John Dewey. He rejected most of the
theories that were popular at the time, such as behaviourism, and dismissed these
as being too simplistic and insufficiently complex to describe learning processes. In
those days, at the end of the 20th century, it was assumed by many people that
children were passive recipients of knowledge. The John Dewey theory, however,
directly opposes this.
Dewey argued that education can only truly be effective when children have learning
opportunities that enable them to link current knowledge to prior experiences and
knowledge. This was a ground-breaking idea in those days. Particularly the part
related to experience learning, where children come into contact with their
environment, was revolutionary.
Educational Experiment John Dewey
The above shows that John Dewey was a great advocate of progressive educational
reform. He was convinced that the educational system was flawed and that it should
focus on learning by doing. He and his wife Harriet therefore started their own
experimental primary school: the University Elementary School. It was part of
the University of Chicago, and the goal was to test his own theories. His wife was
fired however, as a result of which Dewey resigned.
Over 25 years later, in 1919, Dewey founded The New School for Social Research in
collaboration with his colleagues Charles Beard, James Harvey Robinson and
Wesley Slair Mitchell. This too was a progressive, experimental school that
encouraged the free exchange of ideas in the field of arts and social sciences.
His revolutionary ideas soon bore fruit. In the twenties of the previous century,
Dewey gave a lecture on educational reform in schools all over the world. He was
very impressed by experiments in the Russian school system. This taught him that
students particularly had to focus on interactions with the present. The John Dewey
theory, however, doesn’t reject the value of learning about the past.
John Dewey Theory Applied in the Classroom

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Particularly in those days, between the two world wars, it was common that desks
were set up in rows in the classroom and the students wouldn’t leave their chair all
day. This was what John Dewey meant with the fact that children were viewed as
passive recipients of knowledge. They really had no say in the learning process
whatsoever and they certainly couldn’t indicate whether they liked to learn more on a
specific subject. John Dewey was also very clear about how things could be
improved. These ideas are no longer radical today, but at the beginning of the
previous century, his view of education clashed with the policy and view of most
schools.
Interdisciplinary Curriculum
The John Dewey theory recommends an interdisciplinary curriculum, or a curriculum
that focuses on connecting multiple subjects where students can freely walk in and
out of classrooms. In this way, they pursue their own interests, and build their own
method for acquiring and applying specific knowledge.
In this setting, the teacher has a facilitating role. According to John Dewey, the
teacher should observe the student’s interests, follow the directions, and help them
develop problem-solving skills.
As stated, it was common in those days that the teacher stood in front of the group of
students and provided information all day long. The students’ task was to absorb the
information and test this in the form of an exam or other written test. John Dewey’s
ideal describes an entirely different function of the teacher. According to Dewey, the
teacher should only provide background information and have the students work
together in groups on the concept. This should start conversation and discussion,
and give rise to valuable collaboration. Although the written exam would continue to
play an important role, particularly presentations, projects and other evaluation
techniques are used to keep track of the progress.

John Dewey’s Theories of Education

By W. F. Warde (George Novack)

October 20, 1959 marked the one-hundredth anniversary of John

Dewey’s birthday. This eminent thinker of the Progressive movement was
the dominant figure in American education. His most valuable and
enduring contribution to our culture came from the ideas and methods he
fathered in this field.

Dewey won a greater international following for his educational reforms

than for his instrumentalist philosophy. Between the two World Wars,
where previously backward countries were obliged to catch up quickly
with the most modern methods, as in Turkey, Japan, China, the Soviet
Union and Latin America, the reshapers of the educational system turned
toward Dewey’s innovations for guidance.

Most broadly considered, Dewey’s work consummated the trends in

education below the university level initiated by pioneer pedagogues
animated by the impulses of the bourgeois-democratic revolution. This
was especially clear in his views on child education which built on ideas

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first brought forward by Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel in Western

Europe and by kindred reformers in the United States.

In its course of development on a world scale the democratic movement

forced consideration of the needs and claims of one section of the
oppressed after another. Out of the general cause of “rights of the
people” there sprouted specific demands voicing the grievances of
peasants, wage workers, the religiously persecuted, slaves, women,
paupers, the aged, the disabled, prisoners, the insane, the racially
oppressed.

The movement to reform child education must be viewed in this historical

context. Children as such are not usually included among the oppressed.
Yet they necessarily compose one of the weakest, most dependent and
defenseless sections of the population. Each generation of children is not
only helped but hindered and hurt by the elders who exercise direct
control over them.

Just as society may deny satisfaction to the physical, educational and

cultural needs of the young, so their parents and guardians may slight or
ignore their rights. Most adults cannot be held individually culpable for
such misdeeds; they, too, have been shaped by the society around them
and are goaded by its necessities. Through them and others around them
the rising generation suffers from the inadequacies of their social
inheritance and the evils of their surroundings. Growing children are
normally unaware of the remoter social causes of their misfortunes and
miseries; even their elders may not know about them. So they direct their
resentments, as well as focus their affections, upon the members of their
immediate circle. The novels of the past 150 years provide plenty of
pathetic tales and tragic descriptions of family conflicts at all age levels.

Children cannot formulate their grievances collectively, or conduct

organized struggle for improvements in their conditions of life and mode
of education. Apart from individual explosions of protest, they must be
helped by spokesmen among adults who are sensitive to the troubles of
the young and are resolved to do something about remedying them.

However, the impulsion for educational reform does not come in the first
place from any abstract recognition of the deprivations suffered by the
young. It arises from reactions to widespread changes in the conditions of
life which affect all age groups. Their new situation forces both parents
and children to seek new ways of satisfying the new demands thrust
upon them. The child brought up in a tenement or an apartment in
crowded city streets has different needs and faces more complex and
perplexing problems than the child on a family farm. The families who
have migrated from Puerto Rico to Manhattan since the end of the
Second World War can testify to this.

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The problems of readjustment differ somewhat according to the child’s

social status. The class structure quickly impresses its stamp upon the
plastic personality, conditioning and regulating the relations between the
sexes, the rich and the poor, the upper, middle and lower classes. This
determines both the characteristics of the educational system and of the
children tutored and trained under it.

Each broad struggle against antiquated social and political conditions

since the French Revolution has evoked demands for the reconstruction
of the educational system. The kindergarten and child-play movement
now incorporated in our public schools was part and parcel of the ferment
created by the French Revolution. Thomas Jefferson first called for
national free public schools to defend and extend the newly won
American democracy. The utopian socialists, in accord with their
understanding that people were the products of their social environment,
gave much thought to the upbringing of children and introduced many
now accepted educational innovations.

The communist colony in New Harmony, Indiana, founded by Robert

Owen in 1826, pioneered a pattern in free, equal, comprehensive and
secular education that had yet to be realized throughout this country over
a century later. From the age of two the children were cared for and
instructed by the community. The youngest spent the day in play school
until they progressed to higher classes. There the Greek and Latin
classics were discarded; practice in various crafts constituted an
essential part of the program. The teachers aimed to impart what the
children could most readily understand, making use of concrete objects
and avoiding premature abstractions. They banished fear and all artificial
rewards and punishments and appealed instead to the spontaneous
interest and inclinations of the children as incentives for learning. Girls
were on an equal footing with boys.

The educational reformers of the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries

dealt with the two distinct aspects of children’s problems. One concerned
the claims of childhood as a specific and independent stage in human
growth. This perennial problem arises from the efforts of adults to subject
growing children to ends foreign to their own needs and to press them
into molds shaped, not by the requirements of the maturing personality,
but by the external interests of the ruling order. Rousseau had protested
against this when he wrote:

“Nature wants children to be children before they are men . . . Childhood

has ways of seeing, thinking, and feeling, peculiar to itself, nothing can be
more foolish than to substitute our ways for them.“

The other involved efforts to reshape the obsolete system of schooling to

make it fit the revolutionary changes in social life. These two problems
were closely connected. The play school, for example, was devised not

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only to care for the specific needs of very young children but also to meet
new needs which

had grown out of the transformations in the family affected by industrial

and urban conditions; it was no longer a unit of production as in feudal
and colonial times but became more and more simply a center of
consumption.

Dewey’s theories blended attention to the child as an individual with

rights and claims of his own with a recognition of the gulf between an
outdated and class-distorted educational setup inherited from the past
and the urgent requirements of the new era.

The educational system had to be thoroughly overhauled, he said,

because of the deep-going changes in American civilization. Under
colonial, agrarian, small-town life, the child took part in household,
community and productive activities which spontaneously fostered
capacities for self-direction, discipline, leadership and independent
judgment. Such worthwhile qualities were discouraged and stunted by the
new industrialized, urbanized, atomized conditions which had
disintegrated the family and weakened the influence of religion.

In the city the training of children became one-sided and distorted

because intellectual activities were dissociated from practical everyday
occupations. Dewey wrote:

“While the child of bygone days was getting an intellectual discipline

whose significance he appreciated in the school, in his home life he was
securing acquaintance in a direct fashion with the chief lines of social and
industrial activity. Life was in the main rural. The child came into contact
with the scenes of nature, and was familiarized with the care of domestic
animals, the cultivation of the soil, and the raising of crops. The factory
system being undeveloped, the house was the center of industry.
Spinning, weaving, the making of clothes, etc., were all carried on there”.

“As there was little accumulation of wealth,” Dewey continued, “the child
had to take part in these, as well as to participate in the usual round of
household occupations. Only those who have passed through such
training, [as Dewey himself did in Vermont], and, later on, have seen
children raised in city environments, can adequately realize the amount of
training, mental and moral, involved in this extra-school life ... It was not
only an adequate substitute for what we now term manual training, in the
development of hand and eye, in the acquisition of skill and deftness; but
it was initiation into self-reliance, independence of judgment and action,
and was the best stimulus to habits of regular and continuous work.“

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“In the urban and suburban life of the child of today this is simply
memory,” he went on to point out. “The invention of machinery, the
institution of the factory system, the division of labor, have changed the
home from a workshop into a simple dwelling place. The crowding into
cities and the increase of servants [!] have deprived the child of an
opportunity to take part in those occupations which still remain. Just at
the time when a child is subjected to a great increase in stimulus and
pressure from his environment, he loses the practical and motor training
necessary to balance his intellectual development. Facility in acquiring
information is gained; the power of using it is lost. While need of the more
formal intellectual training in school has decreased, there arises an
urgent demand for the introduction of methods of manual and industrial
discipline which shall give the child what he formerly obtained in his home
and social life. The old schooling had to be renovated for still another
reason. The curriculum and mode of colonial education had been largely
shaped by medieval concepts and aims. The schools were controlled by
the clergy and access to them was restricted to the favored few, the
wealthy and well born. The teacher tyrannized over the classroom,
imposing a schematic routine upon a passive, obedient, well-drilled
student body.

In The School and Society Dewey pointed out how haphazardly the
existing school organization had grown up. It was composed of oddly
assorted and poorly fitting parts, fashioned in different centuries and
designed to serve different needs and even conflicting social interests.

The crown of the system, the university, had come down from medieval
times and was originally intended to cater to the aristocracy and train an
elite for such professions as law, theology and medicine. The high school
dated from the nineteenth century when it was instituted to care for the
demands from commerce and industry for better-trained personnel. The
grammar school was inherited from the eighteenth century when it was
felt that boys ought to have the minimum ability to read, write and
calculate before being turned out to shift for themselves. The
kindergarten was a later addition arising from the breakup of the family
and the home by the industrial revolution.

A variety of specialized institutions had sprung up alongside this official

hierarchy of education. The normal or teachers’ training school produced
the teachers demanded by the expansion of public education in the
nineteenth century. The trade and technical school turned out skilled
craftsmen needed for industry and construction.

Thus the various parts of our educational system ranged from institutions
of feudal formation like the university to such offshoots of industrial
capitalism as the trade school. But no single consistent principle or
purpose of organization unified the whole.

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Dewey sought to supply that unifying pattern by applying the principles

and practices of democracy, as he interpreted them, consistently
throughout the educational system. First, the schools would be freely
available to all from kindergarten to college. Second, the children would
themselves carry on the educational process, aided and guided by the
teacher. Third, they would be trained to behave cooperatively, sharing
with and caring for one another. Then these creative, well-adjusted
equalitarians would make over American society in their own image.

In this way the opposition between the old education and the new
conditions of life would be overcome. The progressive influences
radiating from the schools would stimulate and fortify the building of a
democratic order of free and equal citizens.

The new school system envisaged by Dewey was to take over the
functions and compensate for the losses sustained by the crumbling of
the old institutions clustered around the farm economy, the family, the
church and the small town. “The school,” he wrote, “must be made into a
social center capable of participating in the daily life of the community . . .
and make up in part to the child for the decay of dogmatic and fixed
methods of social discipline and for the loss of reverence and the
influence of authority.” Children were to get from the public school
whatever was missing in their lives elsewhere that was essential for their
balanced development as members of a democratic country.

He therefore urged that manual training, science, nature-study, art and

similar subjects be given precedence over reading, writing and arithmetic
(the traditional three R’s) in the primary curriculum. The problems raised
by the exercise of the child’s motor powers in constructive work would
lead naturally, he said, into learning the more abstract, intellectual
branches of knowledge.

Although Dewey asserted that activities involving the energetic side of the
child’s nature should take first place in primary education, he objected to
early specialized training or technical segregation in the public schools
which was dictated, not by the individual needs or personal preferences
of the growing youth, but by external interests.

The question of how soon vocational training should begin had been
under debate in educational circles since the days of Benjamin Franklin.
The immigrants, working and middle classes regarded education, not as
an adornment or a passport to aristocratic culture, but as indispensable
equipment to earn a better living and rise in the social scale. They
especially valued those subjects which were conducive to success in
business. During the nineteenth century private business colleges were
set up in the cities to teach the mathematics, bookkeeping, stenography
and knowledge of English required for business offices. Mechanics
institutes were established to provide skilled manpower for industry.

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These demands of capitalist enterprise invaded the school system and

posed the question of how soon children were to be segregated to
become suitable recruits for the merchant princes and captains of
industry. One of the early nineteenth century promoters of free public
education, Horace Mann, appealed both to the self-interest of the people
and to the cupidity of the industrialists for support of his cause on the
ground that elementary education alone could properly prepare the youth
for work in the field, shop or office and would increase the value of labor.
“Education has a market value; that it is so far an article of merchandise,
that it can be turned to pecuniary account; it may be minted, and will yield
a larger amount of statutable coin than common bullion,” he said.

Dewey, following his co-educator, Francis Parker, rejected so

commercial-minded an approach to elementary education. They opposed
slotting children prematurely into grooves of capitalist manufacture. The
business of education is more than education for the sake of business,
they declared. They saw in too-early specialization the menace of
uniformity and the source of a new division into a master and a subject
class.

Education should give every child the chance to grow up spontaneously,

harmoniously and all-sidedly. “Instead of trying to split schools into two
kinds, one of a trade type for children whom it is assumed are to be
employees and one of a liberal type for the children of the well-to-do, it
will aim at such a reorganization of existing schools as will give all pupils
a genuine respect for useful work, an ability to render service, and a
contempt for social parasites whether they are called tramps or leaders of
’society.’ “Such a definition did not please those who looked upon
themselves as preordained to the command posts of the social system.

Each stage of child development, as Gesell’s experiments and

conclusions have proved, has its own dominant needs, problems, modes
of behavior and reasoning. These special traits required their own
methods of teaching and learning which had to provide the basis for the
educational curriculum.

The kindergarten was the first consciously to adopt the methods of

instruction adapted to a particular age group. Dewey extended this
approach from pre-school age to primary and secondary schooling. Each
grade ought to be child-centered, not externally oriented, he taught. “The
actual interests of the child must be discovered if the significance and
worth of his life is to be taken into account and full development
achieved. Each subject must fulfill present needs of growing children . . .
The business of education is not, for the presumable usefulness of his
future, to rob the child of the intrinsic joy of childhood involved in living
each single day,” he insisted.

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Children must not be treated as miniature adults or merely as means for

ministering to adult needs, now or later. They had their own rights.
Childhood was as much a period of consummation and of enjoyment of
life on its own terms as it was a prelude to later life. The first should not
be sacrificed to the second on penalty of wronging the child, robbing him
of his just due and twisting his personality development.

Socially desirable qualities could not be brought forth in the child by

pouring a ready-made curriculum into a passive vessel. They could be
most easily and fully developed by guiding the normal motor activities,
irrepressible inquisitiveness and outgoing energies of the child along the
lines of their greatest interest.

Interest, not outside pressure, mobilizes the maximum effort in acquiring

knowledge as well as in performing work. The authoritarian teacher, the
cut-and-dried curriculum, the uniform procession from one grade to the
next and the traditional fixed seats and desks laid out in rows within the
isolated and self-contained classroom were all impediments to
enlightened education. Whenever the occasion warranted, children
should be permitted to go outdoors and enter the everyday life of their
community instead of being shut up in a classroom “where each pupil sits
at a screwed down desk and studies the same part of some lesson from
the same textbook at the same time.” The child could freely realize his
capacities only in an unobstructed environment.

The child learns best through direct personal experience. In the primary
stage of education these experiences should revolve around games and
occupations analogous to the activities through which mankind satisfies
its basic material needs for food, clothing, shelter and protection. The city
child is far removed from the processes of production: food comes from
the store in cans and packages, clothing is made in distant factories, and
water comes from the faucet.

The school has to give children, not only an insight into the social
importance of such activities, but above all the opportunities to practice
them in play form. This leads naturally into the problem or “project
method” which has come to be identified with the essence of the
progressive procedure.

Children soak up knowledge and retain it for use when they are
spontaneously induced to look into matters of compelling interest to
themselves. They progress fastest in learning, not through being
mechanically drilled in prefabricated material, but by doing work,
experimenting with things, changing them in purposive ways.

Occasionally children need to be alone and on their own. But in the main
they will learn more by doing things together. By choosing what their
group would like to do, planning their work, helping one another do it,

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trying out various ways and means of performing the tasks, involved and
discovering what will forward the project, comparing and appraising the
results, the youngsters would best develop their latent powers, their skill,
understanding, self-reliance and cooperative habits.

The questions and answers arising from such joint enterprises would
expand the child’s horizon by linking his immediate activities with the
larger life of the community. Small children of six or seven who take up
weaving, for example, can be stimulated to inquire into the cultivation of
cotton, its processes of manufacture, the history of spinning devices.
Such lines of inquiry emerging from their own interests and occupations
would open windows upon the past, introduce them naturally to history,
geography, science and invention, and establish vivid connections
between what they are doing in school and the basic activities of human
existence.

Participation in meaningful projects, learning by doing, encouraging

problems and solving them, not only facilitates the acquisition and
retention of knowledge but fosters the right character traits:
unselfishness, helpfulness, critical intelligence, individual initiative, etc.
Learning is more than assimilating; it is the development of habits which
enable the growing person to deal effectively and most intelligently with
his environment. And where that environment is in rapid flux, as in
modern society, the elasticity which promotes readjustment to what is
new is the most necessary of habits.

Dewey aimed to integrate the school with society, and the processes of
learning with the actual problems of life, by a thoroughgoing application of
the principles and practices of democracy. The school system would be
open to all on a completely free and equal basis without any restrictions
or segregation on account of color, race, creed, national origin, sex or
social status. Group activity under self-direction and self-government
would make the classroom a miniature republic where equality and
consideration for all would prevail.

This type of education would have the most beneficial social

consequences. It would tend to erase unjust distinctions and prejudices.
It would equip children with the qualities and capacities required to cope
with the problems of a fast-changing world. It would produce alert,
balanced, critical-minded individuals who would continue to grow in
intellectual and moral stature after graduation.

The Progressive Education Association, inspired by Dewey’s ideas, later

codified his doctrines as follows:

1. The conduct of the pupils shall be governed by themselves, according

to the social needs of the community.
2. Interest shall be the motive for all work.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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3. Teachers will inspire a desire for knowledge, and will serve as guides
in the investigations undertaken, rather than as task-masters.
4. Scientific study of each pupil’s development, physical, mental, social
and spiritual, is absolutely essential to the intelligent direction of his
development.
5. Greater attention is paid to the child’s physical needs, with greater use
of the out-of-doors.
6. Cooperation between school and home will fill all needs of the child’s
development such as music, dancing, play and other extra-curricular
activities.
7. All progressive schools will look upon their work as of the laboratory
type, giving freely to the sum of educational knowledge the results of their
experiments in child culture. These rules for education sum up the
theoretical conclusions of the reform movement begun by Colonel
Francis Parker and carried forward by Dewey at the laboratory school he
set up in 1896 with his first wife in connection with the University of
Chicago. With his instrumentalist theory of knowledge as a guide, Dewey
tried out and confirmed his new educational procedures there with
children between the ages of four and fourteen.
This work was subsequently popularized by the leading faculty members
of Teachers College in New York after Dewey transferred from Chicago
to Columbia University. From this fountainhead Dewey’s ideas filtered
throughout most of the teachers training schools and all the grades of
public instruction below the university level. His disciples organized a
John Dewey Society and the Progressive Education Association and
have published numerous books and periodicals to propagate and defend
his theories.

Dewey’s progressive ideas in education have had a curious career.

Despite the criticisms they have received from the right and from the left,
and even within Progressive circles, they have no serious rival. Today, on
the century of his birth, they are the accepted and entrenched creed on
education from Maine to California.

Yet this supremacy in the domain of educational theory has not been
matched by an equivalent reconstruction of the educational system.
Dewey’s ideas have inspired many modifications in the traditional
curriculum, in the techniques of instruction, in the pattern of school
construction. But they have not changed the basis or the essential
characteristics of the school system, and certainly not the class
stratification of American society.

Such restricted results are not a very good testimonial for the principal
product of a philosophy which demands that the merits of a theory be
tested and judged by its ability to transform a defective situation,

How is this ineffectiveness in practice to be explained? If Dewey’s

procedures, ideas and aims are so admirable—as they are—why after

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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fifty years haven’t they succeeded in accomplishing more in the spheres

of educational and social reform? Why have they fallen so far short of
expectations and even become one of the favorite targets of reaction?

• George Counts (1889–1974)

Source: https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1891/Counts-George-S-1889-
1974.html#:~:text=Counts's%20educational%20philosophy%20was%20also,than%2
0be%20isolated%20from%20it.

Sociology and Education, Social Reform, Political Activism, Contribution

Progressive educator, sociologist, and political activist, George S. Counts
challenged teachers and teacher educators to use school as a means for critiquing
and transforming the social order. Perhaps best known for his controversial
pamphlet Dare the School Build a New Social Order? (1932), Counts authored
scores of scholarly works that advanced the social study of education and
emphasized teaching as a moral and political enterprise. His work on schooling and
society continue to have relevance to contemporary dilemmas in education.
Counts was born and raised in Baldwin, Kansas. His family was Methodist and,
by his own account, imparted strong ideals of fairness and brotherhood. Counts
earned his B.A. from Baker University, the local Methodist school, in 1911 with a
degree in classical studies. After graduating, he was employed as a high school
math and science teacher, an athletic coach, and principal before beginning
postgraduate studies in education at the University of Chicago in 1913, at the age of
twenty-four. After receiving a Ph.D. degree with honors, Counts taught at Delaware
College, now the University of Delaware (1916–1917) as head of the department of
education. He taught educational sociology at Harris Teachers College in St. Louis,
Missouri (1918–1919), secondary education at the University of Washington (1919–
1920), and education at Yale University (1920–1926) and at the University of
Chicago (1926–1927). For nearly thirty years, Counts taught at Teachers College,
Columbia University in New York (1927–1956). After being required to retire at the
age of 65 from Teachers College, Counts taught at the University of Pittsburgh
(1959), Michigan State University (1960), and Southern Illinois University (1962–
1971).

Sociology and Education

Much of Counts's scholarship derives from his pioneering work in the sociology
of education. His adviser as a doctoral student at the University of Chicago was the
chairman of the department of education, psychologist Charles H. Judd.
Significantly, Counts insisted on fashioning for himself a minor in sociology and
social science at a time when professors of education wholly embraced psychology
as the mediating discipline through which to study educational practice and
problems. Although his contemporaries were fascinated with the "science of
education" and its psychological underpinnings, Counts was interested in the study

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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of social conditions and problems and their relationship to education. Heavily

influenced by Albion Small and other Chicago sociologists, Counts saw in sociology
the opportunity to examine and reshape schools by considering the impact of social
forces and varied political and social interests on educational practice. For example,
in the Selective Character of American Secondary Education (1922), Counts
demonstrated a close relationship between students' perseverance in school and
their parents' occupations. In the Social Composition of Boards of Education: A
Study in the Social Control of Public Education (1927) and School and Society in
Chicago (1928), he asserted that dominant social classes control American boards
of education and school practices respectively. Because schools were run by the
capitalist class who wielded social and economic power, Counts argued, school
practices tended towards the status quo, including the preservation of an unjust
distribution of wealth and power.
Counts's educational philosophy was also an outgrowth of John Dewey's
philosophy. Both men believed in the enormous potential of education to improve
society and that schools should reflect life rather than be isolated from it. But unlike
Dewey's Public and Its Problems, much of Counts's writing suggests a plan of action
in the use of schools to fashion a new social order.

Social Reform
From 1927 to the early 1930s Counts became fascinated with the Soviet Union
precisely for its willingness to employ schools in the inculcation of a new social order.
Although he later became disillusioned with mounting evidence of Soviet
totalitarianism and an outspoken critic of the Communist Party (he was elected as
president of the American Federation of Teachers in 1939 having run as the anti-
Communist candidate), Counts–like twenty-first century criticalists–believed that
schools always indoctrinated students. What interested Counts was the schools'
orientation: what kind of society did the schools favor and to what degree. As he put
it, the word indoctrination "does not frighten me" (1978, p. 263). This position, in
particular, later brought Counts fierce critics like Franklin Bobbit, a leader of the
social efficiency movement, who countered that the schools were not to be used as
agents of social reform.
Counts was accordingly critical of the child-centered Progressives for their
failure to articulate any conception of a good society. He chided their preoccupation
with individual growth at the expense of democratic solidarity and social justice. In
his speech to the Progressive Education Association (PEA), "Dare Progressive
Education be Progressive?" which later became the pamphlet Dare the School Build
a New Social Order?, he argued that Progressive education had "elaborated no
theory of social welfare" (1978, p. 258), and that it must "emancipate itself from the
influence of class" (p. 259).

Political Activism
Counts was also a political activist. He was chairman of the American Labor Party
(1942–1944), a founder of the Liberal Party, and a candidate for New York's city
council, lieutenant governor, and the U.S. Senate. He was president of the American
Federation of Teachers (AFT) and a member of the Commission on the Social

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Studies of the American Historical Association. He was the first editor of the
Progressive journal Social Frontier which, at its peak, boasted a circulation of 6,000,
and advocated enlisting teachers in the reconstruction of society.

Contribution
Counts's importance to and impact on American education remain a matter of
debate. His contributions to the evolving discourse on democracy and education are
evident in a great deal of his writing, specifically in his conviction that schools could
be the lever of radical social change. Highly critical of economic and social norms of
selfishness, individualism, and inattention to human suffering, Counts wanted
educators to "engage in the positive task of creating a new tradition in American life"
(1978, p.262). He wanted teachers to go beyond abstract, philosophical conceptions
of democracy and teach explicitly about power and injustice. He wanted teachers
and students to count among their primary goals the building of a better social order.

• Theodore Brameld

Theodore Burghard Hurt Brameld

The Prophet Father of the Coming World
Source:
http://www2.southeastern.edu/Academics/Faculty/nadams/educ692/Brameld.html#:~
:text=Brameld%20founded%20the%20educational%20philosophy,as%20the%20aim
%20of%20education.

Theodore Burghard Hurt Brameld (1904-1987) was a leading educational

philosopher of the 20th century. As an American educator and educational
philosopher, Brameld was best known as the founder of Social Reconstructionism. In
reaction to the realities of World War II, he recognized the potential for either human
annihilation through technology and human cruelty or the capacity to create a
beneficent society using technology and human compassion (Philosophical
Perspectives). Brameld dedicated his efforts to employing schools as agents for
social change. Brameld’s works include: Ends and Means in Education (1950),
Patterns of Educational Philosophy (1955), Philosophies of Education in Cultural
Perspective (1955), Toward a Reconstructed Philosophy of Education (1956),
Cultural Foundations of Education (1957), Education and the Emerging Age (1961),
Education as Power (1965), The Use of Explosive Ideas in Education (1965),

The Climactic Decades (1970), Patterns of Educational Philosophy (1971), The

Teacher as World Citizen (1976), and Tourism as Cultural Learning (1977). The
objective of this writing is to present a brief synopsis of Theodore Brameld’s
educational philosophy and his relevance to education.
Brameld advocated that schools be a driving force for social and political change.
He held that a system of public education that is aware of the findings of the
behavioral sciences could bring about fundamental changes in the social and
economic structure of society (The Columbia Encyclopedia). Brameld founded the
educational philosophy of Social Reconstructionism which emphasized the
addressing of social questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide

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democracy (Philosophical Perspectives). Reconstructionist educators focus on a

curriculum that emphasizes social reform as the aim of education.
In the early 1950’s, Brameld outlined the distinctive features of Social
Reconstructionism (McNeil). First, he believed in a commitment to building a new
culture in which the common people would emerge as the leaders of society.
Second, he felt that the working people should control all principal institutions and
resources if the world is to become genuinely democratic. The structure, goals, and
policies of the new order must be approved and enacted with public support. Third,
Brameld believed that the school should help the individual, not only to develop
socially, but to learn how to participate in social planning as well. The individual must
find ways to satisfy personal needs through social consensus. Fourth, he believed
learners must be convinced of the validity and urgency of change but must adhere to
democratic procedures.

Brameld believed the creation of a new social order through education would
fulfill the basic values of society and harmonize with the underlying social and
economic forces of the modern world. The child, the school, and education would be
conditioned by social and cultural forces. The teacher’s role was to convince his or
her students of the validity and urgency of the Reconstructionist solution. In order to
do this, education would have to be completely re-fashioned to meet the demands of
the present cultural crisis (Four Theories of Education).

Theodore Brameld set out to perfect the American democracy by utilizing

education and establishing goals for world unity. Specifically, he proposed a
curriculum structure which included the following: 1) a nursery school for ages 2-5
which emphasized guidance and personal development, 2) a lower elementary for
ages 6-11 which emphasized social development and related personal qualities, 3)
an upper elementary for ages 12-16 which emphasized activities and learning, and
4) a secondary school for ages 17-21 which would be equal to present day high
school and 2 years of college (Brameld). Many of his proposals such as a longer
school day; a year round school calendar; and open facilities to facilitate adult
education, recreation, and counseling are widely accepted as means of improving
the education system of today. Brameld has had a major impact on educational
thought and practice to which the effects will continue to influence the modern
culture of America for generations to come.

The Educational Theory of Theodore Burghard Hurt Brameld

Analyst: Deborah B. McKay (2014)
Source: https://www.newfoundations.com/GALLERY/Brameld.html

1. Theory of Value:
What knowledge and skills are worth learning? What are the goals of education?
Theodore Brameld believed that the goal of education was to employ schools as
agents for social change. He is the founder of the educational philosophy of Social
Reconstructionism whichemphasized addressing social questions and a quest to
create a better society and worldwidedemocracy (Haindel, page 1). The knowledge
and skills that are worth learning include science,economics, mathematics, human

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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relations, arts, religion and politics as these areas can teachpeople to reason.
Education As Power means education competent and strong enough to enableus,
the majority of people, to decide what kind of a world we want and how to achieve
that kind ofworld (Brameld, page 9). Only the power of education is capable of
controlling the other powersthat man has gained and will use either for his
annihilation or for his transformation (Brameld,page 1).
2. Theory of Knowledge:
What is knowledge? How is it different from belief? What is a mistake? What is a lie?
Knowledge is virtue and our civilization will fail if power and virtue are not balanced.
It is different from belief since Brameld believed that people could be taught
toreason. With education as the core and creation of culture, the world can save
itself fromdestruction by choosing to reason accordingly. A mistake would be
construed as "man's inabilityto solve the crises in favor of a reconstructed and higher
equilibrium" (Brameld, page 20). A lie is man's inability to face the consequences of
his actions.

3. Theory of Human Nature:

What is a human being? How does it differ from other species?
What are the limits of human potential?Human beings have become emotionally ill
as the mores and values of society have changed and aloss of equilibrium has
occurred. Man has the ability to build a better society, however, throughbringing this
issue of values into a clearer focus. Human beings have the ability to analyse
critically what is wrong with the values that we have been holding and then to decide
about the values that we should be holding. It is ultimately man's decision whether
the power that isacquired be used for good or evil purposes since man does have
the capacity to destroy itself.

4. Theory of Learning:
What is learning? How are skills and knowledge acquired?
Learning is acquired through a cultural context. Students learn through participation
in a democraticprocess, which includes a problem-based context and cooperative
investigation. For example, as students discover and learn history and the context of
the past and present cultural and societalenvironments and analyze the data, then
students are able to make better decisions to affect thegreater good of mankind.
Skills and knowledge are acquired as continual interaction betweencommunity and
school occurs.

5. Theory of Transmission:
Who should teach? By what methods? What will the curriculum be?
Teachers should help young people learn how the scientific method applies, not just
to physics,chemistry or biology, but to the whole of life, including personal and social
life (Brameld, page 53).
In addition, teachers should help students to understand themselves as well as their
relationship toothers. Teaching, however, should not be limited to teachers. In the
Floodwood Project, "students met two or three times each week with the instructor
acting as chairman to exchange information andquestions, listen to guest experts
and plan the schedule ahead" (Thompson, page 266).

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The methods of instruction should include: group research, reports, analysis of

current issues, reading, guestspeakers, small group discussion, field trips, essay
writing, students refonnulating ideas and providingstrategies for implementation.
Curriculum should be designed around contemporary social life rather than
academic disciplines and should be whatever is going to help a culture to evolve,
change and problem solve.

6. Theory of Society:
What is society? What institutions are involved in the education process?
Education as power means that we, the teachers, the students and the parents, are
the only ones whoshould control education-control it for our own good ends and by
our own good means (Brameld,page 8). He believed in a commitment to building a
new culture in which the common people wouldemerge as the leaders of society
(Haindel, page 1).
In addition to these stakeholders, there are otherinstitutions that should be involved
in the educational process. In the Floodwood Project, this is clearly seen: A wide
range of pamphlets and books from more that 40 organizations were collectedfor
classroom use. They included publications issued by the National Association of
Manufacturers,the Cooperative League, the Congress of Industrial Organizations,
and federal new Deal Agenciesm(Thompson, page 270).

7. Theory of Opportunity
Who is to be educated?
Education is the right and responsibility of each person. The average student must
be educated to thelimits of his ability-above all, his ability both to understand and
serve the prevailing power struggleon his own level. We see our fundamental goals
as a world civilization and an educational system which in all ways support human
dignity for all races,castes, and classes; self-realization; and the fullest vocational,
civic, and social cooperative and service (Brameld, 1965).

8. Theory of Consensus
Why do people disagree? How is Consensus achieved? Whose opinion takes
precedence?
American philosophers have disagreed with one another a great deal in the area of
consensus since different ideals have different meaning for different people. The
bottom line, though, is that eachand every human being has the right to'have their
basic needs satisfied and to have the opportunityfor self-actualization. Brameld
contended that social consensus is the basis of meaningful socialaction (Thompson,
page 277). The individual must find ways to satisfy personal needs through social
consensus (Haindel, page 1). Ultimately, the good of mankind must take
precedence.

• Paulo Freire

Paulo Freire (1921–1997)

Source: https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1998/Freire-Paulo-1921-
1997.html

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Conceptual Tools, Philosophy of Education, Criticism

Paulo Reglus Neves Freire was a Brazilian educator whose revolutionary

pedagogical theory influenced educational and social movements throughout the
world and whose philosophical writings influenced academic disciplines that include
theology, sociology, anthropology, applied linguistics, pedagogy, and cultural
studies. He was born to a middle-class family in Recife, in the state of Pernambuco
in the northeast of Brazil. His early work in adult literacy–the most famous being his
literacy experiments in the town of Angicos in Rio Grande do Norte–was terminated
after the military coup in 1964. That year he went into exile, during which time he
lived in Bolivia; then Chile where he worked for the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Chilean Institute for Agrarian
Reform, and where he wrote his most important work, Pedagogy of the
Oppressed (1970); Mexico; the United States where he held a brief appointment at
Harvard University's Center for Studies in Development and Social Change; and
Switzerland where he worked for the World Council of Churches as the director of
their education program. He also served as an adviser for various governments,
most notably the government of Guinea-Bissau. In 1980 he returned to Brazil to
teach and later to serve as secretary of education for Sāo Paulo. He worked as a
consultant for revolutionary governments such as the New Jewel Movement in
Grenada, the Sandinista government in Nicaragua, and the government of Julius K.
Nyerere in Tanzania. From 1985 until his death in 1997, Freire served as the
honorary president of the International Council for Adult Education. Freire's
conception of education as a deeply political project oriented toward the
transformation of society has been crucial to the education of revolutionary societies
and societies undergoing civil war, as well as established Western democracies.
Freire's work has exercised considerable influence among progressive educators in
the West, especially in the context of emerging traditions of critical pedagogy,
bilingual education, and multicultural education.

Freire's revolutionary pedagogy starts from a deep love for, and humility
before, poor and oppressed people and a respect for their "common sense," which
constitutes a knowledge no less important than the scientific knowledge of the
professional. This humility makes possible a condition of reciprocal trust and
communication between the educator, who also learns, and the student, who also
teaches. Thus, education becomes a "communion" between participants in a
dialogue characterized by a reflexive, reciprocal, and socially relevant exchange,
rather than the unilateral action of one individual agent for the benefit of the other.
Nevertheless, this does not amount to a celebration of the untrammeled core of
consciousness of the oppressed, in which the educator recedes into the background
as a mere facilitator. Freire conceived of authentic teaching as enacting a clear
authority, rather than being authoritarian. The teacher, in his conception, is not

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neutral, but intervenes in the educational situation in order to help the student to
overcome those aspects of his or her social constructs that are paralyzing, and to
learn to think critically. In a similar fashion, Freire validated and affirmed the
experiences of the oppressed without automatically legitimizing or validating their
content. All experiences–including those of the teacher–had to be interrogated in
order to lay bare their ideological assumptions and presuppositions. The benchmark
that Freire used for evaluating experiences grew out of a Christianized Marxist
humanism. From this position, Freire urged both students and teachers to unlearn
their race, class, and gender privileges and to engage in a dialogue with those
whose experiences are very different from their own. Thus, he did not uncritically
affirm student or teacher experiences but provided the conceptual tools with which to
critically interrogate them so as to minimize their politically domesticating influences.

Conceptual Tools
Banking education. Freire criticized prevailing forms of education as reducing
students to the status of passive objects to be acted upon by the teacher. In this
traditional form of education it is the job of the teacher to deposit in the minds of the
students, considered to be empty in an absolute ignorance, the bits of information
that constitute knowledge. Freire called this banking education. The goal of banking
education is to immobilize the people within existing frameworks of power by
conditioning them to accept that meaning and historical agency are the sole property
of the oppressor. Educators within the dominant culture and class fractions often
characterize the oppressed as marginal, pathological, and helpless. In the banking
model, knowledge is taken to be a gift that is bestowed upon the student by the
teacher. Freire viewed this false generosity on the part of the oppressor–which
ostensibly aims to incorporate and improve the oppressed–as a crucial means of
domination by the capitalist class. The indispensable soil of good teaching consists
of creating the pedagogical conditions for genuine dialogue, which maintains that
teachers should not impose their views on students, but neither should they
camouflage them nor drain them of political and ethical import.

Problem-posing method. Against the banking model, Freire proposed a

dialogical problem-posing method of education. In this model, the teacher and
student become co-investigators of knowledge and of the world. Instead of
suggesting to students that their situation in society has been transcendentally fixed
by nature or reason, as the banking model does, Freire's problem-posing education
invites the oppressed to explore their reality as a "problem" to be transformed. The
content of this education cannot be determined necessarily in advance, through the
expertise of the educator, but must instead arise from the lived experiences or reality
of the students. It is not the task of the educator to provide the answer to the
problems that these situations present, but to help students to achieve a form of
critical thinking (or conscientization) that will make possible an awareness of society
as mutable and potentially open to transformation. Once they are able to see the

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world as a transformable situation, rather than an unthinkable and inescapable

stasis, it becomes possible for students to imagine a new and different reality.
In order, however, to undertake this process, the oppressed must challenge their
own internalization of the oppressor. The oppressed are accustomed to thinking of
themselves as "less than." They have been conditioned to view as complete and
human only the dominating practices of the oppressor, so that to fully become
human means to simulate these practices. Against a "fear of freedom" that protects
them from a cataclysmic reorganization of their being, the oppressed in dialogue
engage in an existential process of dis-identifying with "the oppressor housed
within." This dis-identification allows them to begin the process of imagining a new
being and a new life as subjects of their own history.

Culture circle. The concrete basis for Freire's dialogical system of education is
the culture circle, in which students and coordinator together discuss generative
themes that have significance within the context of students' lives. These themes,
which are related to nature, culture, work, and relationships, are discovered through
the cooperative research of educators and students. They express, in an open rather
than propagandistic fashion, the principle contradictions that confront the students in
their world. These themes are then represented in the form of codifications (usually
visual representations) that are taken as the basis for dialogue within the circle. As
students decode these representations, they recognize them as situations in which
they themselves are involved as subjects. The process of critical consciousness
formation is initiated when students learn to read the codifications in their
situationality, rather than simply experiencing them, and this makes possible the
intervention by students in society. As the culture circle comes to recognize the need
for print literacy, the visual codifications are accompanied by words to which they
correspond. Students learn to read these words in the process of reading the
aspects of the world with which they are linked.
Although this system of codifications has been very successful in promoting
print literacy among adult students, Freire always emphasized that it should not be
approached mechanically, but rather as a process of creation and awakening of
consciousness. For Freire, it is a mistake to speak of reading as solely the decoding
of

text. Rather, reading is a process of apprehending power and causality in society

and one's location in it. Awareness of the historicity of social life makes it possible for
students to imagine its re-creation. Literacy is thus a "self-transformation producing a
stance of intervention" (Freire 1988, p. 404). Literacy programs that appropriate parts
of Freire's method while ignoring the essential politicization of the process of reading
the world as a limit situation to be overcome distort and subvert the process of
literacy education. For Freire, authentic education is always a "practice of freedom"
rather than an alienating inculcation of skills.

Philosophy of Education

Freire's philosophy of education is not a simple method but rather an organic

political consciousness. The domination of some by others must be overcome, in his

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view, so that the humanization of all can take place. Authoritarian forms of education,
in serving to reinforce the oppressors' view of the world, and their material privilege
in it, constitute an obstacle to the liberation of human beings. The means of this
liberation is a praxis, or process of action and reflection, which simultaneously
names reality and acts to change it. Freire criticized views that emphasized either
the objective or subjective aspect of social transformation, and insisted that
revolutionary change takes place precisely through the consistency of a critical
commitment in both word and deed. This dialectical unity is expressed in his
formulation, "To speak a true word is to transform the world" (Freire 1996, p. 68).
Freire's educational project was conceived in solidarity with anticapitalist and
anti-imperialist movements throughout the world. It calls upon the more privileged
educational and revolutionary leaders to commit "class suicide" and to struggle in
partnership with the oppressed. Though this appeal is firmly grounded in a Marxist
political analysis, which calls for the reconfiguring of systems of production and
distribution, Freire rejected elitist and sectarian versions of socialism in favor of a
vision of revolution from "below" based on the work of autonomous popular
organizations. Not only does Freire's project involve a material reorganization of
society, but a cultural reorganization as well. Given the history of European
imperialism, an emancipatory education of the oppressed involves a dismantling of
colonial structures and ideologies. The literacy projects he undertook in former
Portuguese colonies in Africa included an emphasis on the reaffirmation of the
people's indigenous cultures against their negation by the legacy of the metropolitan
invaders.
Freire's work constitutes a rejection of voluntarism and idealism as well as
determinism and objectivism. The originality of Freire's thought consists in his
synthesis of a number of philosophical and political traditions and his application of
them to the pedagogical encounter. Thus, the Hegelian dialectic of master and slave
informs his vision of liberation from authoritarian forms of education; the
existentialism of Jean Paul Sartre and Martin Buber makes possible his description
of the self-transformation of the oppressed into a space of radical intersubjectivity;
the historical materialism of Karl Marx influences his conception of the historicity of
social relations; his emphasis on love as a necessary precondition of authentic
education has an affinity with radical Christian liberation theology; and the anti-
imperialist revolutionism of Ernesto Che Guevara and Frantz Fanon undergird his
notion of the "oppressor housed within" as well as his commitment to a praxis of
militant anticolonialism.
Freire's pedagogy implies an important emphasis on the imagination, though
this is not an aspect that has been emphasized enough in writings about him. The
transformation of social conditions involves a rethinking of the world as a particular
world, capable of being changed. But the reframing proposed here depends upon
the power of the imagination to see outside, beyond, and against what is. More than
a cognitive or emotional potential, the human imagination, in Freire's view, is capable
of a radical and productive envisioning that exceeds the limits of the given. It is in
this capacity that everyone's humanity consists, and for this reason it can never be
the gift of the teacher to the student. Rather, educator-student and student-educator
work together to mobilize the imagination in the service of creating a vision of a new
society. It is here that Freire's notion of education as an ontological vocation for
bringing about social justice becomes most clear. For Freire, this vocation is an

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endless struggle because critical awareness itself can only be a necessary

precondition for it. Because liberation as a goal is always underburdened of a
necessary assurance that critical awareness will propel the subject into the world of
concrete praxis, the critical education must constantly be engaged in attempts to
undress social structures and formations of oppression within the social universe of
capital without a guarantee that such a struggle will bring about the desired results.

Criticism
Since its first enunciation, Freire's educational theory has been criticized from
various quarters. Naturally, conservatives who are opposed to the political horizon of
what is essentially a revolutionary project of emancipation have been quick to
condemn him as demagogic and utopian. Freire has faced criticism from the left as
well. Some Marxists have been suspicious of the Christian influences in his work and
have accused him of idealism in his view of popular consciousness. Freire has also
been criticized by feminists and others for failing to take into account the radical
differences between forms of oppression, as well as their complex and contradictory
instantiation in subjects. It has been pointed out that Freire's writing suffers from
sexism in its language and from a patriarchal notion of revolution and subjecthood,
as well as a lack of emphasis on domination based on race and ethnicity.
Postmodernists have pointed to the contradiction between Freire's sense of the
historicity and contingency of social formations versus his vision of liberation as a
universal human vocation.
Freire was always responsive to critics, and in his later work undertook a process of
self-criticism in regard to his own sexism. He also sought to develop a more nuanced
view of oppression and subjectivity as relational and discursively as well as
materially embedded. However, Freire was suspicious of postmodernists who felt
that the Marxist legacy of class struggle was obsolete and whose antiracist and
antisexist efforts at educational reform did little to alleviate–and often worked to
exacerbate–existing divisions of labor based on social relations of capitalist
exploitation. Freire's insights continue to be of crucial importance. In the very gesture
of his turning from the vaults of
official knowledge to the open space of humanity, history, and poetry–the potential
space of dialogical problem-posing education–Freire points the way for teachers and
others who would refuse their determination by the increasingly enveloping inhuman
social order. To believe in that space when it is persistently obscured, erased, or
repudiated remains the duty of truly progressive educators. Freire's work continues
to be indispensable for liberatory education, and his insights remain of value to all
who are committed to the struggle against oppression.

Paulo Freire's Educational Theory

Source: https://www.newfoundations.com/GALLERY/Freire.html

1. Theory of Value: What knowledge and skills are worthwhile learning? What are
the goals of education?
Education should raise the awareness of the students so that they become subjects,
rather than objects, of the world. This is done by teaching students to think
democratically and to continually question and make meaning from (critically view)
everything they learn.

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...our relationship with the learners demands that we respect them and demands
equally that we be aware of the concrete conditions of their world, the conditions that
shape them. To try to know the reality that our students live is a task that the
educational practice imposes on us: Without this, we have no access ' to the way
they think, so only with great difficulty can we perceive what and how they know.

... there are no themes or values of which one cannot speak, no areas in which one
must be silent. We can talk about everything, and we can give testimony about
everything.

2. Theory of Knowledge: What is knowledge? How is it different from belief? What is

a mistake? What is a lie?
Knowledge is a social construct.

... knowing is a social process, whose individual dimension, however, cannot be

forgotten or even devalued. The process of knowing, which involves the whole
conscious self, feelings, emotions, memory, affects, an epistemologically curious
mind, focused on the object, equally involves other thinking subjects, that is, others
also capable of knowing and curious. This simply means that the relationship called
"thinking" is not enclosed in a relationship "thinking subject - knowable object"
because it extends to other thinking subjects.

Freire discusses two types of knowledge, unconscious, sometimes practical

knowledge and critical, reflective or theory knowledge. Beliefs are shaped into
knowledge by discussion and critical reflection.

In the first moment, that of the experience of and in daily living, my conscious self is
exposing itself to facts, to deeds, without, nevertheless, asking itself about them,
without looking for their "reason for being." I repeat that the knowingbecause there
also is knowingthat results from these involvements is that made from pure
experience. In the second moment, in which our minds work epistemologically, the
methodological rigor with which we come closer to the object, having "distanced
ourselves" from it, that is, having objectified it, offers us another kind of knowing, a
knowing whose exactitude gives to the investigator or the thinking subject a margin
of security that does not exist in the first kind of knowing, that of common sense.

While I didn't find discussion about the meaning of the word "mistake", Paulo does
talk at length that it is wrong to accept one side of any dichotomy. Knowledge should
not be limited to logic and content, or emotions and superstitions, but should seek
the connections between understandings and feelings.

We must dare so as never to dichotomize cognition and emotion.

... does not dichotomize between commonsense knowledge and other, more
systematic, more precise knowledge, but rather, seeks a synthesis of opposites...

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One of the mistakes we often make is to dichotomize reading and writing and, even
from children's earliest steps in the practice of reading and writing, to conceive of
these processes as detached from the general process of knowing. This dichotomy
between reading and writing follows us forever, as students and as teachers.

3. Theory of Human Nature: What is a human being? How does it differ from other
species? What are the limits of human potential?

The ability of humans to plan and shape the world for their future needs is what
separates man from animals. The oppressed majority must be taught to imagine a
better way so that they can shape their future and thereby become more human.

Growing to us is something more than growing to the trees or the animals that, unlike
us, cannot take their own growth as an object of their preoccupation. For us, growing
is a process in which we can intervene. The point of decision of human growth is not
found in the species.

We are ... the only beings capable of being both the objects and the subjects of the
relationships that we weave with others and with the history that we make and that
makes and remakes us. Between us and the world, relationships can be critically,
naively, or magically perceived, but we are aware of these relationships to an extent
that does not exist between any other living being and the world.

... because we are "programmed to learn," we live, or experience, or we find

ourselves open to experience the relationship between what we inherit and what we
acquire. We become genetic-cultural beings. We are not only nature, nor are we only
culture, education, and thinking.

One can really perceive the absurdity of the authoritarianism that claims that all
these spaces belong to the educational authorities, to teachers. (This claim of
ownership is not based on adulthood, since cooks, janitors, security guards, and
cleaning staff are also adults but, because they are mere servers within school
space, that space does not belong to them any more than it belongs to students.) It
is as if learners were in the space but not with the space.
The elite naturally believe that they are better and anything else is naturally inferior.
We have a strong tendency to affirm that what is different from us is inferior. We start
from the belief that our way of being is not only good but better than that of others
who are different from us. This is intolerance. It is the irresistible preference to reject
differences. The dominant class, then, because it has the power to distinguish itself
from the dominated class, first, rejects the differences between them but, second,
does not pretend to be equal to those who are different; third, it does not intend that
those who are different shall be equal. What it wants is to maintain the differences
and keep its distance and to recognize and emphasize in practice the inferiority of
those who are dominated.

One of the challenges to progressive educators, in keeping with their choice, is not to
feel or to proceed as if they were inferior to dominant-class learners in the private
schools who arrogantly mistreat and belittle middleclass teachers. But on the other

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hand, nor should they feel superior, in the public school system, to the learners from
the slums, to the lowerclass children, to the children with no comforts, who do not eat
well, who do not "dress nicely," who do not "speak correctly," who speak with their
own syntax, semantics, and accent.

There are many things that limit the success of the oppressed majority. Non-critical
thinking (naive consciousness) is a source of many limitations. Some poor people
see no way out of their conditions.

4. Theory of Learning: What is learning? How are skills and knowledge acquired?
Freire talks about the fallacy of looking at the education system like a bank, a large
repository where students come to withdraw the knowledge they need for life.
Knowledge is not a set commodity that is passed from the teachers to the students.
Students must construct knowledge from knowledge they already possess. Teachers
must learn how the students understand the world so that the teacher understands
how the student can learn.

...teaching cannot be a process of transference of knowledge from the one teaching

to the learner. This is the mechanical transference from which results machinelike
memorization, which I have already criticized. Critical study correlates with teaching
that is equally critical, which necessarily demands a critical way of comprehending
and of realizing the reading of the word and that of the world, the reading of text and
of context.

Learning is a process where knowledge is presented to us, then shaped through

understanding, discussion and reflection.

When I understand an object, rather than memorizing the profile of the concept of
the object, I know that object, I produce the knowledge of that object. When the
reader critically achieves an understanding of the object that the author talks about,
the reader knows the meaning of the text and becomes coauthor of that meaning.
The reader then will not speak of the meaning of, the text merely as someone who
has heard about it. The reader has worked and reworked the meaning of the text;
thus, it was not there, immobilized, waiting. Here lies the difficulty and the fascination
in the act of reading.

We must be forewarned that only rarely does a text easily lend itself to the reader's
curiosity....the reading of a text is a transaction between the reader and the text,
which mediates the encounter between the reader and writer. It is a composition
between the reader and the writer in which the reader "rewrites" the text making a
determined effort not to betray the author's spirit.

Just as bricklayers require a collection of tools and instruments, without which they
cannot build up a wall, studentreaders also require fundamental instruments, without
which they cannot read or write effectively. They require dictionaries, including
etymological dictionaries, dictionaries focusing on verbs and those looking at nouns
and adjectives, philosophical dictionaries, thesauruses, and encyclopedias. They

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need comparative readings of texts, readings by different authors who deal with the
same topics but with varying degrees of language complexity.

A reader does not suddenly comprehend what is being read or studied, in a snap,
miraculously. Comprehension needs to be worked forged, by those who read and
study; as subjects of the action, they must seek to employ appropriate instruments in
order to carry out the task. For this very reason, reading and studying form a
challenging task, one requiring patience and perseverance.

...studying is a preparation for knowing; it is a patient and impatient exercise on the

part of someone whose intent is not to know it all at once but to struggle to meet the
timing of knowledge.

5. Theory of Transmission: Who is to teach? By what methods? What will the

curriculum be?
Teaching is a political process. It must be a democratic process to avoid teaching
authority dependence. The teacher must learn about (and from) the student so that
knowledge can be constructed in ways that are meaningful to the student. The
teachers must become learners and the learners must become teachers.
Only insofar as learners become thinking subjects, and recognize that they are as
much thinking subjects as are the teachers, is it possible for the learners to become
productive subjects of the meaning or knowledge of the object. It is in this dialectic
movement that teaching and learning become knowing and reknowing. The learners
gradually know what they did not yet know, and the educators reknow what they
knew before.

To think that such work can be realized when the theoretical context is separated in
such a way from the learners' concrete experiences is only possible for one who
judges that the content is taught without reference to and independently from what
the learners already know from their experiences prior to entering school.... Content
cannot be taught, except in an authoritarian, vanguardist way, as if it was a set of
things, pieces of knowledge that can be superimposed on or juxtaposed to the
conscious body of the learners. Teaching, learning, and knowing have nothing to do
with this mechanistic practice.

Educators need to know what happens in the world of the children with whom they
work. They need to know the universe of their dreams, the language with which they
skillfully defend themselves from the aggressiveness of their world, what they know
independently of the school, and how they know it.

The democratic school that we need is not one in which only the teacher teaches, in
which only the student learns, and in which the principal is the allpowerful
commander.

Teachers must have humility, coupled with love and respect for their students.
Humility helps us to understand this obvious truth: No one knows it all; no one is
ignorant of everything. We all know something; we are all ignorant of something.
Without humility, one can hardly listen with respect to those one judges to be too far

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below one's own level of competence. But the humility that enables one to listen
even to those considered less competent should not be an act of condescension or
resemble the behavior of those fulfilling a vow...

It is through hearing the learners, a task unacceptable to authoritarian educators,

that democratic teachers increasingly prepare themselves to be heard by learners.
But by listening to and so learning to talk with learners, democratic teachers teach
the learners to listen to them as well.

Another fundamental aspect related to the early experiences of novice teachers, one
that teacher training programs should pay the closest attention to if they don't
already, is teachers' preparation for "reading" a class of students as if it were a text
to be decoded, comprehended.

The novice teacher must be attentive to everything, even to the most innocent
movements on the part of the students: the restlessness of their bodies, a surprised
gaze, or a more or less aggressive reaction on the part of this or that student.

... it is not possible to be a teacher without loving one's students, even realizing that
love is not enough. It is not possible to be a teacher without loving teaching.

6. Theory of Society: What is society? What institutions are involved in the

educational process?
Freire challenges the conventional assumption that there is equal opportunity in a
democratic society. He asserts, often, that education is a political process. Schools
become tools that are used by parents, business and the community to impose their
values and beliefs. While no intentional harm is intended, this process often results
in the oppression of less privileged persons.
It is truly difficult to make a democracy. Democracy, like arty dream, is not made with
spiritual words but with reflection and practice. It is not what I say that says I am a
democrat, that I am not racist or machista but what I do. What I say must not be
contradicted by what I do. It is what I do that bespeaks my faithfulness or not to what
I say.

As one might expect, authoritarianism will at times cause children and students to
adopt rebellious positions, defiant of any limit, discipline, or authority. But it will also
lead to apathy, excessive obedience, uncritical conformity, lack of resistance against
authoritarian discourse, self-abnegation, and fear of freedom.

... there are moments in which the teacher, as the authority talks to the learners,
says what must be done, establishes limits without which the very freedom of
learners is lost in lawlessness, but these moments, in accordance with the political
options of the educator, are alternated with others in which the educator speaks with
the learner.

It doesnt hurt to repeat here the statement, still rejected by many people in spite of
its obviousness, that education is a political act.

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No one can learn tolerance in a climate of irresponsibility, which does not produce
democracy. The act of tolerating requires a climate in which limits may be
established, in which there are principles to be respected. That is why tolerance is
not coexistence with the intolerable. Under an authoritarian regime, in which
authority is abused, or a permissive one, in which freedom is not limited, one can
hardly learn tolerance. Tolerance requires respect, discipline, and ethics.

Being tolerant does not mean acquiescing to the intolerable; it does not mean
covering up disrespect; it does not mean coddling the aggressor or disguising
aggression. Tolerance is the virtue that teaches us to live with the different. It
teaches us to learn from and respect the different.

I have never said, as is sometimes believed, or even suggested that lower-class

children should not learn the so-called educated norm of the Portuguese language of
Brazil. What I have said is that the problems of language always involve ideological
questions and, along with them, questions of power.

Finally, it is important to make it clear that imagination is not an exercise for those
detached from reality, those who live in the air. On the contrary, when we imagine
something, we do it necessarily conditioned by a lack in our concrete reality. When
children imagine free and happy schools, it is because their real schools deny them
freedom and happiness.

7. Theory of Opportunity: Who is to be educated? Who is to be schooled?

Freire's entire education career is based on his desire to provide greater opportunity
for the poor and oppressed people of the world, but particularly in Brazil.
Knowing has everything to do with growing. But the knowing of dominant minorities
absolutely must not prohibit, must not asphyxiate, must not castrate the growing of
the immense dominated majorities.

Citizenship implies freedom -- to work, to eat, to dress, to wear shoes, to sleep in a

house, to support oneself and one's family, to love, to be angry, to cry, to protest, to
support, to move, to participate in this or that religion, this or that party, to educate
oneself and one's family, to swim regardless in what ocean of one's country.
Citizenship is not obtained by chance: It is a construction that, never finished,
demands we fight for it. It demands commitment, political clarity, coherence,
decision. For this reason a democratic education cannot be realized apart from an
education of and for citizenship.

8. Theory of Consensus: Why do people disagree? How is consensus achieved?

Whose opinion takes precedence?
Disagreement is normal and something to expect. Disagreement can be an impetus
to reflection and a source of growth. The problem that Freire wants to address is
when opinions and disagreements are suppressed in the name of control and
authority.
There may not be life or human existence without struggle and conflict. Conflict
shares in our conscience. Denying conflict, we ignore even the most mundane

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aspects of our vital and social experience. Trying to escape conflict, we preserve the
status quo.

None of this is easily accomplished, and I would not like to leave readers with the
impression that wanting is enough to change the world. Desire is fundamental, but it
is not enough. It is also necessary to know how to want, to learn how to want, which
implies learning how to fight politically with tactics adequate to our strategic dreams.

Historical Foundation of Education

• Education in Primitive Society

Education in primitive & earlier civilized culture

Source: http://thehistoryofeducation.blogspot.com/2007/01/education-in-primitive-
earlier.htmls

Education can be thought of as the transmission of the values and accumulated

knowledge of a society. In this sense, it is equivalent to what social scientists
term socialization or enculturation. Children—whether conceived among New
Guinea tribespeople, the Renaissance Florentines, or the middle classes of
Manhattan—are born without culture. Education is designed to guide them in
learning a culture, molding their behaviour in the ways of adulthood, and directing
them toward their eventual role in society. In the most primitive cultures, there is
often little formal learning, little of what one would ordinarily call school or classes
or teachers; instead, frequently, the entire environment and all activities are viewed
as school and classes, and many or all adults act as teachers. As societies grow
more complex, however, the quantity of knowledge to be passed on from one
generation to the next becomes more than any one person can know; and hence
there must evolve more selective and efficient means of cultural transmission. The
outcome is formal education—the school and the specialist called the teacher.

As society becomes ever more complex and schools become ever more
institutionalized, educational experience becomes less directly related to daily life,
less a matter of showing and learning in the context of the workaday world, and more
abstracted from practice, more a matter of distilling, telling, and learning things out of
context. This concentration of learning in a formal atmosphere allows children to
learn far more of their culture than they are able to do by merely observing and
imitating. As society gradually attaches more and more importance to education, it
also tries to formulate the overall objectives, content, organization, and strategies
of education. Literature becomes laden with advice on the rearing of the younger
generation. In short, there develop philosophies and theories of education.
A further discussion of educational theory can be found in the article education,
philosophy of. The teaching profession and the functions and methods of teachers
are treated in teaching, teacher education, and pedagogy.

Education in primitive and early civilized cultures

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Prehistoric and primitive cultures

The term education can be applied to primitive cultures only in the sense
of enculturation, which is the process of cultural transmission. A primitive person,
whose culture is the totality of his universe, has a relatively fixed sense of cultural
continuity and timelessness. The model of life is relatively static and absolute, and it
is transmitted from one generation to another with little deviation. As for
prehistoric education, it can only be inferred from educational practices in surviving
primitive cultures.
The purpose of primitive education is thus to guide children to becoming good
members of their tribe or band. There is a marked emphasis upon training
for citizenship, because primitive people are highly concerned with the growth of
individuals as tribal members and the thorough comprehension of their way of life
during passage from prepuberty to postpuberty.
Because of the variety in the countless thousands of primitive cultures, it is
difficult to describe any standard and uniform characteristics of
prepuberty education. Nevertheless, certain things are practiced commonly within
cultures. Children actually participate in the social processes of adult activities, and
their participatory learning is based upon what the American anthropologist Margaret
Mead has called empathy, identification, and imitation. Primitive children, before
reaching puberty, learn by doing and observing basic technical practices. Their
teachers are not strangers but, rather, their immediate community.
In contrast to the spontaneous and rather unregulated imitations in
prepuberty education, postpuberty education in some cultures is strictly
standardized and regulated. The teaching personnel may consist of fully initiated
men, often unknown to the initiate though they are his relatives in other clans.
The initiation may begin with the initiate being abruptly separated from his familial
group and sent to a secluded camp where he joins other initiates. The purpose of
this separation is to deflect the initiate's deep attachment away from his family and to
establish his emotional and social anchorage in the wider web of his culture.
The initiation “curriculum” does not usually include practical subjects. Instead,
it consists of a whole set of cultural values, tribal religion, myths, philosophy, history,
rituals, and other knowledge. Primitive people in some cultures regard the body of
knowledge constituting the initiation curriculum as most essential to their tribal
membership. Within this essential curriculum, religious instruction takes the most
prominent place.

Education in the earliest civilizations

The Old World civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and North China

The history of civilization started in the Middle East about 3000 BC, whereas the
North China civilization began about a millennium and a half later.
The Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations flourished almost simultaneously
during the first civilizational phase (3000–1500 BC). Although these civilizations
differed, they shared monumental literary achievements. The need for the
perpetuation of these highly developed civilizations made writing and
formal education indispensable.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Egypt

Egyptian culture and education were preserved and controlled chiefly by

the priests, a powerful intellectual elite in the Egyptian theocracy who also served as
the political bulwarks by preventing cultural diversity. The humanities as well as such
practical subjects as science, medicine, mathematics, and geometry were in the
hands of the priests, who taught in formal schools. Vocational skills relating to such
fields as architecture, engineering, and sculpture were generally transmitted outside
the context of formal schooling.
Egyptians developed two types of formal schools for privileged youth under
the supervision of governmental officials and priests: one for scribes and the other
for priest trainees. At the age of five, pupils entered the writing school and continued
their studies in reading and writing until the age of 16 or 17. At the age of 13 or 14,
the schoolboys were also given practical training in offices for which they were being
prepared. Priesthood training began at the temple college, which boys entered at the
age of 17, the length of training depending upon the requirements for various priestly
offices. It is not clear whether or not the practical sciences constituted a part of the
systematically organized curriculum of the temple college.
Rigid method and severe discipline were applied to achieve uniformity in
cultural transmission, since deviation from the traditional pattern of thought was
strictly prohibited. Drill and memorization were the typical methods employed. But,
as noted, Egyptians also used a work-study method in the final phase of the training
for scribes.

Mesopotamia

As a civilization contemporary with Egyptian civilization, Mesopotamia

developed education quite similar to that of its counterpart with respect to its
purpose and training. Formal education was practical and aimed to train scribes and
priests. It was extended from basic reading, writing, and religion to higher learning in
law, medicine, and astrology. Generally, youth of the upper classes were prepared to
become scribes, who ranged from copyists to librarians and teachers. The schools
for priests were said to be as numerous as temples. This indicates not only the
thoroughness but also the supremacy of priestly education. Very little is known
about higher education, but the advancement of the priestly work sheds light upon
the extensive nature of intellectual pursuit.
As in the case of Egypt, the priests in Mesopotamia dominated the intellectual
and educational domain as well as the applied. The centre of intellectual activity and
training was the library, which was usually housed in a temple under the supervision
of influential priests. Methods of teaching and learning were memorization, oral
repetition, copying of models, and individual instruction. It is believed that the exact
copying of scripts was the hardest and most strenuous and served as the test of
excellence in learning. The period of education was long and rigorous, and
discipline was harsh.

North China

In North China, the civilization of which began with the emergence of

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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the Shang era, complex educational practices were in effect at a very early date. In
fact, every important foundation of the formation of modern Chinese character was
already established, to a great extent, more than 3,000 years ago.
Chinese ancient formal education was distinguished by its markedly secular

and moral character. Its paramount purpose was to develop a sense of moral
sensitivity and duty toward people and the state. Even in the early civilizational
stage, harmonious human relations, rituals, and music formed the curriculum.
Formal colleges and schools probably antedate the Chou dynasty of the 1st
millennium BC, at least in the imperial capitals. Local states probably had less-
organized institutions, such as halls of study, village schools, and district schools.
With regard to actual methods of education, ancient Chinese learned from bamboo
books and obtained moral training and practice in rituals by word of mouth and
example. Rigid rote learning, which typified later Chinese education, seems to have
been rather condemned. Education was regarded as the process of individual
development from within.

The New World civilizations of the Maya, Aztec, and Inca

The outstanding cultural achievements of the pre-Columbian civilizations are often
compared with those of Old World civilizations. The ancient Mayan calendar, which
surpassed Europe's Julian calendar in accuracy, was, for example, a great
accomplishment demonstrating the extraordinary degree of knowledge of astronomy
and mathematics possessed by the Maya. Equally impressive are the sophistication
of the Inca's calendar and their highway construction, the development of the Maya's
complex writing system, and the magnificent temples of the Aztec. It is unfortunate
that archaeological findings and written documents hardly shed sufficient light
upon education among the Maya, Aztec, and Inca. But from available documents it
is evident that these pre-Columbian civilizations developed formal education for
training the nobility and priests. The major purposes of education were cultural
conservation, vocational training, moral and character training, and control of cultural
deviation.

The Maya

Being a highly religious culture, the Maya regarded the priesthood as one of
the most influential factors in the development of their society. The priest enjoyed
high prestige by virtue of his extensive knowledge, literate skills, and religious and
moral leadership, and high priests served as major advisers of the rulers and the
nobility. To obtain a priesthood, which was usually inherited from his father or
another close relative, the trainee had to receive rigorous education in the school,
where priests taught history, writing, methods of divining, medicine, and the calendar
system.
Character training was one of the salient features of Mayan education. The
inculcation of self-restraint, cooperative work, and moderation was highly
emphasized in various stages of socialization as well as on various occasions of
religious festivals. In order to develop self-discipline, the future priest endured a long
period of continence and abstinence, and, to develop a sense of loyalty to

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Telefax: (084)655-9591

community, he engaged in group labour.

The Aztec

Among the Aztec, cultural preservation relied heavily upon oral

transmission and rote memorization of important events, calendrical information, and
religious knowledge. Priests and noble elders, who were called conservators, were in
charge of education. Since one of the important responsibilities of the conservator
was to censor new poems and songs, he took the greatest care in teaching poetry,
particularly divine songs.
At the calmecac, the school for native learning where apprenticeship started at the
age of 10, the history of Mexico and the content of the historical codices were
systematically taught. The calmecac played the most vital role in ensuring oral
transmission of history through oratory, poetry, and music, which were employed to
make accurate memorization of events easier and to galvanize remembrance. Visual
aids, such as simple graphic representations, were used to guide recitation phases,
to sustain interest, and to increase comprehension of facts and dates.

The Inca

The Inca did not possess a written or recorded language as far as is known.
Like the Aztec, they also depended largely on oral transmission as a means of
maintaining the preservation of their culture. Inca education was divided into two
distinct categories: vocational education for common Inca and highly formalized
training for the nobility. As the Inca empire was a theocratic, imperial government
based upon agrarian collectivism, the rulers were concerned about the vocational
training of men and women in collective agriculture. Personal freedom, life, and work
were subservient to the community. At birth an individual's place in the society was
strictly ordained, and at five years of age every child was taken over by the
government, and his socialization and vocational training were supervised by
government surrogates.
Education for the nobility consisted of a four-year program that was clearly
defined in terms of the curricula and rituals. In the first year the pupils learned
the Quechua language, the language of the nobility. The second year was devoted
to the study of religion and the third year to learning about the quipus, a complex
system of knotted coloured strings or cords used for sending messages and
recording historical events. In the fourth year major attention was given to the study
of history, with additional instruction in sciences, geometry, geography, and
astronomy. The instructors were highly respected encyclopaedic scholars known
as amautas. After the completion of this education, the pupils were required to pass
a series of rigorous examinations in order to attain full status in the life of the Inca
nobility.

• Key Periods in Educational History

First Known School

Approx. 2000 BC

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Cuneiform mathematics textbooks from this time period have been discovered. This
suggests that some form of schooling may have existed in Sumer during that time.
Formal schools are also known to have existed in China during this time period.

Age of Pericles
0455 BC - 431 BC

Most Greek city-states have adopted a formal educational system. Sparta used their
educational system to train their children for effective military support. Athens,
however, stressed more intellectual and aesthetic lessons.

Development of Roman Schools

50 BC - 200 AD

The Romans were heavily influenced by the Greek education system. Many children,
after learning to read and write, attended a school to study Latin, literature, history,
math, music, and dialectics. These Latin schools are very similar to secondary
schools in the 20th century.

The Dark Ages

400 - 1000

During this period, the common people were politically and religiously oppressed,
which stunted the ability for the population to grow and innovate intellectually as the
Greeks and Romans previously had. Although formal education was not an option
for most people, certain people in the church and in wealthy families were able to
receive education and make small advances.

Thomas Aquinas
1225 - 1274

During the medieval times, most people were taught by Catholic priests, many of
whom were corrupt. Through his works as a theologian, Thomas Aquinas helped to
change the churches view on how commoners should learn and grow in knowledge.
Thomas Aquinas helped pave the way for the creation of medieval universities.

The Renaissance
Approx. 1350 - 1700

The Renaissance, which started in Italy, was a rebirth of the people's thirst for new
knowledge. The Renaissance slowly spread throughout Europe, which led to a
revival of classical learning known as "humanism."

Earliest American Colleges Established

Approx. 1630 - Approx. 1640

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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The first colonial college, Harvard, was established in 1636 to prepare ministers. A
few years later, other schools such as Yale, Princeton, Dartmouth, and Brown are
established.

John Locke
1632 - 1704

John Locke was one of the most influential Enlightenment philosophers. In 1678, he
wrote an essay titled "Concerning Human Understanding." In this essay, he
discusses his belief that at birth, our minds are a blank slate, and that we gain
knowledge through experience. His views of the mind and how people learn were
greatly influential to the US educational system.

Old Deluder Satan Act

1647

This act decreed that every town of 50 families or more needs to hire a schoolmaster
who would teach the town's children to read and write and that all towns of at least
100 families need to have a Latin grammar school teacher who would prepare
students to attend Harvard.

American Academy
1751

In 1751, Benjamin Franklin founded the American Academy, an educational

institution. Its curriculum was both classical and modern, which included lessons in
history, geography, navigation, surveying, and languages. This went on to become
the University of Pennsylvania.
http://bestcrnaschools.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/College-Hall-.jpg
State Control of Education
1791

When the 10th Amendment of the United States Constitution is passed, the
individual states gain the right to control education.

Invention of the Blackboard

1801

In 1801, James Pillans invented the blackboard when he hung a large slate on the
classroom wall.

Compulsory Education
1852

In 1524, during the Reformation, Martin Luther had advocated for compulsory
schooling so that all parishioners would be able to read the Bible. In 1852,

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Telefax: (084)655-9591

Massachusetts passed a law making education mandatory. This spread throughout

the country, and the final state to adopt it was Mississippi in 1917.

Invention of the Typewriter

1867

In 1867, Christopher Sholes invented the modern typewriter. This was later
manufactured by E. Remington & Sons in 1873.

Dewey Decimal System

1876

In 1873, the Dewey Decimal System, developed by Melvil Dewey, was patented and
published. This became the world's most used library organization/classification
system.

High School Curriculum

1892

A standardized high school curriculum was formed by the National Education

Association to establish a standard secondary school curriculum, the Committee of
Ten, recommended a curriculum that was college oriented, which laid the foundation
to high schools today.

Pencils and Paper

1900

Mass produced pencils and paper are starting to become more accessible, which
eventually replaced the school slate, and made writing easier.

First Community College

1901

In 1901, Joliet Junior College in Joliet, Illinois, opened, and became the first
community college in America.

SAT
1926

The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) was first administered in 1926. The SAT is
owned, published, and developed by the College Board, a nonprofit organization in
the United States. The test was developed to assess a student's readiness for
college.

IQ Testing
1939

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Telefax: (084)655-9591

In 1939, David Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. This
introduced "deviation IQ," which calculates scores based on how far from the
average subject's score another subject's score is. These tests are still used widely
in schools to determine students needing special needs.

First Computer
Approx. 1946 - Approx. 1956

The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC), the first vacuum-tube
computer, was built for the U.S. military by Presper Eckert and John Mauchly in the
1950s. This marked the beginning of the computer age.

Brown v. Board of Education

1954

The United States Supreme Court passes the case, Brown v. Board of Education,
which makes segregated schools illegal.

ACT
1959

In November of 1959, Everett Franklin Lindquist administered the first ACT test as as
direct competition to the SAT. The ACT has usually consisted of 4 different tests:
English, Math, Reading, and Science Reasoning. Although the SAT is the standard,
the ACT is still very popular, and is used exclusively in certain districts.

First Computer Used in School

1959

Computers were first used in New York elementary schools to teach arithmetic. This
was the beginning of a major technological revolution in education.

First African American Child to Attend All White Elementary

1960

At William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans, Ruby Bridges, a first grader,
was the first African American child to attend. She eventually became the only child
in the class, because all the white parents pulled their students out of the class.

Tinker v. Des Moines

1969

During the Vietnam War, students in the Des Moines wore black armbands in
protest. The district passed a rule prohibiting the bands, but the students argued it
infringed on their First Amendment rights. The court agreed with the students and
struck down the ban.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Handheld Calculator
1970

Serving as the predecessor to the TI-83, this first calculator was originally concerning
to teachers, as they feared it would undermine students' learning.

Scantron Grading System

1972

In 1972, the Scantron Corporation removed the need to grade multiple choice tests
by hand. The machines were free to use, but the company charged for the grading
forms.
http://dmc122011.delmar.edu/socsci/rlong/problems/scantron.jpg
Whiteboard
1990

Although the inventor of the whiteboard has been heavily debated, they first started
to gain popularity in the 90's, partly due to students having allergic reactions to the
chalkboard dust.

Higher Education Act

1998

This act was amended and reauthorized, and required institutions and states to
produce report cards about teacher education performance. This was another
attempt to unify the educational experience in the USA.

No Child Left Behind Act

2001

The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was approved by Congress and signed into
law by President George W. Bush in January of 2002. This law mandates high-
stakes student testing, holds schools accountable for the students' achievement
levels, and punishes schools that do not make adequate yearly progress toward
meeting the goals of NCLB.

Common Core
2009

The Common Core State Standards Initiatives is launched which details what K-12
students should know at the end of the year.

• The History of the Philippine Educational System

A History of the System of Education in the Philippines – Its Implication

for the Present Generation
Source: https://www.teacherph.com/history-system-education-philippines/

55
 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

In ancient Philippines, children were given the rudiments of education. Such

education was both academic and vocation. The father trained his sons to be
warriors, hunters, fishermen, miners, lumbermen and ship builders. The mother on
her part trained her daughters in cooking, gardening, serving and other household
arts.

It is said that in ancient Panay, there was a barangay school called Bothoan under
the charge of the teacher usually an old man. The subjects taught to the children in
this barangay school were reading, writing, arithmetic, use of weapons
and lubus (acquiring kinaadman or amulets).
Hence, education during that time was geared toward their needs. Because of
colonization by several foreign countries and several historical events, our education
underwent several changes although we also retained some of the ancient teachings
which are practical even during our time.

With the country’s celebration of independence in 1946, scarcely seven decades

ago, have come every aspect of educational system in line with the new status of a
new nation seeking to achieve and maintain political and economic independence
and to fashion a nation truly united out of social and cultural diversities.

Introduction of the Western or European System of Education

With the coming of Spain, the European system of education was introduced to the
archipelago. Primary schools, colleges and universities were established in our
country by the missionaries.

The principal aim of Spain in the Philippines during their regime was to make the
native Filipinos obedient and God-fearing Christians. For this reason, religion was a
compulsory subject at all levels – from the primary schools to the universities.

The first schools were the parochial schools opened by the missionaries in their
parishes. In addition to religion, the native children in these schools were taught
reading, writing, arithmetic and some vocational and practical arts subjects.

Later on, colleges for boys and girls were opened by the missionaries. These
colleges were the equivalent of our high schools today. The subjects taught to the
students included history, Latin, geography, mathematics and philosophy.

There was no co-education during the Spanish times. Boys and girls studied in
separate schools.

University education was started in the Philippines during the early part of the 17th
century. Originally, the colleges and universities were open only to the Spaniards
and those with Spanish blood (mestizos). It was only during the 19th century that
these universities began accepting native Filipinos.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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It is interesting to note that for nearly 300 years, education in the Philippines was the
primary responsibility of the Catholic Church. The missionaries established the
schools, provided the teachers and facilities and decided what should be taught. It
was only in the last half of the 19th century that the government took an active part in
promoting education in the colony. In 1863, a royal decree called for the
establishment of a public school system in the colony.

Education under the Americans

The United States had a different approach dictated by what the Americans
considered to be their principal goal in coming to the Philippines – “to educate and to
train in the science of self-government.”

Consequently, it was not surprising that the United States considered educating the
Filipinos as one of its top priorities in the Philippines. Even while US troops were
consolidating their foothold in Manila in 1898, schools were already opened in the
city. But unlike the Spaniards who neglected to propagate their language, the
Americans made it a point to teach English to the Filipinos. The American soldiers
were the first teachers of the Filipinos.

In January 1901, free primary education was provided and a school for Filipino
teachers was established. It called for the recruitment of trained teachers in America.
It abolished compulsory religious instruction.

The Americans gave bright young Filipino students opportunity to take up higher
education in American colleges and universities. These Filipinos came to be known
as “pensionados” for their education in the United States was financed by the
government in the Philippines. Hundreds of Filipino pensionados were able to study
in the US until 1928. From the ranks of these pensionados came the future civic,
business and political leaders of our country.
Hungry for education, the Filipinos flocked to public and private schools in large
numbers.

Education under the Commonwealth

Education continued to receive from the Commonwealth government the same

attention that the Americans gave it. President Quezon created the National Council
of Education in 1936 as an advisory body on educational matters. The council made
important recommendations to further improve the educational system in the
Philippines. Most of these recommendations were accepted and carried out by the
government.

Under the Commonwealth, vocational and adult education were given emphasis.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Telefax: (084)655-9591

It was also during the Commonwealth regime that an organized effort to develop a
common national language was stared in compliance with the mandate of the 1935
constitution.

To help counteract the American cultural influence among the Filipinos, President
Quezon greatly encouraged the revival of native culture as well as desirable Filipino
values.

And to help strengthen the moral fibers of the Filipinos and to foster love of country
especially among the youth, President Quezon issued his famous Code of Ethics
which was required to be taught in all schools.

In 1940, several changes were made in the Philippine educational system by virtue
of the Educational Act of 1940. Under this law, the elementary course was reduced
from 7 years to 6 years. The minimum age for admission to Grade I was raised to 7.
The school calendar was also changed so instead of the school year from June to
March, it was changed to July to April.

Education under the Japanese

Schools and churches were also used as propaganda tools of the Japanese.
Nippon-go, the Japanese language, was made a compulsory subject in all schools.
In government and private offices, classes in Nippon-go were opened to propagate
the Japanese language and culture. Japanese Catholic priests were sent to the
Philippines to help promote the idea that Japan, being an Asian country, was a friend
of all Asian people’s including the Filipinos.

The Iloilo Experiment

In 1948. Dr. Jose V. Aguilar, the Superintendent of the Iloilo school division initiated
a six year experiment with vernacular instruction in his school division. The
experiment involved seven control schools where English was used as the medium
of instruction in Grades 1 and 2 and seven experimental schools where the
vernacular, Hiligaynon, was used as the instructional medium. This was
controversial. As late as 1963, the Dean of the College of Education, Xavier
University on the island of Mindanao, observed that the vernacular instruction was
not producing maximum results. It was curtailing full instructional benefit. Instead of
narrowing the regional gaps of the country, it was widening it and was producing
dangerous trends towards regional and cultural imbalance.

Educational Thrust of the New Society and Today

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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It was assumed that the most fundamental objective of education is the development
of an individual’s potential which will simultaneously improve society. Educational
policies have been geared to the accomplishment of better manpower production
through the understanding by the students of land reform, taxation, economic
production, anti-drug and anti-pollution and conservation education. To accomplish
these goals, the value and work oriented curricula were encouraged. However, many
parents and teachers were still confused because they did not understand the
philosophy, operations, and evaluations of this innovation in education. The concept
of an average layman or teacher in the “new society” was always associated with the
advent of Martial Law. This must be redirected to a functional definition of
wholesome integration of our economic, social and moral lives for a progressive
Philippines. The direction of education as envisioned by our educators can be best
described by the following changes:

1. A relevant and flexible curriculum. Educational content is focused on the

need of society which is for sound economy. This means better knowledge in
skills and food production, conservation of natural resources, technical
knowledge in harnessing mineral deposits and less emphasis on white collar
jobs which result only in producing the “educated unemployed.”
2. Productive-coordinated technocrats. The inevitable reorganization of the
Department of Education (DepEd) was a response to these needs. For
centuries, our educational system generally operated on a system of isolation
where the Bureau of Public, Private and Vocational Education worked almost
independently and promoted secrecy and privacy instead of attaining
harmony for the good of our country.
3. A quality teacher with effective methods of teaching. To teach effectively,
the teacher must have the solid foundations in terms of educational training
from reputable institutions, update his method of teaching by reading and
attending conferences, and should have the courage of trying out various
means or ways of maximizing learner. To do this, it becomes necessary to
understand the psychology of pupils and to be able to communicate with them
in teaching-learning situations. The increase in teachers’ pay should be a
strong justification for the better policy on the recruitment and retention of
teachers.
Every time changes in our educational system occur to search for the solution for our
educational ills, some pressure groups interfere and say it is “unrealistic and
expensive,” which is not a valid reason. Courage and energy for action should be
sustained to invigorate the lives of the citizenry.
After four centuries and a half of being a colony of Spain, America and Japan, the
concern of the Filipino educators and policy makers is the Filipinization of the
Filipinos and Filipino institutions.

Education in Philippines
Source: https://www.studycountry.com/guide/PH-education.htm

The education system of the Philippines has been highly influenced by the country’s

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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colonial history. That history has included periods of Spanish, American and
Japanese rule and occupation. The most important and lasting contributions came
during America’s occupation of the country, which began in 1898. It was during that
period that English was introduced as the primary language of instruction and a
system of public education was first established—a system modeled after the United
States school system and administered by the newly established Department of
Instruction.
The United States left a lasting impression on the Philippine school system. Several
colleges and universities were founded with the goal of educating the nation’s
teachers. In 1908, the University of the Philippines was chartered, representing the
first comprehensive public university in the nation’s history.
Like the United States, the Philippine nation has an extensive and highly inclusive
system of education, including higher education. In the present day, the United
States continues to influence the Philippines education system, as many of the
country’s teachers and professors have earned advanced degrees from United
States universities.
Although the Philippine system of education has long served as a model for other
Southeast Asian countries, in recent years that system has deteriorated. This is
especially true in the more remote and poverty-stricken regions of the country. While
Manila, the capital and largest city in the Philippines, boasts a primary school
completion rate of nearly 100 percent, other areas of the country, including
Mindanao and Eastern Visayas, have a primary school completion rate of only 30
percent or less. Not surprisingly, students who hail from Philippine urban areas tend
to score much higher in subjects such as mathematics and science than students in
the more rural areas of the country.
Below we will discuss the education system of the Philippines in great detail,
including a description of both the primary and secondary education levels in the
country, as well as the systems currently in place for vocational and university
education.

Education in the Philippines: Structure

Education in the Philippines is offered through formal and non-formal systems.
Formal education typically spans 14 years and is structured in a 6+4+4 system: 6
years of primary school education, 4 years of secondary school education, and 4
years of higher education, leading to a bachelor’s degree. This is one of the shortest
terms of formal education in the world.
In the Philippines, the academic school year begins in June and concludes in March,
a period that covers a total of 40 weeks. All higher education institutions operate on
a semester system—fall semester, winter semester and an optional summer term.
Schooling is compulsory for 6 years, beginning at age 7 and culminating at age 12.
These 6 years represent a child’s primary school education.
Although English was the sole language of instruction in the Philippines form 1935 to
1987, the new constitution prescribed that both Pilipino (Tagalog) and English are
the official language of instruction and communication. After primary school,

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however, the language of instruction is almost always English, especially in the

country’s urban areas and at most of the nation’s universities.
The education system is administered and overseen by the Department of
Education, a federal department with offices in each of the country’s 13 regions.
Traditionally, the government has found it difficult to fully fund the entire education
system. Because of that, most of the money earmarked for education goes to the
country’s primary schools. Consequently, public school enrollment at the primary
level is about 90 percent, while at the secondary level enrollment typically hovers
somewhere around 75 percent.

Education in the Philippines: Primary Education

Primary school education in the Philippines spans 6 years in duration and is
compulsory for all students. This level of education is divided into a four-year
primary cycle and a two-year intermediate cycle. In the country’s public schools,
Filipino children generally begin school at age 6 or 7; however, private schools
typically start a year earlier and operate a seven-year curriculum rather than a six-
year curriculum.
At the conclusion of each school year, students are promoted from one grade level
to the next, assuming they meet the achievement standards set for that particular
grade. Students are rated in every subject four times during the school year. A
cumulative points system is typically used as the basis for promotion. To pass a
grade, students must earn at least 75 points out of 100, or seventy-five percent.
During grades one and two in the Philippines, the language of instruction is generally
the local dialect, of which there are over 170 nationally, of the region in which the
children reside. English and Pilipino are taught as second languages. From third
grade through sixth grade, or the remainder of primary education, subjects such as
mathematics and science are taught in English, with the social sciences and
humanities courses taught in Pilipino.
Once a student successfully completes each of the six grades of primary school, he
or she is awarded a certificate of graduation from the school they attended. There is
no leaving examination or entrance examination required for admission into the
nation’s public secondary schools.
The educational content of the primary school system varies from one grade and one
cycle to the next. As you’ll recall, the primary school system is divided into two
cycles:

• Primary Cycle. Four years—Grades 1-4, age 6-11

• Intermediate Cycle—Grades 5 and 6, age 11-13

There are a number of core subjects that are taught, with varying degrees of
difficulty, in all six grades of primary school. These are:

• Language Arts (Pilipino, English and Local Dialect)

• Mathematics
• Health
• Science

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In addition to the core subjects above, students in Grades 1-3 also study civics and
culture. In grades 4-6 students study music and art; physical education; home
economics and livelihood; and social studies. Values education and “good manners
and right conduct” are integrated in all learning areas.
All students in primary school are also introduced to Makabayan. According to the
Department of Education, Makabayan is a learning area that serves as a practice
environment for holistic learning; an area in which students develop a healthy
personal and national self-identity. In a perfect world, this type of construction would
consist of modes of integrative teaching that will allow students to process and
synthesize a wide variety of skills and values (cultural, vocational, aesthetic,
economic, political and ethical).

Education in the Philippines: Secondary Education

Although secondary education is not compulsory in the Philippines, it is widely
attended, particularly in the more urban areas of the country. At this level, private
schools enroll a much higher percentage of students than at the elementary level.
According to statistics from the Department of Education, roughly 45 percent of the
country’s high schools are private, enrolling about 21 percent of all secondary school
students.
At the secondary school level there are two main types of schools: the general
secondary schools, which enroll approximately 90 percent of all high school
students, and the vocational secondary school. Additionally, there are also several
schools that are deemed “Science Secondary Schools”—which enroll students who
have demonstrated a particular gift in math, science, or technology at the primary
school level. Vocational high schools in the Philippines differ from their General
Secondary School counterparts in that they place more focus on vocationally-
oriented training, the trades and practical arts.
Just as they are in primary school, secondary school students are rated four times
throughout the year. Students who fail to earn a rating of 75 percent in any given
subject must repeat that subject, although in most cases they are permitted to enter
the next grade. Once a student has completed all four years of his/her secondary
education, earning a 75 percent or better in all subjects, they are presented a
secondary school graduation certificate.
Admission to public schools is typically automatic for those students who have
successfully completed six years of primary education. However, many of the
private secondary schools in the country have competitive entrance requirements,
usually based on an entrance examination score. Entrance to the Science High
Schools is also the result of competitive examinations.
Schooling at the secondary level spans four years in duration, grades 7-10,
beginning at age 12 or 13 and culminating at age 16 or 17. The curriculum that
students are exposed to depends on the type of school they attend.
General Secondary Schools
Students in the General Secondary Schools must take and pass a wide variety of
courses. Here the curriculum consists of language or communicative arts (English

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and Pilipino), mathematics, science, technology, and social sciences (including

anthropology, Philippine history and government, economics, geography and
sociology). Students must also take youth develop training (including physical
education, health education, music, and citizen army training), practical arts
(including home economics, agriculture and fisheries, industrial arts and
entrepreneurship), values education and some electives, including subjects from
both academic and vocational pathways.
Vocational Secondary Schools
Although students who opt to study at one of the country’s vocational secondary
schools are still required to take and pass many of the same core academic
subjects, they are also exposed to a greater concentration of technical and
vocational subjects. These secondary schools tend to offer technical and vocational
instruction in one of five major fields: agriculture, fishery, trade/technical, home
industry, and non-traditional courses with a host of specializations. The types of
vocational fields offered by these vocational schools usually depend on the specific
region in which the school is located. For example, in coastal regions, fishery is one
of the most popular vocational fields offered.
During the initial two years of study at one of the nation’s vocational secondary
schools, students study a general vocational area (see above). During the third and
fourth years they must specialize in a particular discipline within that general
vocational area. For instance, a student may take two years of general trade-
technical courses, followed by two years specializing specifically in cabinet making.
All programs at vocational secondary schools contain a combination of theory and
practice courses.
Secondary Science High Schools
The Philippine Science High School System is a dedicated public system that
operates as an attached agency of the Philippine Department of Science and
Technology. In total, there are nine regional campuses, with the main campus
located in Quezon City. Students are admitted on a case-by-case basis, based on
the results of the PSHS System National Competitive Examination. Graduates of the
PSHS are bound by law to major in the pure and applied sciences, mathematics, or
engineering upon entering college.
The curriculum at the nation’s 9 Secondary Science schools is very similar to that of
the General Secondary Schools. Students follow that curriculum path closely;
however, they must also take and pass a variety of advanced courses in
mathematics and science.
Students who complete a minimum of four years of education at any one of the
country’s secondary schools typically receive a diploma, or Katibayan, from their
high school. Additionally, they are rewarded the secondary school Certificate of
Graduation (Katunayan) by the Department of Education. A Permanent Record, or
Form 137-A, listing all classes taken and grades earned, is also awarded to
graduating students.

Education in the Philippines: Higher Education

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As of this writing, there were approximately 1,621 institutions of higher education in

the Philippines, of which some 1,445 (nearly 90 percent) were in the private sector.
There are approximately 2,500,000 students who participate in higher education
each year, 66 percent of whom are enrolled in private institutions.
The public institutions of higher learning include some 112 charted state universities
and colleges, with a total of 271 satellite campuses. There are also 50 local
universities, as well as a handful of government schools whose focus is on technical,
vocational and teacher training. Five special institutions also provide training and
education in the areas of military science and national defense.
Before 1994, the overseer of all higher education institutions was the Bureau of
Higher Education, a division of the former Department of Education, Culture and
Sports. Today, however, with the passage of the Higher Education Act of 1994, an
independent government agency known as the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED) now provides the general supervision and control over all colleges and
universities in the country, both public and private. CHED regulates the founding
and/or closures of private higher education institutions, their program offerings,
curricular development, building specifications and tuition fees. Private universities
and colleges adhere to the regulations and orders of CHED, although a select few
are granted autonomy or deregulated status in recognition of their dedicated service
through quality education and research when they reach a certain level of
accreditation.
The Higher Education Act also had an impact on post-secondary vocational
education. In 1995, legislation was enacted that provided for the transfer of
supervision of all non-degree technical and vocational education programs from the
Bureau of Vocational Education, also under the control of the Department of
Education, to a new and independent agency now known as the Technical Education
and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). The establishment of TESDA has
increased emphasis on and support for non-degree vocational education programs.
Higher education institutions can apply for volunteer accreditation through CHED—a
system modeled after the regional accreditation system used in the United States.
There are four levels of accreditation:

• Level I. Gives applicant status to schools that have undergone a preliminary

survey and are capable of acquiring accredited status within two years.
• Level II. Gives full administrative deregulation and partial curricular autonomy,
including priority in funding assistance and subsidies for faculty development.
• Level III. Schools are granted full curricular deregulation, including the privilege to
offer distance education programs.
• Level IV. Universities are eligible for grants and subsidies from the Higher
Education Development Fund and are granted full autonomy from government
supervision and control.

University Education
The credit and degree structure of university education in the Philippines bears a
striking resemblance to that of the United States. Entrance into Philippine
universities and other institutions of higher education is dependent on the

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possession of a high school Certificate of Graduation and in some cases on the

results of the National Secondary Achievement Test (NSAT), or in many colleges
and universities the results of their own entrance examinations.
There are essentially three degree stages of higher education in the Philippines:
Bachelor (Batsilyer), Master (Masterado) and PhD ((Doktor sa Pilospiya).
Bachelor Degrees
Bachelor degree programs in the Philippines span a minimum of four years in
duration. The first two years are typically dedicated to the study of general education
courses (63 credits), with all classes counting towards the major the student will
undertake in the final two years. Certain bachelor degree programs take five years
rather than four years to complete, including programs in agriculture, pharmacy and
engineering.
Master Degrees
Master degrees in the Philippines typically span two years for full-time students,
culminating with a minor thesis or comprehensive examination. To qualify for a
Master’s degree, students must possess a bachelor’s degree in a related field, with
an average grade equal to or better than 2.00, 85 percent or B average. Certain
professional degrees, such as law and medicine are begun following a first bachelor
degree. These programs, however, span far beyond the normal two years of study.
PhD Degrees
PhD degrees in the Philippines, also known as a Doctor of Philosophy, involve a
great deal of coursework, as well as a dissertation that may comprise from one-fifth
to one-third of the final grade. Admission into one of the country’s PhD programs is
very selective, requiring, at minimum, a Master’s degree with a B average or better.
Most PhD programs span two to four years beyond the Master’s degree, not
counting the time it takes to complete the dissertation. Topics for dissertations must
be approved by the faculty at the university at which the student is studying.
Non-University Higher Education (Vocational and Technical)
In recent years, vocational and technical education has become very popular in the
Philippines. Technical and vocational schools and institutes offer programs in a wide
range of disciplines, including agriculture, fisheries, technical trades, technical
education, hotel and restaurant management, crafts, business studies, secretarial
studies, and interior and fashion design. Interested candidates who wish to pursue
their education at one of the country’s post-secondary vocational schools must have
at least a high school diploma and a Certificate of Graduation to qualify. Vocational
and technical programs lead to either a certificate (often entitled a Certificate of
Proficiency) or a diploma. The Philippines’ Professional Regulation Commission
regulates programs for 38 different professions and administers their respective
licensure examinations.

• The Importance of Studying History of Education

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Source:
https://oer.avu.org/handle/123456789/68#:~:text=History%20of%20Education
%20is%20of%20fundamental%20importance%20to%20a%20professional%2
0teacher.&text=When%20you%20study%20the%20past,helps%20to%20illum
inate%20the%20future.
History of education is a study of the past that focuses on educational issues. These
include education systems, institutions, theories, themes and other related
phenomena.
History of Education is of fundamental importance to a professional teacher. We
have noted that the study deals primarily with the past events and developments in
education. However, this should not be looked at in isolation. This is because the
past is closely linked to the present and the later influences the future. When you
study the past, you are able to understand the process of education and how it
evolved up to the present. In this way, the present not only becomes clear but also
helps to illuminate the future.
Note that the education arena is a broad one. It encompasses philosophical,
sociological, comparative, administrative, curricular and other issues. Each of these
may have a historical dimension or perspective.

Social Science Theories and Their Implications to Education

Structural-Functional Theory

Sociological Paradigm #1: Functionalism

Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/alamo-sociology/chapter/functionalism/

Functionalism, also called structural-functional theory, sees society as a structure

with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the
individuals in that society. Functionalism grew out of the writings of English
philosopher and biologist, Hebert Spencer (1820–1903), who saw similarities
between society and the human body; he argued that just as the various organs of
the body work together to keep the body functioning, the various parts of society
work together to keep society functioning (Spencer 1898). The parts of society that
Spencer referred to were the social institutions, or patterns of beliefs and behaviors
focused on meeting social needs, such as government, education, family,
healthcare, religion, and the economy.
Émile Durkheim, another early sociologist, applied Spencer’s theory to explain how
societies change and survive over time. Durkheim believed that society is a complex
system of interrelated and interdependent parts that work together to maintain
stability (Durkheim 1893), and that society is held together by shared values,
languages, and symbols. He believed that to study society, a sociologist must look
beyond individuals to social facts such as laws, morals, values, religious beliefs,
customs, fashion, and rituals, which all serve to govern social life. Alfred Radcliff-
Brown (1881–1955) defined the function of any recurrent activity as the part it played
in social life as a whole, and therefore the contribution it makes to social stability and
continuity (Radcliff-Brown 1952). In a healthy society, all parts work together to

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maintain stability, a state called dynamic equilibrium by later sociologists such as

Parsons (1961).
Durkheim believed that individuals may make up society, but in order to study
society, sociologists have to look beyond individuals to social facts. Social facts are
the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the
cultural rules that govern social life (Durkheim 1895). Each of these social facts
serves one or more functions within a society. For example, one function of a
society’s laws may be to protect society from violence, while another is to punish
criminal behavior, while another is to preserve public health.
Another noted structural functionalist, Robert Merton (1910–2003), pointed
out that social processes often have many functions. Manifest functions are the
consequences of a social process that are sought or anticipated, while latent
functions are the unsought consequences of a social process. A manifest function of
college education, for example, includes gaining knowledge, preparing for a career,
and finding a good job that utilizes that education. Latent functions of your college
years include meeting new people, participating in extracurricular activities, or even
finding a spouse or partner. Another latent function of education is creating a
hierarchy of employment based on the level of education attained. Latent functions
can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful. Social processes that have undesirable
consequences for the operation of society are called dysfunctions. In education,
examples of dysfunction include getting bad grades, truancy, dropping out, not
graduating, and not finding suitable employment.

One criticism of the structural-functional theory is that it can’t adequately explain

social change. Also problematic is the somewhat circular nature of this theory;
repetitive behavior patterns are assumed to have a function, yet we profess to know
that they have a function only because they are repeated. Furthermore, dysfunctions
may continue, even though they don’t serve a function, which seemingly contradicts
the basic premise of the theory. Many sociologists now believe that functionalism is
no longer useful as a macro-level theory, but that it does serve a useful purpose in
some mid-level analyses.

A GLOBAL CULTURE?

Some sociologists see the online world contributing to the creation of an emerging
global culture. Are you a part of any global communities? (Photo courtesy of
quasireversible/flickr)
Sociologists around the world look closely for signs of what would be an
unprecedented event: the emergence of a global culture. In the past, empires such
as those that existed in China, Europe, Africa, and Central and South America linked
people from many different countries, but those people rarely became part of a
common culture. They lived too far from each other, spoke different languages,
practiced different religions, and traded few goods. Today, increases in
communication, travel, and trade have made the world a much smaller place. More
and more people are able to communicate with each other instantly—wherever they
are located—by telephone, video, and text. They share movies, television shows,
music, games, and information over the Internet. Students can study with teachers

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and pupils from the other side of the globe. Governments find it harder to hide
conditions inside their countries from the rest of the world.
Sociologists research many different aspects of this potential global culture. Some
explore the dynamics involved in the social interactions of global online communities,
such as when members feel a closer kinship to other group members than to people
residing in their own countries. Other sociologists study the impact this growing
international culture has on smaller, less-powerful local cultures. Yet other
researchers explore how international markets and the outsourcing of labor impact
social inequalities. Sociology can play a key role in people’s abilities to understand
the nature of this emerging global culture and how to respond to it.

Structural Functionalism/ Consensus Theory

Source:
https://learning.uonbi.ac.ke/courses/TFD301/scormPackages/path_2/3_structural_fu
ntionalism_consensus_theory.html

Structural functionalists believe that society tends towards equilibrium and social
order. They see society like a human body, where key institutions work like the
body's organs to keep the society/body healthy and well[4]. Social health means the
same as social order, and is guaranteed when nearly everyone accepts the general
moral values of their society. Hence structural functionalists believe the purpose of
key institutions, such as education, is to socialise young members of society.
Socialisation is the process by
which the new generation learns the knowledge, attitudes and values that they will
need as productive citizens. Although this purpose is stated in the formal
curriculum[5], it is mainly achieved through "the hidden curriculum"[6], a subtler, but
nonetheless powerful, indoctrination of the norms and values of the wider society.
Students learn these values because their behaviour at school is regulated
[Durkheim in [3]] until they gradually internalise them and so accept them. Education
must, however perform another function to keep society running smoothly. As
various jobs in society become vacant, they must be filled with the appropriate
people. Therefore the other purpose of education is to sort and rank individuals for
placement in the labour market [Munro, 1997]. Those with the greatest achievement
will be trained for the most important jobs in society and in reward, be given the
highest incomes. Those who achieve the least, will be given the least demanding
jobs, and hence the least income.

According to Sennet and Cobb however, "to believe that ability alone decides who is
rewarded is to be deceived".[3] Meighan agrees, stating that large numbers of
capable students from working class backgrounds fail to achieve satisfactory
standards in school and therefore fail to obtain the status they deserve[7]. Jacob
believes this is because the middle class cultural experiences that are provided at
school may be contrary to the experiences they've had at home [8]. In other words
working class children are not adequately prepared to cope at school. They are
therefore "cooled out"[9] from school with the least qualifications, hence they get the
least desirable jobs, and so remain working class. Sargent agrees with this cycle,

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stating that schooling supports continuity, which in turn support social order.[3]
Talcott Parsons believed that this process, whereby some students were identified
and labelled educational failures, "was a necessary activity which one part of the
social system, education, performed for the whole [7]. Yet the structural functionalist
perspective maintains that this social order, this continuity, is what most people
desire[4]. The weakness of this perspective here becomes evident. Why would the
working class wish to stay the working class? Such an inconsistency demonstrates
that another perspective may be more useful in examining the issue further.

Functionalist perspective. People who employ the functionalist perspective view

society as a set of interrelated parts that work together to produce a stable social
system. According to functionalists, society is held together through consensus. In
other words, most people agree on what is best for society and work together to
ensure that the social system runs smoothly. Sociologists who adopt this perspective
follow in the tradition of Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim. Some of the topics of
interest to functional sociologists include the division of work in the family and the
functions served by education in society.

Like Durkheim, functionalists view the various elements in society in terms of their
functions their positive consequences for society. Recognizing that not everything in
society operates smoothly, functionalists also label certain elements as
dysfunctional. A dysfunction is the negative consequence an element has for the
stability of the social system. Dysfunctional elements, such as crime, disrupt society
rather than stabilize it.

In addition to being either positive or negative, functions can be either manifest or

latent. A manifest function is the intended and recognized consequence of some
element of society. A manifest function of the automobile, for example, is to provide
speedy transportation from one location to another. A latent function, on the other
hand, is the unintended and unrecognized consequence of an element of society. A
latent function of the automobile is to gain social standing through the display of
wealth.

How Consensus Theory could be applied to education.

Consensus theorists see society as an integrated system maintaining an equilibrium

with interrelated institutions. These institutions provide the rules governing
behaviours that serve to maintain a kind of equilibrium and set of common values
that bind people together.

Implications to educational practice

Consensus theory has the following implications to educational practice:

According to Consensus Theory, education will aim to produce experts in all

professions for the benefit of all members of the society for example teachers,
doctors, engineers, etc.

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Secondly, Consensus theorists suggest that selection to higher levels of education

should be based on merit, that is, it should be based on one's performance in
competitive examinations.

Further, Consensus theorists believe that the best-brained pupils are expected to
join the higher occupational/ professional jobs for the benefit of the entire society.

Based on ideas of Consensus theorists, it is assumed that those who do not do well
in school are lazy or have less intellectual abilities.

Consensus Theory is likely to support a differentiated type of education and

educational opportunities for the different categories of people. For example, having
public and private schools, high cost and low cost schools, pupils doing different
examinations like KCSE and A- level, etc.

Finally, Consensus theorists believe that education is likely to be conservative in

order to maintain the status quo and stability in the society.

o Conflict Theory

Conflict Theory
Source:https://courses.lumenlearning.com/alamo-sociology/chapter/reading-conflict-
theory-on-education/

Conflict theorists do not believe that public schools reduce social inequality. Rather,
they believe that the educational system reinforces and perpetuates social
inequalities that arise from differences in class, gender, race, and ethnicity. Where
functionalists see education as serving a beneficial role, conflict theorists view it
more negatively. To them, educational systems preserve the status quo and push
people of lower status into obedience.

Boy kicking a soccer ball on a playground toward three other boys who are caged
against a wall by a small metal goal post. The boys are crying or holding their ears.
Conflict theorists see the education system as a means by which those in power stay
in power. (Photo courtesy Thomas Ricker/flickr)

The fulfillment of one’s education is closely linked to social class. Students of low
socioeconomic status are generally not afforded the same opportunities as students
of higher status, no matter how great their academic ability or desire to learn. Picture
a student from a working-class home who wants to do well in school. On a Monday,
he’s assigned a paper that’s due Friday. Monday evening, he has to babysit his
younger sister while his divorced mother works. Tuesday and Wednesday, he works
stocking shelves after school until 10:00 p.m. By Thursday, the only day he might
have available to work on that assignment, he’s so exhausted he can’t bring himself
to start the paper. His mother, though she’d like to help him, is so tired herself that
she isn’t able to give him the encouragement or support he needs. And since English
is her second language, she has difficulty with some of his educational materials.

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They also lack a computer and printer at home, which most of his classmates have,
so they have to rely on the public library or school system for access to technology.
As this story shows, many students from working-class families have to contend with
helping out at home, contributing financially to the family, poor study environments
and a lack of support from
their families. This is a difficult match with education systems that adhere to a
traditional curriculum that is more easily understood and completed by students of
higher social classes.

Such a situation leads to social class reproduction, extensively studied by French

sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. He researched how cultural capital, or cultural
knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency that helps us navigate a culture,
alters the experiences and opportunities available to French students from different
social classes. Members of the upper and middle classes have more cultural capital
than do families of lower-class status. As a result, the educational system maintains
a cycle in which the dominant culture’s values are rewarded. Instruction and tests
cater to the dominant culture and leave others struggling to identify with values and
competencies outside their social class. For example, there has been a great deal of
discussion over what standardized tests such as the SAT truly measure. Many argue
that the tests group students by cultural ability rather than by natural intelligence.

The cycle of rewarding those who possess cultural capital is found in formal
educational curricula as well as in the hidden curriculum, which refers to the type of
nonacademic knowledge that students learn through informal learning and cultural
transmission. This hidden curriculum reinforces the positions of those with higher
cultural capital and serves to bestow status unequally.

Conflict theorists point to tracking, a formalized sorting system that places students
on “tracks” (advanced versus low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities. While
educators may believe that students do better in tracked classes because they are
with students of similar ability and may have access to more individual attention from
teachers, conflict theorists feel that tracking leads to self-fulfilling prophecies in which
students live up (or down) to teacher and societal expectations (Education Week
2004).

To conflict theorists, schools play the role of training working-class students to

accept and retain their position as lower members of society. They argue that this
role is fulfilled through the disparity of resources available to students in richer and
poorer neighborhoods as well as through testing (Lauen and Tyson 2008).

IQ tests have been attacked for being biased—for testing cultural knowledge rather
than actual intelligence. For example, a test item may ask students what instruments
belong in an orchestra. To correctly answer this question requires certain cultural
knowledge—knowledge most often held by more affluent people who typically have
more exposure to orchestral music. Though experts in testing claim that bias has
been eliminated from tests, conflict theorists maintain that this is impossible. These

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tests, to conflict theorists, are another way in which education does not provide
opportunities, but instead maintains an established configuration of power.

o Symbolic Interactionist Theory

Symbolic Interactionism
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/alamo-sociology/chapter/reading-symbolic-
interactionist-theory-on-education/

Symbolic interactionism sees education as one way that labeling theory is seen in
action. A symbolic interactionist might say that this labeling has a direct correlation to
those who are in power and those who are labeled. For example, low standardized
test scores or poor performance in a particular class often lead to a student who is
labeled as a low achiever. Such labels are difficult to “shake off,” which can create a
self-fulfilling prophecy (Merton 1968).

In his book High School Confidential, Jeremy Iverson details his experience as a
Stanford graduate posing as a student at a California high school. One of the
problems he identifies in his research is that of teachers applying labels that students
are never able to lose. One teacher told him, without knowing he was a bright
graduate of a top university that he would never amount to anything (Iverson 2006).
Iverson obviously didn’t take this teacher’s false assessment to heart. But when an
actual seventeen-year-old student hears this from a person with authority over her,
it’s no wonder that the student might begin to “live down to” that label.

The labeling with which symbolic interactionists concern themselves extends to the
very degrees that symbolize completion of education. Credentialism embodies the
emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has
attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications. These
certificates or degrees serve as a symbol of what a person has achieved, and allows
the labeling of that individual.

Indeed, as these examples show, labeling theory can significantly impact a student’s
schooling. This is easily seen in the educational setting, as teachers and more
powerful social groups within the school dole out labels that are adopted by the
entire school population.

The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Filipino Character: A Socio-Cultural Issue

Strength and Weaknesses of Filipino People

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

STRENGTHS WEAKNESS

1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao : Opening yourself 1. Extreme Personalism

to others and feel one with others with - always trying to to give personal
dignity and respect deal with them as interpretation to actions
fellow human beings. - thank you with "but" (compliment-criticism-
- sense of fairness and justice compliment)
- concern for others
- ability to empathize with others 2. Extreme Family Centeredness
- helpfulness and generosity - strong family protection good or bad
- practice of hospitality condition
- sensitive to other feelings and trust
3. Lack of Discipline : relaxed attitude but
2. Family Orientation : a genuine and poor time management
deep love for family. - impatient and unable to delay gratification or
- commitment and responsibility reward
- honor and respect - love to take short-cuts or 'palusot' system
- generosity and sacrifice - carelessness
- sense of trust and security
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative : strong
3. Joy and Humor : Filipinos have a reliance to others fate
cheerful and fun-loving approach to life - yeah proud Pinoy. It's all because of the
and its up and down, pleasant race (nationality/blood) not by persons
disposition, a sense of humor and attitude, hard-work, dream and perseverance
propensity for happiness that contribute etc.
not only to the Filipino charm but also to - very complacent (relax) but their rarely is a
the Filipino Spirit. We laugh at those we sense of urgency (It's OK we have 1 day left
love and hate. We tend to make joke to finished, just relax)
about our good and even bad fortune, to - too patient without any plan or action
smile even in the most trying of times. (matiisin) "Bahala na System" - No matter
- emotional balance and optimism what, At least we tried.
- healthy disrespect for power and office. - doubt and debate first than study, discuss
until planning and action
4. Flexibility, Adaptability and
Creativity 5. Colonial Mentality : Patriotism vs Active
awareness
5. Hard Work and Industry : capacity for - luck of love and appreciation on what they
hard work given to raise one's standard have
living of a decent life for one's family. - open outside but side-open or close inside

6. Faith and Religiosity : Faith in God - 6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome : self-serving

accepting reality to comprehend as a attitude that generates feeling of envy and
human created by God. "Pampalakas- competitiveness towards others (status vs
loob" prestige).
- personal ambition but insensitive to
7. Ability to Survive common good
- crab mentality

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

- lack of appreciation resulting unhealthy

competition
7. Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection
- Sometimes superficial and flighty

Read and Download the Powerpoint presentation found at

https://www.slideshare.net/BelindoAguilar/strengths-and-weaknesses-of-the-filipino-
character

A Moral Recovery Program: Building a People--Building a Nation

by Patricia Licuanan
Source: https://ourhappyschool.com/esp-values-education/moral-recovery-program-
building-people-building-nation-patricia-licuanan

The events at EDSA in February 1986 not only ousted a dictator, but also
demonstrated to the world and to ourselves our great strengths as a people. At
EDSA we saw courage, determination and strength of purpose; we saw unity and
concern for one another; we saw deep faith in God; and even in the grimmest
moments, there was some laughter and humor.

We were proud of ourselves at EDSA and we expected great changes after our
moment of glory. Today, sometime after, we realize that most of our problems as a
nation still remain. We may have ousted a dictator, but that was the easy part. The
task of building a nation is so much more difficult. Now, with EDSA only an inspiring
memory, we are faced with our weaknesses. Self-interest and disregard for the
common good rears its ugly head. We are confronted with our lack of discipline and
rigor, our colonial mentality, and our emphasis on porma (form). Despite our great
display of people's power, now we are passive once more, expecting our leaders to
take all responsibility for solving our many problems.

The task of building our nation is an awesome one. There is need for economic
recovery. There is need to re-establish democratic institutions and to achieve the
goals of peace and genuine social justice. Along with these goals, there is a need as

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

well to build ourselves as a people. There is need to change structures and to

change people.

Building a people means eliminating our weaknesses and developing our strengths;
this starts with the analysis, understanding, and appreciation of these strengths and
weaknesses. We must take a good look at ourselves--objectively with scientific
detachment, but also emotionally (i.e., lovingly) and, when appropriate, with disgust.
We must view ourselves as might a lover viewing a loved one but also as might a
judge capable of a harsh verdict. We must not be self-flagellating, but neither can we
afford to be defensive.

We must change, and for this understanding ourselves is the first step.

STRENGTHS OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER

Pakikipagkapwa-Tao (regard for others). Filipinos are open to others and feel one
with others. We regard others with dignity and respect, and deal with them as fellow
human beings. Pakikipagkapwa-tao is manifested in a basic sense of justice and
fairness, and in concern for others. It is demonstrated in the Filipino's ability to
empathize with others, in helpfulness and generosity in times of need (pakikiramay),
in the practice of bayanihan or mutual assistance, and in the famous Filipino
hospitality.

Filipinos possess a sensitivity to people's feelings or pakikiramdam, pagtitiwala or

trust, and a sense of gratitude or utang-na-loob. Because of pakikipagkapwa-tao,
Filipinos are very sensitive to the quality of interpersonal relationships and are very
dependent on them: if our relationships are satisfactory, we are happy and secure.

Pakikipagkapwa-tao results in camaraderie and a feeling of closeness one to

another. It helps promote unity as well a sense of social justice.

Family Orientation. Filipinos possess a genuine and deep love for the family, which
includes not simply the spouses and children, parents, and siblings, but also
grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, godparents, and other ceremonial relatives. To
the Filipino, one's family is the source of personal identity, the source of emotional
and material support, and the person's main commitment and responsibility.

Concern for family is manifested in the honor and respect given to parents and
elders, in the care given to children, the generosity towards kin in need, and in the
great sacrifices one endures for the welfare of the family. This sense of family results
in a feeling of belonging or rootedness and in a basic sense of security.

Joy and Humor. Filipinos have a cheerful and fun-loving approach to life and its ups
and downs. There is a pleasant disposition, a sense of humor, and a propensity for
happiness that contribute not only to the Filipino charm, but to the indomitability of
the filipino spirit. Laughing at ourselves and our trouble is an important coping
mechanism. Often playful, sometimes cynical, sometimes disrespectful, we laugh at
those we love and at those we hate, and make jokes about our fortune, good and
bad.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

This sense of joy and humor is manifested in the Filipino love for socials and
celebrations, in our capacity to laugh even in the most trying of times, and in the
appeal of political satire.

The result is a certain emotional balance and optimism, a healthy disrespect for
power and office, and a capacity to survive.

Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity. Filipinos have a great capacity to adjust, and
to adapt to circumstances and to the surrounding environment, both physical and
social. Unplanned or unanticipated events are never overly disturbing or disorienting
as the flexible Filipino adjusts to whatever happens. We possess a tolerance for
ambiguity that enables us to remain unfazed by uncertainty or lack of information.
We are creative, resourceful, adept at learning, and able to improvise and make use
of whatever is at hand in order to create and produce.

This quality of the Filipino is manifested in the ability to adapt to life in any part of the
world; in the ability to make new things out of scrap and to keep old machines
running; and, of course, in the creative talent manifested in the cultural sphere. It is
seen likewise in the ability to accept change.

The result is productivity, innovation, entrepreneurship, equanimity, and survival.

Hard work and Industry. Filipinos have the capacity for hard work, given proper
conditions. The desire to raise one's standard of living and to possess the essentials
of a decent life for one's family, combined with the right opportunities and incentives,
stimulate the Filipino to work very hard. This is manifested most noticeably in a
willingness to take risks with jobs abroad, and to work there at two or three jobs. The
result is productivity and entrepreneurship for some, and survival despite poverty for
others.

Faith and Religiosity. Filipinos have a deep faith in God. Innate religiosity enables us
to comprehend and genuinely accept reality in the context of God's will and plan.
Thus, tragedy and bad fortune are accepted and some optimism characterizes even
the poorest lives.
Filipinos live very intimately with religion; this is tangible--a part of everyday life. We
ascribe human traits to a supernatural God whom we alternately threaten and thank,
call upon for mercy or forgiveness, and appease by pledges. Prayer is an important
part of our lives.

The faith of the Filipino is related to bahala na, which, instead of being viewed as
defeatist resignation, may be considered positively as a reservoir of psychic energy,
an important psychological support on which we can lean during difficult times.
This pampalakas ng loob allows us to act despite uncertainty.

Our faith and daring was manifest at EDSA and at other times in our history when it
was difficult to be brave. It is seen also in the capacity to accept failure and defeat
without our self-concept being devastated since we recognize forces external to

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

ourselves as contributing to the unfolding of events in our lives.

The results of the Filipino's faith are courage, daring, optimism, inner peace, as well
as the capacity to genuinely accept tragedy and death.
Ability to Survive. Filipinos have an ability to survive which is manifested in our
capacity for endurance despite difficult times, and in our ability to get by on so little.
Filipinos make do with what is available in the environment, even, e.g., by eking out
a living from a garbage dump. This survival instinct is related to the Filipinos who
bravely carry on through the harshest economic and social circumstances.
Regretfully, one wonders what we might be able to do under better circumstances.

WEAKNESSES OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER

Extreme Personalism. Filipinos view the world in terms of personal relationships and
the extent to which one is able personally to relate to things and people determines
our recognition of their existence and the value. There is no separation between an
objective task and emotional involvement. This personalism is manifested in the
tendency to give personal interpretations to actions, i.e., to "take things personally."
Thus, a sincere question may be viewed as a challenge to one's competence or
positive feedback may be interpreted as a sign of special affection. There is, in fact,
some basis for such interpretations as Filipinos become personal in their criticism
and praise. Personalism is also manifested in the need to establish personal
relationships before any business or work relationship can be successful.

Because of this personalistic world view, Filipinos have difficulty dealing with all
forms of impersonal stimuli. For this reason one is uncomfortable with bureaucracy,
with rules and regulations, and with standard procedures--all of which tend to be
impersonal. We ignore them or we ask for exceptions.

Personal contacts are involved in any transaction and are difficult to turn down.
Preference is usually given to family and friends in hiring, delivery of services, and
even in voting. Extreme personalism thus leads to the graft and corruption evident in
Philippine society.
Extreme Family-Centeredness. While concern for the family is one of the Filipino's
greatest strengths, in the extreme it becomes a serious flaw. Excessive concern for
the family creates an in-group to which the Filipino is fiercely loyal, to the detriment
of concern for the larger community or the common good.

Excessive concern for family manifests itself in the use of one's office and power as
a means of promoting the interests of the family, in factionalism, patronage, and
political dynasties, and in the protection of erring family members. It results in lack of
concern for the common good and acts as a block to national consciousness.

Lack of Discipline. The Filipino's lack of discipline encompasses several related

characteristics. We have a casual and relaxed attitude towards time and space
which manifests itself in lack of precision and compulsiveness, in poor time
management and in procrastination. We have an aversion to following strictly a set of
procedures, which results in lack of standardization and quality control. We are
impatient and unable to delay gratification or reward, resulting in the use of short

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

cuts, skirting the rules (the palusot syndrome) and in foolhardiness. We are guilty
of ningas cogon, starting out projects with full vigor and interest which abruptly die
down, leaving things unfinished.

Our lack of discipline often results in inefficient and wasteful work systems, the
violation of rules leading to more serious transgressions, and a casual work ethic
leading to carelessness and lack of follow-through.

Passivity and Lack of Initiative. Filipinos are generally passive and lacking in
initiative. One waits to be told what has to be done. There is a strong reliance on
others, e.g., leaders and government, to do things for us. This is related to the
attitude towards authority. Filipinos have a need for a strong authority figure and feel
safer and more secure in the presence of such an authority. One is generally
submissive to those in authority, and is not likely to raise issues or to question
decisions.

Filipinos tend to be complacent and there rarely is a sense of urgency about any
problem. There is a high tolerance for inefficiency, poor service, and even violations
of one's basic rights. In many ways, it can be said that the Filipino is too patient and
long-suffering (matiisin), too easily resigned to one's fate. Filipinos are thus easily
oppressed and exploited.

Colonial Mentality. Filipinos have a colonial mentality which is made up of two

dimensions: the first is a lack of patriotism or an active awareness, appreciation, and
love of the Philippines; the second is an actual preference for things foreign.

Filipino culture is characterized by an openness to the outside--adapting and

incorporating the foreign elements into our image of ourselves. Yet this image is not
built around a deep core of Philippine history and language. The result is a cultural
vagueness or weakness that makes Filipinos extraordinarily susceptible to the
wholesome acceptance of modern mass culture which is often Western. Thus, there
is preference for foreign fashion, entertainment, lifestyles, technology, consumer
items, etc.

The Filipino colonial mentality is manifested in the alienation of the elite from their
roots and from the masses, as well as in the basic feeling of national inferiority that
makes it difficult for Filipinos to relate as equals to Westerners.

Kanya-Kanya Syndrome. Filipinos have a selfish, self-serving attitude that generates

a feeling of envy and competitiveness towards others, particularly one's peers, who
seem to have gained some status or prestige. Towards them, the Filipino
demonstrated the so-called "crab mentality", using the levelling instruments
of tsismis, intriga and unconstructive criticism to bring others down. There seems to
be a basic assumption that another's gain is our loss.
The kanya-kanya syndrome is also evident in personal ambition and drive for power
and status that is completely insensitive to the common good. Personal and in-group
interests reign supreme. This characteristic is also evident in the lack of a sense of
service among people in the government bureaucracy. The public is made to feel

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

that service from these offices and from these civil servants is an extra perk that has
to be paid for.

The kanya-kanya syndrome results in the dampening of cooperative and community

spirit and in the denial of the rights of others.

Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection. There is a tendency in the Filipino to be

superficial and even somewhat flighty. In the face of serious problems both personal
and social, there is lack of analysis or reflection. Joking about the most serious
matters prevents us from looking deeply into the problem. There is no felt need to
validate our hypotheses or explanations of things. Thus we are satisfied with
superficial explanations for, and superficial solutions to, problems.

Related to this is the Filipino emphasis on form (maporma) rather than upon
substance. There is a tendency to be satisfied with rhetoric and to substitute this for
reality. Empty rhetoric and endless words are very much part of public life. As long
as the right things are said, as long as the proper documents and reports exist, and
as long as the proper committees, task forces, or offices are formed, Filipinos are
deluded into believing that what ought to be actually exists.

The Filipino lack of self-analysis and our emphasis upon form is reinforced by an
educational system that is often more form than substance and a legal system that
tends to substitute law for reality.

THE MANY FACES OF THE FILIPINO

From this discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino, it is clear that
there is much that is good here, but there is also much that needs to be changed.
Many of our strong points are also the sources of our weakness.

As a people, we are person-oriented, and relationships with others are a very

important part of our lives. Thus, we are capable of much caring and concern for
others. On the other hand, in the extreme our person orientation leads to lack of
objectivity and a disregard for universal rules and procedures so that everyone,
regardless of our relationship with them, is treated equally. Our person orientation
leads us to be concerned for people, and yet unfair to some.

Our family orientation is both a strength and a weakness, giving us a sense of

rootedness and security, both very essential to any form of reaching out to others. At
the same time, it develops in us an in-group orientation that prevents us from
reaching out beyond the family to the larger community and the nation.

Our flexibility, adaptability and creativity is a strength that allows us to adjust to any
set of circumstances and to make the best of the situation. But this ability to "play
things by ear" leads us to compromise on the precision and discipline necessary to
accomplish many work-oriented goals.

Our sense of joy and humor serves us well in difficult times. It makes life more
pleasant, but serious problems do need serious analysis, and humor can also be

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

destructive.

Our faith in God and our religiosity are sources of strength and courage, but they
also lead to an external orientation that keeps us passive and dependent on forces
outside ourselves.

There are other contradictions in the many faces of the Filipino. We

find pakikipagkapwa-tao and the kanya-kanya mentality living comfortably together in
us. We are other-oriented and capable of great empathy; and yet we are self-
serving, envious of others, and unconstructively critical of one another.

We also find the Filipino described alternately as hardworking and lazy. Indeed we
see that we are capable of working long and hard at any job. However, our casual
work ethic as well as our basic passivity in the work setting also is apparent as we
wait for orders and instructions rather than taking the initiative.

ROOTS OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER

The strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino have their roots in many factors such
as: (1) the home environment, (2) the social environment, (3) culture and language,
(4) history, (5) the educational system, (6) religion, (7) the economic environment, (8)
the political environment, (9) mass media, and (10) leadership and role models.

The Family and Home Environment. Childbearing practices, family relations, and
family attitudes and orientation are the main components of the home environment.
Childbearing in the Filipino family is characterized by high nurturance, low
independence training, and low discipline. The Filipino child grows up in an
atmosphere of affection and over protection, where one learns security and trust, on
the one hand, and dependence, on the other. In the indulgent atmosphere of the
Filipino home, rigid standards of behavior or performance are not imposed, leading
to a lack of discipline. Attempts to maintain discipline come in the form of many
"no's" and "don'ts" and a system of criticism to keep children in line. Subtle
comparisons among siblings also are used by mothers to control their children.
These may contribute to the "crab mentality."
In a large family where we are encouraged to get along with our siblings and other
relatives, we learn pakikipagkapwa-tao. In an authoritarian setting we learn respect
for age and authority; at the same time we become passive and dependent on
authority.
In the family, children are taught to value family and to give it primary importance.

The Social Environment. The main components of the social environment are social
structures and social systems such as interpersonal religious and community
interaction. The social environment of the Filipino is characterized by a feudal
structure with great gaps between the rich minority and the poor majority. These
gaps are not merely economic but cultural as well, with the elite being highly
westernized and alienated from the masses. This feudal structure develops
dependence and passivity.

The Filipino is raised in an environment where one must depend on relationships

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

with others in order to survive. In a poor country where resources are scarce and
where the systems meant to respond to people's needs can be insensitive,
inefficient, or non-existent, the Filipino becomes very dependent on kinship and
interpersonal relationships.

Sensitivity about hurting established relationships controls our behavior. We are

restrained from making criticisms no matter how constructive, so standards of quality
are not imposed. We have difficulty saying no to requests and are pressured to favor
our family and friends. That trying to get ahead of others is not considered
acceptable exerts a strong brake upon efforts to improve our individual performance.
The struggle for survival and our dependence on relationships make us in-group
oriented.

Culture and Language. Much has been written about Filipino cultural values. Such
characteristics such as warmth and person orientation, devotion to family, and sense
of joy and humor are part of our culture and are reinforced by all socializing forces
such as the family, school, and peer group.

Filipino culture rewards such traits and corresponding behavioral patterns develop
because they make one more likable and enable life to proceed more easily.

Aside from emphasizing interpersonal values, Filipino culture is also characterized

by an openness to the outside which easily incorporates foreign elements without a
basic consciousness of our cultural core. This is related to our colonial mentality and
to the use of English as the medium of instruction in schools.

The introduction of English as the medium of education de-Filipinized the youth and
taught them to regard American culture as superior. The use of English contributes
also to a lack of self-confidence on the part of the Filipino. The fact that doing well
means using a foreign language, which foreigners inevitably can handle better, leads
to an inferiority complex. At a very early age, we find that our self-esteem depends
on the mastery of something foreign.
The use of a foreign language may also explain the Filipino's unreflectiveness and
mental laziness. Thinking in our native language, but expressing ourselves in
English, results not only in a lack of confidence, but also in a lack in our power of
expression, imprecision, and a stunted development of one's intellectual powers.
History. We are the product of our colonial history, which is regarded by many as the
culprit behind our lack of nationalism and our colonial mentality. Colonialism
developed a mind-set in the Filipino which encouraged us to think of the colonial
power as superior and more powerful. As a second-class citizen beneath the
Spanish and then the Americans, we developed a dependence on foreign powers
that makes us believe we are not responsible for our country's fate.

The American influence is more ingrained in the Philippines because the Americans
set up a public school system where we learned English and the American way of
life. Present-day media reinforce these colonial influences, and the Filipino elite sets
the example by their western ways.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Another vestige of our colonial past is our basic attitude towards the government,
which we have learned to identify as foreign and apart from us. Thus, we do not
identify with government and are distrustful and uncooperative towards it. Much time
and energy is spent trying to outsmart the government, which we have learned from
our colonial past to regard as an enemy.

The Educational System. Aside from the problems inherent in the use of a foreign
language in our educational system, the educational system leads to other problems
for us as a people. The lack of suitable local textbooks and dependence on foreign
textbooks, particularly in the higher school levels, force Filipino students as well as
their teachers to use school materials that are irrelevant to the Philippine setting.
From this comes a mind-set that things learned in school are not related to real life.

Aside from the influences of the formal curriculum, there are the influences of the
"hidden curriculum" i.e., the values taught informally by the Philippine school system.
Schools are highly authoritarian, with the teacher as the central focus. The Filipino
student is taught to be dependent on the teacher as we attempt to record verbatim
what the teacher says and to give this back during examinations in its original form
and with little processing. Teachers reward well-behaved and obedient students and
are uncomfortable with those who ask questions and express a different viewpoint.
The Filipino student learns passivity and conformity. Critical thinking is not learned in
the school.

Religion. Religion is the root of Filipino optimism and its capacity to accept life's
hardships. However, religion also instills in the Filipino attitudes of resignation and a
pre-occupation with the afterlife. We become vulnerable also to being victimized by
opportunism, oppression, exploitation, and superstition.

The Economic Environment. Many Filipino traits are rooted in the poverty and hard
life that is the lot of most Filipinos. Our difficulties drive us to take risks, impel us to
work very hard, and develop in us the ability to survive. Poverty, however, has also
become an excuse for graft and corruption, particularly among the lower rungs of the
bureaucracy. Unless things get too difficult, passivity sets in.

The Political Environment. The Philippine political environment is characterized by a

centralization of power. Political power and authority is concentrated in the hands of
the elite and the participation of most Filipinos often is limited to voting in elections.
Similarly, basic services from the government are concentrated in Manila and its
outlying towns and provinces. A great majority of Filipinos are not reached by such
basic services as water, electricity, roads, and health services. Government
structures and systems--e.g., justice and education--are often ineffective or
inefficient.

Since the government often is not there to offer basic services, we depend on our
family, kin, and neighbors for our everyday needs. The absence of government
enhances our extreme family-and even community-centeredness. We find it difficult
to identify with a nation-family, since the government is not there to symbolize or
represent the state.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Telefax: (084)655-9591

The fact that political power is still very much concentrated in the hands of a few may
lead to passivity. The inefficiency of government structures and systems also leads
to a lack of integrity and accountability in our public servants.

Mass Media. Mass media reinforces our colonial mentality. Advertisements using
Caucasian models and emphasizing a product's similarity with imported brands are
part of our daily lives.

The tendency of media to produce escapist movies, soap operas, comics, etc., feed
th Filipino's passivity. Rather than confront our poverty and oppression, we fantasize
instead. The propensity to use flashy sets, designer clothes, superstars, and
other bongga features reinforce porma.

Leadership and Role Models. Filipinos look up to their leaders as role models.
Political leaders are the main models, but all other leaders serve as role models as
well. Thus, when our leaders violate the law or show themselves to be self-serving
and driven by personal interest--when there is lack of public accountability--there is a
negative impact on the Filipino.

GOALS AND STRATEGIES FOR CHANGE

Goals. Based on the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino, the following goals
for change are proposed. The Filipino should develop:
1. a sense of patriotism and national pride--a genuine love, appreciation, and
commitment to the Philippines and things Filipino;
2. a sense of the common good--the ability to look beyond selfish interests, a sense
of justice and a sense of outrage at its violation;
3. a sense of integrity and accountability--an aversion toward graft and corruption in
society and an avoidance of the practice in one's daily life;
4. the value and habits of discipline and hard work; and
5. the value and habits of self-reflection and analysis, the internalization of spiritual
values, and an emphasis upon essence rather than on form.

General Stategic Principles. In identifying goals for change and developing our
capabilities for their achievement, it is necessary to consider certain general
principles:

1. Strategies must be multi-layered and multi-sectoral;

2. Strategies must emphasize change in the power-holders as well as in
the masa (people);
3. Strategies should be holistic, emphasizing individual as well as systemic or
structural change;
4. The change should involve a critical mass of people;
5. The goals should be divided into small pieces for implementation;
6. Strategies must be connected to the daily life of people; and
7. Strategies must be implemented by an act of the will and involve self-sacrifice.
Multi-Layered, Multi-Sectoral Strategies. A program of change must adopt strategies
that are multi-layered and multi-sectoral. These layers and sectors could consist of

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

the following: (1) the government; (2) non-governmental organizations; (3) people or
the masa; (4) the family;
(5) educational institutions; (6) religious institutions; and (7) media. Some strategies
should target all sectors of society, while other strategies should focus on particular
sectors.

Roles of Power-Holders and the Masa. To ensure that meaningful change will take
place, proposed strategies must emphasize change among power-holders or
decision-makers as much as among the masa. These power-holders and decision-
makers hold the key to structures and systems which in most cases need to be set
up first before change can take place. Unless the people on top change, it will be
difficult to expect real change. On the other hand, as the masa constitute the greater
majority of Philippine society, any program for change will have to target this critical
mass. Their active participation and support are indispensable components of our
strategies.

Holistic, Individual and Systemic/Structural Change. Our approach to change should

be holistic in that our strategies should facilitate individual as well as systemic or
structural change. Individual conversion or renewal, as manifested in changed
values, attitudes, habits and behavior, is a prerequisite to social change. However,
individual conversion or renewal needs to be complemented and reinforced by a
corresponding systemic or structural transformation. Otherwise, the effect of solely
individual renewal would be shallow and limited, especially since many systems and
structures in Philippine society themselves are the stumbling blocks to individual
renewal.

Critical Mass or Network of Change Initiators. The initiators of change should not be
a few individuals, but a critical mass or network of people highly committed to the
goals of change. Aside from initiating change, the role of the critical mass or network
of people is to follow through with persistence on the implementation of these
strategies. This prevents ningas cogon from setting in.

Restricted or "Bite-Size" Goals. Strategies for change must be worked on one goal at
a time, with everyone's effort concentrated on the goal chosen for that designated
time period. The goals must be cut up into bite-size, realistic pieces, for easier
management.

Goals Related to People's Lives. Change strategies must be connected to our daily
lives, particularly to our economic activities, businesses, professions, occupations
and jobs. Value change must likewise address matters close to our hearts, that is,
activities and affairs of our families and communities from which change must start.
Act of the Will and Self-Sacrifice. The implementation of these strategies must be
an act of the will. If we want change, kailangang kayanin natin. We must be ready for
tremendous sacrifice--starting with ourselves.

SPECIFIC STRATEGIES
A. For Developing Patriotism, and National Pride:
1. Ideology. We need a national ideology that can summon all our resources for the

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task of lifting national morale, pride and productivity.

2. History.
a. We have to write and teach our true history; history books must be rewritten from
our perspective.
b. We should include in our education those aspects of the past that are still
preserved by cultural communities. The culture and traditions of these minorities
should be protected and given importance.
c. We can start instilling national pride by nurturing community pride first. This can be
done by setting up community museums where materials reflecting of local history
are displayed: old folk re-telling our town or community history in public gatherings;
reviving local cultural groups; tracing family trees; having family reunions, etc.

3. Languages. We ought to use Filipino in our cultural and intellectual life. Some of
our universities and other institutions have started doing this; the practice should be
continued and expanded.

4. Education.
a. We must push for the Filipinization of the entire educational system.
b. We must have value formation in the school curriculum and teach pride in being a
Filipino.
c. Literature should be used to instill national pride.

5. Trade and Industry. We should support the "Buy Filipino" movement by:
a. Identifying and making known the centers of product excellence in the Philippines;
and dispersing economic activities based on local product expertise and indigenous
materials (i.e., industries should be developed in the respective regions where the
required skills and resources already abound).
b. Having a big brother-small brother relationship between companies, where big
companies could help related companies improve the quality of their products. The
government could also act as a big brother helping these small companies improve
the quality of their output.
c. Having an "order-regalo" or "order-pasalubong" (gift) project which targets
Filipinos abroad. This could be initiated by both the government and businessmen.
d. Promoting a "Sariling Atin" day when everybody would wear and use Filipino
clothes and products only.

6. Media/Advertising.
a. We can coordinate with KBP, PANA and other media agencies in such projects as
the following:
- Giving awards or other incentives to advertisements that promote national pride
and patriotism. Conversely, giving "kalabasa" awards or denying incentives to
advertisements that promote colonial mentality.
- Prohibiting the use of foreign models in advertisements.
b. We can organize contests (i.e., oratorical, story, drama, essay, etc.) about love for
country, and about what Filipinos like about their country or their countrymen. These
stories, dramas, essays, and the like can then be made into teaching materials for
our schools.

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c. We need to use media programs (such as comics and programs in the various
dialects) that will reach with the masa or great majority of people. For instance, R.
Constantino's, "How to Decolonize the Filipino Mind", could be written in comics form
in the various dialects.

7. Government.
a. The leadership in the executive, legislative and judicial branches of the
government should be models of positive Filipino traits.
b. In order to promote national unity and national integration, the government must
attempt a long-range strategy for democratic transformation in Philippine politics.
c. The government must continue and even increase its present efforts to have a
more independent economic strategy: it must diversify its sources of assistance and
not merely rely on the U.S. or on any other foreign nation.

B. Developing a Sense of the Common Good:

1. Government.
a. The government needs to decentralize its power and give more voice and greater
participation to people at the grassroots.
b. Government must widen democratic space, establish political pluralism, and
protect and support the forces working for change (e.g., change agents from cause-
oriented groups, non-governmental organizations and people's organizations)
instead of repressing them.
c. The government should bring basic services to the depressed areas in a
participatory manner, giving the local people a more active role in administering and
enhancing such services.

2. Non-governmental organizations.
a. The role of our cause-oriented groups or non-governmental organizations should
be both crusading or consciousness-raising and problem solving. Our community
groups or people's organizations can conduct their own projects with the support of
non-governmental organizations, religious groups and the government, and
empower themselves in the process.
b. Our social institutions need to be mobilized towards a common purpose and
shared priorities with the government and the Philippine society as a whole.
c. Our community groups, people's organizations and non-governmental
organizations could promote public forums and discussions wherein pressing
national concerns like land reform, graft and corruption, unemployment, etc., can be
discussed. The government should participate in these fora and religious should be
encouraged to do the same.
d. We can form small study groups in our schools, work places or communities.
Through these groups, we can study the various ways by which we can initiate
change in our spheres of influence and encourage each other to become role
models for our family, peers, and community.

3. Religious Organizations/Movements.
a. Religious family movements, like Marriage Encounter or the Christian Family
Movement, can be encouraged to reach out to the poor who are the least prepared
for family life. Programs for the poor should be coordinated with the government and

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religious institutions.
b. The charismatic, cursillo, and born-again movements should be encouraged to
concretize spiritual doctrines by reaching out to the poor and contributing to nation-
building.

4. Education.
a. Communization of our schools should be developed to give a common experience
to students and to foster greater equality in society.
b. Social orientation courses in our schools should be not only for socialization
activities, but also for socially-oriented and socially-relevant activities.

C. For Developing Integrity and Accountability:

1. Government Leadership Structure/Systems
a. Our top government officials should serve as models for other workers in the lower
echelons of the bureaucracy.
b. Since our leaders are too insulated from what is actually happening at the bottom,
they need to be exposed to the realities of social life.
c. The government needs to implement comprehensive, concrete and operational
measures to minimize graft and corruption. These measures must be given teeth by
establishing groups or institutions vested with police power.
d. There is a need for a more efficient bureaucracy, with a minimum of red tape. The
government should systematize information dissemination. For instance, the public
should be informed how a government agency administers its services. This and
other similar strategies could minimize "fixers" and lessen graft and corruption.
e. A system of reinforcing desirable behavior must be formulated by the government
bureaucracy. For example, honest policemen and industrious Metro Aides can be
given appropriate recognition, awards, or other incentives.

2. Education/Training.
a. The career executive program given to government officials should be extended,
that is, a similar program should be drawn up for all government employees. The
program can be a training package called "Public Service".
b. Our government employees should be given value clarification seminars.
D. For Developing Discipline and Hard Work
1. In both government and private institutions, we need to:
a. provide positive controls; keep performance records; and maintain reward and
recognition systems; and
b. get rid of useless, meaningless rules.
2. We ought to reward excellence in whatever Filipinos do by:
a. identifying and making known centers of excellence in the Philippines;
b. looking for, documenting and publicizing success or excellence stories (e.g., local
entrepreneurs who have succeeded) using various media;
c. recognizing and encouraging advertisements that convey the value of excellence
and depict positive Filipino values; and
d. using media (such as comics, radio programs in the various dialects), that will
communicate to the masa in order to depict positive Filipino values, and giving
awards to radio, TV programs, and movies that convey these values.

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

E. For Developing Self-reflection and Analysis

1. Religion/Religious Movements. The teaching of religion or catechism should be
concrete, integrated to daily life, and socially relevant. Our religious movements
should not only engage in "spiritual" activities but should specifically reach out to the
poor and needy.

2. Small Groups/NGO's.
a. We can start a movement of small groups (e.g., community groups, work groups,
and parish groups) where people can begin to reflect on their situation and that of
the country.
b. Some big companies are already inculcating the habit of observation-action-
reflection through training programs that use experiential methods. These efforts
should be expanded. Specifically, the training programs could be re-designed for use
in other contexts, such as in the small groups mentioned in the preceding paragraph.

3. Government Leadership.
a. We should encourage "conversion" at the top level, as manifested in public
"repentance" or confession.
b. The Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) and private learning
institutions should inculcate the value and habit of self-reflection starting from
childhood. Educational methods should not focus on rote learning, but should
emphasize reflection and analysis.
c. We can conduct a "national reflection weekend" for officials and employees in all
levels and branches of the government. During this weekend, government personnel
can repeat the process of the Moral Recovery project, that is, reflect on Filipino
traits, then contemplate goals for strengthening the positive traits and changing the
negative traits; or a commission or similar unit can go to regional and provincial
levels to help the regional and provincial government officials and employees in their
reflection.
d. We can strengthen the research arms of government agencies by linking them
with universities and non-governmental organizations.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:

• https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP2.html
• https://www.britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-education
• https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3102/00346543028001005?journalC
ode=rera
• http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Philippines/sub5_6c/entry-3867.html

Let’s Check

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Activity 1. Matching Type

Directions: On the space provided before each number, write the letter of your

STRENGTHS WEAKNESS

1. _______________ Opening yourself to 1. ________________________

others and feel one with others with dignity and - always trying to to give personal interpretation to
respect deal with them as fellow human actions
beings. - thank you with "but" (compliment-criticism-
compliment)

2. ________________________: a genuine 2. ________________________

and deep love for family. - strong family protection good or bad condition

3. _______________ Filipinos have a cheerful 3. ________________________: relaxed attitude

and fun-loving approach to life and its up and but poor time management
down, pleasant disposition, a sense of humor 4. ________________________: strong reliance
and propensity for happiness that contribute to others fate
not only to the Filipino charm but also to the - yeah proud Pinoy. It's all because of the race
Filipino Spirit. (nationality/blood) not by persons attitude, hard-
- healthy disrespect for power and office. work, dream and perseverance etc.
5. ________________________: Patriotism vs
4. Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity Active awareness
- luck of love and appreciation on what they have
5. Hard Work and Industry : capacity for hard - open outside but side-open or close inside
work given to raise one's standard living of a
decent life for one's family. 6. ________________________: self-serving
attitude that generates feeling of envy and
6. ________________________: Faith in God competitiveness towards others (status vs
- accepting reality to comprehend as a human prestige).
created by God. "Pampalakas-loob"
7. Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection
7. Ability to Survive - Sometimes superficial and flighty
choice.

1. John Locke The Founder Of Social Reconstructionism

2. George Counts Learning By Doing-

3. Theodore Burghard Hurt Wrote Dare The School Build A New

Brameld Social Order?

4. John Dewey Tabula Rasa

5. Spencer Wrote “What Knowledge Is Of Most
Worth?”

Activity 2. Diagram Completion

Directions: Write the correct answer/s to complete the table below.

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Activity 3. Identification
Directions: Identify the terms being defined. Write the correct answer on the space
provided before each number.

_______________1. This means thatthe gentleman ought to be able to apply

intellectual and moral knowledge in governing his practical affairs.
_______________2. This means thatthe gentleman must receive education which
will lead to a successful life in the practical affairs of the society, as well as that
which leads to the satisfaction derived from scholarship and good books.
_______________3.This theory refers to “What knowledge and skills are worth
learning? What are the goals of education?”
_______________4. This theory answers the questions “What is knowledge? How is
it different from belief. What is a mistake? What is a lie?”
_______________5. This theory refers to “What is learning? How are skills and
knowledge acquired?”
_______________6.This theory refers to “Who should teach? By what methods?
What will the curriculum be?”
_______________7.This theory answers the questions “What is society? What
_______________8.This theory refers to “Who is to be educated?”
_______________9.This theory answers the questions “What is society? What
institutions are involved in the education process?”
_______________10.This theory refers to “Why do people disagree? How is
Consensus achieved? Whose opinion takes precedence?”

Let’s Analyze
Activity 1. Elaboration on Education in the earliest civilizations

Directions: Elaborate the educational practices in the following timeline/places.

1. Egypt
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Mesopotamia
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. North China
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. The Maya
___________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
5. The Aztec
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
6. The Inca
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Activity 2. Explain thoroughly your answers.

1. Why is it important to study the history of education?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. What is Structural Functionalism/ Consensus Theory?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. What does Conflict Theory encompass?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. Why is Symbolic Interactionist Theory important to consider in education?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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Activity 3. Directions: On the space provided below, draw a graphic organizer

that shows the timeline of important events in the History of the Philippine
Educational System.

In a Nutshell

Activity 1. Based from the definition of the most essential terms in the study
theories on human development that you have done, please feel free to write
your arguments or lessons learned below. I have indicated some of the
arguments of lessons learned.

1. The Philippine Educational System was greatly influenced by the

countries that had colonized us.
2. The different perspectives brought about by the theories on
education molded the 21st century education.

Your Turn

3.

4.

5.

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Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Big Picture B
Week 4-5: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to:
a. Discuss the global issues that concern schools, explain what school and
community partnership means, cite examples of community partnership,
elaborate on community’s expectations from teachers and on teachers’
expectations from communities and describe teacher’s ethical and
professional behavior in the community and explain what organizational
leadership is.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Discuss the global issues that concern
schools, explain what school and community partnership means, cite
examples of community partnership, elaborate on community’s
expectations from teachers and on teachers’ expectations from
communities and describe teacher’s ethical and professional behavior in
the community and explain what organizational leadership is.

Metalanguage
Please proceed immediately to the “Essential Knowledge” part since the first
lesson is also definition of essential terms.

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the 4 th to 5th
weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential
knowledgethat will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Thus, you are expected to
utilize other books, research articles and other resources that are available in the
university’s library e.g. ebrary, search.proquest.cometc.

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Global Issues that Concern Schools and Society

• Top Ten Global Issue and How They Can be Addressed

o Climate Change

Addressing climate change Source:

https://www.epa.ie/climate/communicatingclimatescience/whatisclimatechange/addre
sssingclimatechange/#:~:text=Addressing%20climate%20change%20requires%20tw
o,climatic%20stimuli%20or%20their%20effects

Addressing climate change requires two types of responses: mitigation (defined as

an anthropogenic intervention to reduce anthropogenic forcing of the climate system
(IPCC, 2007)) and adaptation (defined as: the “adjustment in natural or human
systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects that
moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities” (IPCC, 2007).
The European Union’s (EU) agreed objective is to limit global temperature increase
to less than 2°C compared with pre-industrial levels – beyond this threshold
irreversible changes, such as the breakdown of the Greenland and/or West Antarctic
ice sheets, become more likely.
Ireland is committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions under the Kyoto
Protocol. This is an international agreement designed to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions in developed countries by achieving national emission targets. Further
information on emission targets can be found here.
Even if the world succeeds in limiting and then reducing greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions, our planet will take time to recover from the greenhouse
gases already in the atmosphere. Thus we will be faced with the impact of climate
change for at least the next 50 years. We need therefore to take measures to adapt.
The UNFCCC stipulates that every effort must be made to adopt national or regional
adaptation strategies and has established processes under the Buenos Aires Plan of
Action and the Nairobi Work Programme to advance work in this area.

The EU White Paper (CEC, 2009) on adapting to climate change sets out a
framework to reduce the EU’s vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. The
Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government (DEHLG) is
committed to developing a National Adaptation Strategy (NAS). The Strategy will
provide a framework for the integration of adaptation issues and options into
decision-making at national and local levels. The EPAs Reseach Programme
consists of three key pillars; Climate, Water and Sustainability. The Research
Programme has enabled the provision of research in support of adaptation
planning see Climate Change Research Reports.

Neither adaptation to new climate conditions nor the reduction of emissions alone
can ensure that major negative climate change impacts can be avoided over the
coming decades. Addressing climate change will therefore require planning for
sustainable development and measures to tackle the oncoming impacts of climate
change.

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Investments over the next two to three decades will have a large impact on
opportunities to achieve required GHG emissions reductions targets and will also
reduce the risks of future climate impacts.

If we hope to combat climate change, concerted efforts will need to be made locally
and internationally by governments, public agencies, businesses, industries,
communities and individuals. Achieving major reductions in the use of fossil fuels is
essential if Ireland is to secure the major cuts being sought in GHG emissions. In
addition, improvements in energy efficiency, coupled with widespread use of
alternative energy sources, will also be needed. Sustainable transport and
agricultural practices aimed at reducing emissions are also urgently needed.
Possibilities for development and deployment of low carbon technologies and new
technologies such as carbon capture and storage and management systems will
alsoarise.

Ireland will also need to play its part globally assisting developing countries to
address the impacts of climate change and to establish a sustainable pathway for
their development. The EPA is actively engaged in national and international
processes to address climate change.

o Pollution
Source: https://www.britannica.com/explore/savingearth/pollution-overview

Pollution, also called environmental pollution, the addition of any substance

(solid, liquid, or gas) or any form of energy (such as heat, sound, or radioactivity)
to the environment at a rate faster than it can be dispersed, diluted, decomposed,
recycled, or stored in some harmless form. The major kinds of pollution, usually
classified by environment, are air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution.
Modern society is also concerned about specific types of pollutants, such
as noise pollution, light pollution, and plastic pollution. Pollution of all kinds can
have negative effects on the environment and wildlife and often impacts human
health and well-being.

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History of pollution

Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events such

as forest fires and active volcanoes, use of the word pollution generally implies
that the contaminants have an anthropogenic source—that is, a source created
by human activities. Pollution has accompanied humankind ever since groups of
people first congregated and remained for a long time in any one place. Indeed,
ancient human settlements are frequently recognized by their wastes—shell
mounds and rubble heaps, for instance. Pollution was not a serious problem as
long as there was enough space available for each individual or group. However,
with the establishment of permanent settlements by great numbers of people,
pollution became a problem, and it has remained one ever since.

By the middle of the 20th century, an awareness of the need to protect air,
water, and land environments from pollution had developed among the
general public.
Cities of ancient times were often noxious places, fouled by human wastes
and debris. Beginning about 1000 CE, the use of coal for fuel caused
considerable air pollution, and the conversion of coal to coke for iron smelting
beginning in the 17th century exacerbated the problem. In Europe, from
the Middle Ages well into the early modern era, unsanitary urban conditions
favoured the outbreak of population-decimating epidemics of disease,
from plague to cholera and typhoid fever. Through the 19th century, water and air
pollution and the accumulation of solid wastes were largely problems of
congested urban areas. But, with the rapid spread of industrialization and the
growth of the human population to unprecedented levels, pollution became a
universal problem.

By the middle of the 20th century, an awareness of the need to protect air, water,
and land environments from pollution had developed among the general public.
In particular, the publication in 1962 of Rachel Carson’s book Silent
Spring focused attention on environmental damage caused by improper use
of pesticides such as DDT and other persistent chemicals that accumulate in
the food chain and disrupt the natural balance of ecosystems on a wide scale. In
response, major pieces of environmental legislation, such as the Clean Air
Act (1970) and the Clean Water Act (1972; United States), were passed in many
countries to control and mitigate environmental pollution.

Pollution control
The presence of environmental pollution raises the issue of pollution control.
Great efforts are made to limit the release of harmful substances into the
environment through air pollution control, wastewater treatment, solid-waste
management, hazardous-waste management, and recycling. Unfortunately,
attempts at pollution control are often surpassed by the scale of the problem,
especially in less-developed countries. Noxious levels of air pollution are
common in many large cities, where particulates and gases from transportation,

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heating, and manufacturing accumulate and linger. The problem of plastic

pollution on land and in the oceans has only grown as the use of single-
use plastics has burgeoned worldwide. In addition, greenhouse gas emissions,
such as methane and carbon dioxide, continue to drive global warming and pose
a great threat to biodiversity and public health.

o Violence
Source: https://www.saferspaces.org.za/understand/entry/what-is-
violence#:~:text=By%20looking%20more%20closely%20at,Psychological%20violenc
e

Introduction
Violence is a global phenomenon resulting in the deaths of more than 1.6 million
people each year, making it one of the leading causes of death worldwide.
While no country is untouched by violence, the vast majority of its resultant deaths
occur in low- to middle-income countries, many of which are stricken with internal
conflicts. However, it should be kept in mind that violent deaths cannot simply be
attributed to war, and more than 80% of such deaths occur outside of armed
conflicts.
Violence has also shown to be an incredibly costly issue, and in 2015 alone the total
impact of violence to the world economy was estimated at $13.6 trillion – a figure
which is equivalent to 13.3% of world GDP.
Violence has become increasingly interpersonal and tied in with criminal activity,
particularly in urban areas. According to the UN's Global Study on Homicide,
intentional homicide was the cause of the deaths of almost half a million people
across the world in 2012.
It is also important to note that deaths only constitute a part of the health and social
burden which can be attributed to violence, which also results in non-fatal, sexual
and psychological abuse. In addition, violence places a heavy burden on health and
justice systems, social welfare services, and the economy of communities.

A societal challenge
High levels of violence and crime in regions such as Southern Africa are often the
symptoms of underlying social, economic and political challenges such as social
inequality, rapid urbanisation, poverty, unemployment and institutional shortcomings.
The adverse effects of violence on a country are harmful not only to its citizens, but
the wellbeing of the community and country as a whole. In many countries, the
impact of violence has significantly and directly reduced economic growth, and
poses an obstacle in reducing poverty, while violence also causes profound
psychological and physical trauma, reducing the quality of life for all of society.
Although violence is often seen and responded to as an inevitable part of the human
condition, such assumptions are shifting, focus is broadening, and an increased
emphasis is being placed on prevention of violent behaviour and consequences.
In order for prevention efforts to be successful, there needs to be an increase in our
understanding of this complex phenomenon. Moral codes may vary vastly
throughout the wold, making it more of a challenge to address the often sensitive
topic of violence, its causes and its consequences, however some form of shared

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understanding needs to be reached in order to protect human life and dignity

effectively.

Defining violence
As a result of violence being such a complex phenomenon, there is no clear
definition for it. Therefore, it is often understood differently by different people in
different contexts - such as those from different countries, cultures, or belief systems.
While no standard definition of violence has been established, it is important, when
developing effective prevention strategies, to have a clear understanding of violence
and the context in which it occurs. In its 2002 World Report on Violence and Health,
the World Health Organisation (WHO) proposes a definition of violence that has
since become a working term for many international and South African organisations
working in the field:
WHO definition of violence
“The intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself,
another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high
likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or
deprivation.”

Categories and types of violence

On the basis of the WHO’s definition of violence, an elaborate “typology of violence”
has been developed that characterises different categories and types of violence, as
well as the links between them (allowing for a holistic approach to intervention).
It divides violence into three broad categories according to who the perpetrators and
victims are of violent acts:
Self-directed violence refers to violent acts a person inflicts upon him- or herself, and
includes self-abuse (such as self-mutilation) and suicidal behaviour (including
suicidal thoughts, as well as attempted and completed suicide).
By looking more closely at the nature of acts of violence, these three categories can
be further divided into four, more specific, types of violence:

Physical violence is the intentional use of physical force, used with the potential for
causing harm, injury, disability or death. This includes, but is not limited to:
scratching, pushing, shoving, grabbing, biting, choking, shaking, slapping, punching,
hitting, burning, use of a weapon, and use of restraint or one’s body against another
person.
This type of violence does not only lead to physical harm, but can also have severe
negative psychological effects – for example, if a child is frequently a victim of
physical violence at home, he or she can suffer from mental health problems and be
traumatised as a consequence of this victimisation.
These four types of violence can occur in each of the previously mentioned broad
categories, and their subcategories (except for self-directed violence).
The graphic below illustrates these links between types of violence and the nature of
violent acts. Horizontally the graphic shows who is affected, while vertically it
describes how they are potentially affected.

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

This typology of violence provides a useful framework for understanding the complex
patterns of violence in the lives of individuals, families and communities. It captures
the nature of violent acts, the relevance of the setting, the relationship between the
perpetrator and the victim, and – in the case of collective violence – possible
motivations for the violence.
One should keep in mind that this is just a model and in reality the dividing lines
between the types or nature of violence are not always this clear - they can easily
overlap, and influence or reinforce each other.

Direct and indirect (structural) violence

The typology of violence clearly distinguishes between perpetrators of violence
across different levels. There are situations, however, when violence cannot be
attributed to a specific actor but rather to structures put in place that exert violence
(in any of its forms) on individuals or communities. The system of apartheid and its
overt discrimination against a large part of the South African population is one
example.
In this context, Norwegian sociologist Johan Galtung provides a useful distinction:

• Direct violence – this is where an actor or perpetrator can clearly be identified.

All forms of self-directed violence and interpersonal violence, as well as many
forms of collective violence, can also be understood as direct violence
• Indirect or structural violence – this is where no direct actor exists. Violence is
rather built into the structures, appearing as unequal power relations and,
consequently, as unequal opportunities.
Structural violence exists when certain groups, classes, genders or nationalities have
privileged access to goods, resources and opportunities over others, and when this
unequal advantage is built into the social, political and economic systems that
govern their lives.

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Structural violence requires both political and social change in order to transform the
existing, discriminatory structures and patterns that govern the lives of citizens.

Violence and crime: Drawing a distinction

The terms “violence” and “crime” are often closely linked and used interchangeably.
They should, however, not be confused.
Some types of crime are violent as per definition (such as armed crime or contact
crimes, including murder, assault and rape), while other crimes involve no direct
violence at all (such as tax evasion or illicit drug use). Similarly, not all types of
violence are criminal, such as the previously mentioned structural violence, or many
forms of psychological violence.
In other words, not every case of violence is a crime, and not every crime is violent.
Therefore it is important to distinguish between violence and crime as two different
terms that can overlap each other (and often do), but need not necessarily do so.
Example
Smacking a woman or child is a violent act. However, whether acts of corporal
punishment are seen as a criminal offence varies according to a country's law and
social attitudes towards women and children.
In some countries, laws classify corporal punishment as a criminal act. While in
many other countries, it is not a crime and justified as a necessary disciplinary
measure.
Whether an act is classified as a crime or not depends on the laws of a country.
Crime can therefore be defined as a violation of the law and an act of deviance from
established rules, or a non-commission of an action that is required by law.
Violence, on the other hand, is an act of physical aggression that in most cases
results in harm. Whether a violent act is considered a crime changes from country to
country, and it might change over time, as countries adapt their laws due to changing
political systems and social values. Understanding the difference between these two
concepts is important in responding appropriately and adopting effective prevention
strategies.

7 Ways to Stop Violence at Every Age

Lisa Firestone
Source: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/compassion-
matters/201210/7-ways-stop-violence-every-age

Understanding, preventing, and effectively treating violence

When you see an image of a violent adult, it’s hard to imagine the innocent
baby they once were. Is there such thing as being born violent? Are there really “bad
seeds” when it comes to human life?
Like so many qualities, violence involves an interaction between genetics and
the environment. We may not be able to alter the DNA we are born with, but we can
strongly influence how these genes are expressed. With all the factors proven to
contribute to violence, we can no longer say that violent individuals are just “born
that way.” There is a lot we can do to prevent violence, and hardly anyone at any
age is hopeless or beyond help.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Violence is the result of a combination of biological, social, and psychological

factors, especially those that increase exposure to vulnerability, shame, and
humiliation. Preventing violence must involve the opposite: making sure people feel
safe, cared about, and connected, while ensuring they have a healthy and realistic
sense of self-esteem and self-worth.
Many environmental factors can contribute to violence. These include adverse
childhood events such as abuse, neglect, trauma, loss, and abandonment. Victims of
poverty, children who are missing basic necessities and who struggle with poor
healthcare or nutrition are more likely to encounter or engage in violence.
A mother I knew raised twin boys who lost their father at a young age.
Working two jobs to scrape by to support her family, she had little choice but to
frequently leave her sons on their own. One of the twins buried his head in books
and found education as his refuge. The other boy turned to a gang for
companionship and violence as an outlet for his inner turmoil. This combination of
trauma and neglect, though unintentional, became a breeding ground for violent
behavior. Without a constructive outlet—like school, counseling, or an available
parental figure—one of her sons faced a heavy social and emotional struggle and
followed a path toward violence and crime, while the other was able to channel his
struggle into something positive.
So how can we prevent children from becoming violent? And how can we
treat people who’ve already demonstrated violent tendencies? Here are some of the
Do’s of stopping violence among children, adolescents, and adults. This list is
addressed to parents, but it truly applies to any influential figure in a child’s life.

Forming an Attachment
Make sure children have caring adults in their lives. Research has shown that
kids need a minimum of five caring adults to help them grow up happy and healthy. It
isn’t just parents who have an impact on their kids. Grandparents, aunts, uncles,
teachers, counselors, and family friends can serve as positive role models to our
kids. Parents can hurt themselves and their children by creating an isolated
environment around them. Encourage kind, compassionate, and ethical people to be
involved in your child’s lives from the get-go.
For both children and adults who show violent tendencies, it is important to
help them form attachments. Attaching to someone, whether from their family or a
rehabilitation program, has been proven to help even highly violent individuals to
make

a real change. Research shows that helping violent prisoners develop attachment
can prevent violence.

Developing a Conscience
Help your children develop a conscience by A) being attuned to them, B) not
being violent toward or in front of them, C) providing a secure, safe base for them,
and D) repairing when you slip up. We all make mistakes as parents, but openly
admitting and apologizing for these mistakes shows your kids that you are human,
that they are not to blame, and that they too should demonstrate care and concern.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

A formerly violent inmate I interviewed for the documentary film “Voices of Violence”
stated that in the time he spent in an intensive therapeutic prison program, he’d
“grown a conscience.”

Developing Empathy
Help your child develop empathy. Imagine the scene of your child hitting
another child in the park. In that moment, you’d probably insist they say sorry, but
what do you do to make them feel empathetic? Saying sorry can be meaningless if a
child doesn’t mean it. At these times, ask your child to describe how he or she would
feel being hit. This helps the child to feel compassion and sympathy, while
understanding what it really means to hurt someone.
Prisoners can be taught empathy through effective intervention programs like
victim impact groups, where victims of violence speak to prisoners about their
experience. The San Francisco prison system embraced this technique and
employed a treatment strategy that reduced recidivism (criminal re-offenses of
released prisoner) by 80 percent.
Getting Attention
Give kids attention—never give them the silent or avoidant treatment.
Adolescents acting up need more attention, not less. In juvenile correction facilities,
they’ve found that solitary confinement is the worst thing for a teen who is behaving
badly. Depriving a kid in need of services and contact hurts them; their behavior
indicates they need more adult contact. By isolating them, when their acting out is to
seek attention, albeit negative attention, we continue the punishment cycle.
Intensifying treatment when adolescents act out breaks the punishment cycle, while
reducing their likelihood of becoming violent. This has proven to be effective even in
adolescents with psychopathic tendencies.

Building Self-Esteem
Help your child find something they are good at and offer real praise for those
achievements. False praise inflates a person’s vanity but does little to enhance their
real

sense of self-worth or self-esteem. Yet acknowledging children for honest

accomplishments and true abilities helps them to know their value.
Vanity has actually been found to contribute to violence. Conversely,
prisoners given the opportunity to gain a sense of value by helping other people has
highly positive results. In the Restorative Justice model, prisoners are given this
opportunity, with many people who run the program having previously been
participants in the program.
Avoiding Harsh Punishment
Don’t punish a child harshly. When we are violent, abusive, or insensitive to
our children, we lead by example. We teach them to be unsympathetic, out of
control, and at the whim of their anger. We must be attuned to how we discipline our
children. Make sure our punishment comes out of care and concern for how they feel
and behave, and not from our own emotional issues.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Harsh punishment in prisons turns these institutions into what James Gilligan
has called “graduate schools for crime.” By focusing our efforts on education and
treatment instead of punishment, we prevent many prisoners from becoming violent
upon release; we save potential victims of future violence; and we save taxpayers
the money they would spend toward re-imprisoning repeat offenders.

Learning Calming Techniques

Teach your children how to calm down when they’re upset. The best way to
do this is to lead by example. It’s important to demonstrate your own resilience,
problem-solving, and coping strategies in front of your children. This does not mean
acting tough or hiding your feelings. It means demonstrating healthy techniques for
handling conflict and emotion in your own life and encouraging them to do the same.
San Francisco’s Manalive program has been successful in teaching male
prisoners techniques to identify when they get triggered and to hit the pause button
at those moments of stress. These men are then able to make reasonable decisions.
They no longer feed their aggressive emotions with destructive thoughts toward
others, which, in turn, stops them from committing acts of violence. Programs like
Manalive have helped rehabilitate men who’ve been violent by teaching them to
communicate and to “get in touch with their emotions and gain compassion and
forgiveness for themselves and others.”
On a societal and political level, we must not overlook those struggling and
work harder to provide services to help educate this population. We know that in the
case of prisoners who’ve been jailed for violent crimes, the factors proven to reduce
recidivism include therapy, education, teaching professional skills, and substance
abuse treatment. On a personal level, whether we are aiming to prevent a child from
becoming violent or
to steer a person away from a life already touched by violence, we must foster our
own compassion and faith in a human being’s goodness and potential.
Dr. James Gilligan wrote in his book Violence: Reflections on a National
Epidemic, “The self cannot survive without love. The self starved of love dies. That is
how violence can cause the death of the self even when it does not kill the body. The
two possible sources of love for the self are love from others, and one’s own love for
oneself. Children who fail to receive sufficient love from others fail to build those
reserves of self-love, and the capacity for self-love, which enable them to survive the
inevitable rejections and humiliations which even the most fortunate of people cannot
avoid.”
The solution to the problem of violence is never to turn our backs, but to keep
our hearts and minds open to how we can individually affect change—and that
change starts with how we raise our children from the day they are born.

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

o Security and Well Being

WELL-BEING IS SAFETY
Source: http://sharedsafety.us/wellbeing-is-safety/

The strongest communities are the safest communities. When a community is

well, it can be a powerful, resilient force against crime. Well-being means people are
living in conditions that promote mental and physical health, connectedness and
resilience. They have dignity and the resources to reach their full potential and thrive.
Measuring safety with crime data alone misses the opportunity to measure the most
important public health strategy available: improving well-being. By defining well-
being and recognizing the barriers to achieving it, we can invest in prevention scaled
to the community need and foster the conditions needed to truly achieve safety.

SHARED SAFETYWELL-BEING IS SAFETY

1. SAFETY
Define Well-Being for Your Community
There can be no public safety without community well-being. But what does it
mean for a community to be well?
Why do we need it?
Public safety strategies that focus primarily on responding to crime fail to
address the many other, often unreported, factors that make communities unsafe
and unwell, such as exposure to chronic violence and early childhood trauma.
How does it help?
Defining community well-being offers a baseline for measuring the impact of
safety strategies. When the entire community is engaged in defining well-being, the
result is more likely to be inclusive and accountable to the realities, disparities and

priorities of day-to-day life. A definition of well-being may include access to

healthcare, affordable housing, stable employment, education and parental supports.
QUESTIONS TO ASK
Have we engaged our most impacted communities and all system leaders in
defining community well-being?
Are our health and safety leaders committed to well-being as critical to our Shared
Safety strategy?
Have we analyzed data and input from local governmental and
nongovernmental entities to better understand the risks?

WHAT DOES IT TAKE TO IMPLEMENT?

Engage a diverse group of governmental and community stakeholders in
defining well-being.

Deepen understanding of the risk factors associated with crime and the
contributors to well-being, particularly as they relate to vulnerable populations.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Designate a senior-level staff person to manage and coordinate the effort and
ensure all relevant agencies share responsibility.
Consider factors outside traditional health and safety measures.
Publicize the community’s concept of well-being and hold public leaders
accountable for their support.
OUTCOME MEASURES
Agreed-upon definition of community well-being.
Public statements committing to well-being as central to a Shared Safety strategy.

2. SAFETY
Identify Gaps in Community Well-Being
Only when we know where the holes and barriers are to well-being, can we
begin to address them.
Why do we need it?
If we fail to analyze gaps in our local infrastructure, we will not know where to
prioritize our attention and we run the risk of expending resources on the wrong
things.
How does it help?
By mapping the local system, we can identify underserved people or groups,
or conversely, those who are receiving services disproportionate to their needs. This
analysis can help prioritize and coordinate limited resources and identify the most
cost-efficient approaches, especially for populations that are more likely to fall
between the cracks, such as immigrants, young people of color and victims of
domestic or other forms of intimate partner or family violence.
QUESTIONS TO ASK
Have we conducted a gap analysis in our community?
Where in our local continuum of services are the greatest unmet needs (e.g.,
early childhood, education, mental health, substance abuse, housing, transportation,
immigrant concerns, etc.)?
Which populations are most underserved?
Are people accessing services at the earliest intervention point?

Are all our services being fully utilized? If not, why?

Nine out of 10 people who need treatment for drug addiction or alcoholism do
not receive it.

WHAT DOES IT TAKE TO IMPLEMENT?

Assign overall responsibility for coordinating the gap analysis to an individual
or agency.
Ensure the review is culturally relevant across all populations and system
providers.
Use the gap analysis to identify local needs, including real or perceived
barriers.

Engage stakeholders in determining whether resources could be used

more efficiently with a different population or point on the continuum.

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Establish reliable longitudinal data so you can track changes over time.
Look for opportunities to integrate or streamline and coordinate existing
services.
OUTCOME MEASURES
Increase in percentage of individuals receiving appropriate services.
Reduction in disparities in accessing services.

Scale Up to Meet the Greatest Needs

Investing in early treatment services – particularly for mental illness, drug
addiction and trauma – increases well-being and reduces reliance on the criminal
justice system.
Why do we need it?
It is much safer and less costly to make scaled investments in treating health
and behavioral health needs at the earliest possible stage than waiting until
symptoms have worsened or people become involved with the criminal justice
system.
How does it help?
Safety is significantly improved when individuals have access to treatment for
their health needs, particularly mental illness, drug addiction and trauma. Results are
most successful when services are culturally relevant, trauma-informed and holistic.
QUESTIONS TO ASK
What will it take to bring programs to scale?
How are we prioritizing unmet needs?
How can we expand our health and behavioral health workforce?
Have we considered alternative delivery systems, such as peer-based
models, to expand capacity?
Governments spend $500 billion on substance abuse annually. For every
dollar, only two cents goes to prevention and treatment.

WHAT DOES IT TAKE TO IMPLEMENT?

Prioritize investments based on the needs identified in your gap analysis.
Conduct a cost-benefit analysis to determine where additional capacity would
have the greatest benefit.Think system-wide and recognize the limitations of pilot
projects.
Engage partners, such as health plans or private businesses who may
provide additional resources.
Ensure treatment is available prior to law enforcement involvement and
without triggering involvement by Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE).
Monitor investments by tracking outcomes among governmental and
community-based organizations.
OUTCOME MEASURES
Increased percentage of individuals with a mental health need or substance
use disorder who received treatment in the past 12 months.
Decrease in waiting time to access treatment.

Reduction in the prevalence of individuals with a mental illness in local jails.

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Measure Safety Through Well-Being Indicators

Crime rates alone won’t tell you whether your community is safe. A better
yardstick is finding ways to gauge your community’s overall well-being.
Why do we need it?
Defining safety as having low crime rates fails to account for myriad ways
individuals and communities are vulnerable to harm that have more to do with well-
being. Well-being indicators measure the extent to which a community has access to
supports that protect them from harm, such as preventive healthcare, affordable
housing, employment and quality education.
How does it help?
There is a saying that “what gets measured, gets done.” A community’s well-
being is the best measure of safety because it takes into account the major drivers of
crime as well as the forces and conditions that help communities build resilience.
QUESTIONS TO ASK
Do we have well-being indicators we believe are critical to community safety?
Which are the most important indicators given our definition of well-being and
Shared Safety priorities?
What data do we need to measure these indicators?
California ranks 36th out of 50 states in children’s well-being based on 16 key
indicators of education, health, family and economic well-being.
WHAT DOES IT TAKE TO IMPLEMENT?
Involve stakeholders in establishing indicators that reflect community priorities
and a shared definition of safety and well-being. For example, safety is enhanced
when youth have stable relationships with nurturing adults, when formerly
incarcerated individuals have jobs and places to live, and when crime survivors are
able to seek help without being exposed to additional trauma.
Establish an ongoing review to measure progress in those chosen areas (e.g.,
housing, environment, access to healthcare, education, economic opportunity, civic
engagement). Common metrics are the foundation of joint accountability for agreed-
upon outcomes.
Set reasonable timeframes and prioritize certain measures, depending on
community needs.

OUTCOME MEASURES
Five to 10 indicators that measure progress in improving well-being.

Cultivate Sanctuary Spaces for All

Once strategies are in place to promote well-being, equal access must be
guaranteed for everyone, especially those who have been marginalized.
Why do we need it?
People will not seek help if they know from experience that it is not safe to do
so. When immigrant communities risk losing family members if they call the police,

homeless youth are criminalized for being on the streets or LGBTQ individuals are
denied their dignity, these individuals are less likely to access services and more
likely to become victims.
How does it help?

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Establishing culturally appropriate avenues to greater well-being for

individuals who have been denied access or marginalized builds trust and
encourages people to come out of the shadows to access services, be witnesses or
otherwise participate in crime reduction efforts. This helps keep everyone safe.
QUESTIONS TO ASK
Does my jurisdiction implement the same due process protections for all
community members, regardless of citizenship status?
What are the current caseloads of our public defenders or private defense
bar?
Are all defendants properly advised – in their first languages – on how their
criminal adjudications may impact their immigration proceedings?
On average, there are almost 36 fewer crimes committed per 10,000 people
in sanctuary counties compared to non-sanctuary counties.
WHAT DOES IT TAKE TO IMPLEMENT?
Conduct culturally appropriate analyses to determine who does not feel safe
accessing services and why.
Put protections in place to ensure that these fears and past experiences are
addressed and communicate these changes.
Sufficiently fund legal services so that the criminal justice system can uphold
everyone’s constitutional protections.
Ensure that all public systems have ready access to translators and culturally
competent staff.
Stop local resources from triggering greater harm, e.g., deportation.
OUTCOME MEASURES
Equal due process protections are extended to all communities.
Increased percentage of individuals from historically marginalized groups
accessing relevant services.

o Lack of Education

Lack of Education: Causes, Effects & Solutions

by: Andreas
https://environmental-conscience.com/lack-of-education-causes-effects-solutions/

“Lack of education, old age, bad health or discrimination – these are causes of
poverty, and the way to attack it is to go to the root.” Robert Kennedy, Politician

A lack of education can be defined as a state where people have a below-average

level of common knowledge about basic things that they would urgently need in their
daily life.

For instance, this could include basic knowledge in math, writing, spelling, etc.
Especially in poor developing countries, educational inequality is quite prevalent.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

A lack of education can have severe adverse effects. In this article, the causes,
effects and solutions for a lack of education are examined in detail.

Poverty
Poverty can be regarded as a big cause of a lack of education and for
educational inequality. Children from poor families often do not have access to
proper education since it is simply too expensive for their families to send them to
school.

Moreover, these children also often have to work instead of attending school
since they have to contribute to the family income in order to support their family
members financially.

Orphanism
Orphans are at greater risk to suffer from a lack of education compared to
“normal” kids since they often have no one who takes care of them. This could lead
to financial trouble since it is quite hard to earn enough money to cover your
expenses while you are still a kid.
In turn, this may result in a state where these children have to work quite a lot
to earn enough money to survive. Thus, these orphans will have no time to attend
school since they need all their time to work.

Homelessness
If you grow up in a family with homeless parents, chances are that you will not
get proper education since your parents will not have sufficient money to send you to
school and they might not even care too much since they often have other problems
like drug addiction and you may therefore be at great risk to be neglected. Thus,
growing up in a family with homeless parents may also contribute to educational
inequality.

Parenting
Parenting is a big factor when it comes to a lack of education. The more your
parents care about you, the less likely it is that you end up with a low level of
education. However, in some cases, parents just do not know better.
They may themselves have a low level of education and think that this
education level is enough for a happy life. Therefore, they may lead you on the same
education path which may lead to a lack of education for you.

Substance abuse
The abuse of substances of all sorts can also contribute to a lack of
education. If you consume drugs on a regular basis, chances are that you become
unreliable and you may also refrain from attending school too often.

Thus, substance abuse at a young age may also increase educational

inequality since children who consume drugs will often prioritize substance
consumption over school and their education levels are likely to suffer due to that.

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Bad company
If you hang out with family members or friends who are doing drugs or other
illegal stuff, chances are that you get influenced by these people and they may
eventually drag you down in life. You may also start to consume substances or skip
school which may translate into a lack of education in later stages.

Laziness
Laziness may also be a factor when it comes to educational inequality. Some
people have a higher motivation to learn and develop themselves than others.
People who are not gifted with this drive to learn and progress may have a
hard time in school since they may have no motivation to get good grades in order to
be able to attend university later.
This may also lead to a serious lack of education if the will to learn is
extremely limited.

Cultural factors
In some cultures, it is also quite common that people often only get quite
basic education. These cultures often rely on certain beliefs and may not value
advanced education enough to send their children to university or other educational
institutions.

Religion
Religion can also play a big role in the level of education. Religious families
often live quite conservative, which often makes it hard for children to get proper
education since the religious beliefs of parents may not be in line with the education
goal.
This may be especially true for girls since they are often supposed to stay at
home and to cook and do the household instead of getting proper education and
start a career.

Conflicts
Conflicts can also be a big cause of a lack of education. In regions where
conflicts are common, people simply feel that the protection of their life is more
important than sending their kids to school.
Moreover, due to conflicts, many people have to leave their homes and
migrate to other countries to save their life. Thus, children who are suffering from
these adverse conditions are likely not be able to get proper education due to
conflicts.

Natural disasters
Natural disasters may also play a role when it comes to a lack of education.
When regions get hit by natural disasters like tsunamis or other catastrophes, people
living in these regions will suffer from vast destruction of public infrastructure.

They may also suffer from serious health issues due to these natural
disasters. Under these horrible conditions, it will be quite hard for children to get

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

proper education since schools and other educational facilities may have been
destroyed.

Insufficient social aid

In many countries, there is a lack of or only insufficient social aid and welfare.
If people become unemployed, they may not get any financial subsidies from the
government.
Imagine you have children and lose your job. Now, you will likely not be able
to afford the tuition fees for your kids anymore which may lead to a lack of education
for your children.

Insufficient educational infrastructure

In some regions, the overall educational infrastructure is quite bad. This is
especially true for rural areas. People who live in these regions often have to bring
their children to the next school.
However, many poor people do not even have a car. This will likely lead to a
lack of education for their children since these children may not be able to attend
school simply due to the long distance.

Teacher gaps
Some regions may also suffer from a shortage of teachers. In those regions,
classes are often quite big and teachers will not be able to respond to every school
kid individually.
This may in turn lead to educational inequality since some children learn
faster than others. Children who learn quite slow may be left behind and their overall
education level may significantly suffer due to that.

Low qualification levels of teachers

Another issue related to a lack of education may be an insufficient
qualification of teachers. If teachers have no high level of education, chances are
that school kids will also have a low level of education when they finish school since
their teachers have simply not been able to teach them on a high level.

Lack of learning materials

Especially in poor developing countries, children also often suffer from a lack
of learning materials. If children do not have the appropriate books or other facilities
to learn, chances are that their level of education will suffer.

Gender discrimination
Although the tolerance towards women and girls who want to attend school
has increased over the past decades, there are still many countries in which women
are meant to stay at home and do the household instead of getting proper education
and to work in a normal job.

This gender discrimination will lead to a lack of education for many girls since their
families may not want them to attend school.

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Disabilities
Children who suffer from disabilities, especially in poor countries, are likely to
get only insufficient education since parents will often not have enough money to
send all of their kids to school.
These parents will often choose a family member who has the best chances
to succeed in school in order to secure the family income. Thus, children with
disabilities will rather stay at home instead of attending school.

Effects of Educational Inequality

Poverty
Many studies have shown that poverty and a lack of education are strongly
positively correlated. Since poor families may not be able to send their kids to
school, these children may suffer from significant educational inequality.
However, not only is poverty a cause for a low level of education, it can also
be an effect of insufficient education since a bad education will often translate into an
increased probability for unemployment and low salaries.

Unemployment
A low level of education increases the risk of unemployment dramatically. If
you apply for a job, chances are that your education level will be screened by
companies. If you do not have a sufficiently high level of education, you will likely not
get the job.
Moreover, if you have a low education level and become unemployed, you will
also have a hard time to find another suitable job.

Drugs
A low level of education may also increase the probability of drug addiction.
These people may not be aware of the consequences of drug abuse and may only
recognize them when it is already too late.

Moreover, due to unemployment or other adverse events in their life, people with low
levels of education may be at greater risk to consume drugs since they simply see
no bright future for themselves and want to mask their bad feelings with the high of
drugs.

Homelessness
Homelessness can also be a cause due to a lack of education. If people lose
their job and are not able to pay for their rent anymore, they may be at risk of
becoming homeless. Since the chances for unemployment increases with a low level
of education, so does the probability of homelessness.

Illegal activities

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

If people are not able to find a job due to their low level of education, chances
are that these people are willing to engage in criminal actions in order to make their
living.
Imagine you try hard to find a job but it simply doesn’t work out and you have
to supply for your children. It would be quite attractive to earn substantial money by
engaging in criminal actions, wouldn’t it?

Jail
Since the probability to engage in criminal activities increases due to a low
level of education, so does the chance to go to jail. If you engage in illegal things,
you will be caught sooner or later and may end up in prison. Thus, educational
inequality may also increase the chances to go to jail, especially for poor people.

Social isolation
A lack of education may also lead to social isolation since people who only
have low levels of education may not be able to follow conversations or to take part
in mentally demanding activities.
Therefore, they may lose social contacts and may end up in social isolation.
Moreover, since a lack of education may also translate into poverty, these people
may also not be able to afford social activities which in turn may lead to social
isolation.

Low salary
Low levels of education also often imply a low salary since the wage for a job
is often determined by demand and supply of skills. If workers only have low skill
levels, they are easily exploitable by companies which want to maximize profits and
therefore will pay their workers only a quite low salary.

Bad working conditions

Since people with a low level of education often do not have many other job
options, they may be exploited by firms and may suffer from quite bad working
conditions. This may include working quite long hours or working under insecure
conditions.

Insufficient health insurance

A lack of education and the resulting low income may also often lead to
insufficient health insurance. Many people will simply not be able to afford health
insurance due to their low salary.
In case of severe health issues, they may suffer from serious long-term
consequential effects since they are often not able to afford proper medical
treatment due to their lack of health insurance.

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Dependence
Educational inequality can also lead to significant dependence of all sorts. If
you only have a low level of education, chances are that you will be dependent on
financial or other support in order to be able to carry out important tasks in your daily
life.
Dependence in any form will in most cases not turn out favorable for the
dependent person in life since they give away the leverage to other people which
may have the power to treat the dependent persons quite bad.

Radicalization
People who only have low levels of education may also be easier to recruit for
radical movements. This is due to the fact that these people may not be able to
identify the arguments made by fundamentalists as flawed and may therefore be
willing to join these organizations, even if these arguments do not make sense at all
from an objective perspective.

Poor housing conditions

A lack of education may also contribute to poor housing conditions since it
increases the risk of poverty. Poor people may not be able to afford rent in a nice
neighborhood and may live in bad neighborhoods which may lead to low quality of
life and insecurity for these people.

Solutions for a Lack of Education

Better educational infrastructure

Governments and municipalities should try to provide better educational
infrastructure so that it is easier for the local population to attend school.
This means that it has to be assured that the next school is not many miles
away but rather within walking distance so that also children of poor families who do
not own a car can attend school on a regular basis.
Moreover, building an online course infrastructure may be another great way
to improve the overall education levels of the general public.

Financial support for poor families

It is also crucial to support poor families with financial subsidies so that their
kids are able to attend school. This is quite important to fight a lack of education
since

poverty is a main cause why children are not able to go to school. By supporting
poor families, educational inequality could be fought to a certain extent.

Raise awareness on the importance of education

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

Many people might not even be aware of what a lack of education really
means for their children. Parents may believe that a basic education taught at home
is sufficient to succeed in life since they do not know better.
However, with our technological progress, it is likely that education will be
more important than ever to succeed in our nowadays job market.

More tolerance regarding education

It is also crucial that we change the mind of people in a way that they regard
education as a valuable thing. In some cultures, education is not regarded as
important at all and some parents even do not want their kids to become educated
since they fear that their kids will leave them if they give them too many options in
life.

Minimum wages
An indirect way to fight low education levels may be by setting or even
increasing minimum wages. The introduction of minimum wages may likely decrease
the level of poverty, which may in turn translate into better chances for children to be
able to attend school.

Increase in quality regarding social security

Better social security schemes are also crucial to fight a lack of education. It
has to be assured that everyone gets basic aid in case he or she becomes
unemployed. This should also include financial support for children to send them to
school, even if their parents are unemployed.
By setting up more sophisticated social security schemes, the access of
children to proper education could be improved.

Improvements in health insurance

Educational inequality could also be fought by introducing better health
insurance schemes. People who lack proper health insurance may be at great risk to
suffer from severe long-term damages related to the absence of medical treatment in
case of illness.
This in turn may lead to a lack of education for their children since these
persons may not be able to work anymore and will therefore likely not be able to pay
for the tuition fees for their children.

Support for children from difficult family conditions

Children who experience violence at home may also be at greater risk to
suffer from significant lacks of education since they may become mentally sick which
may distract them to learn and progress.

Moreover, their parents may not even care at all about their children’s education
which may further exacerbate the issue.

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Improve quality of teachers

In order to improve the overall education levels, we also have to make sure
that the quality of the teachers is sufficient. If the education of teachers is quite low,
chances are that also the education levels of school kids will suffer since these
teachers will not be able to teach sufficiently advanced things.

Close teacher gaps

In regions where teacher gaps are an issue, local authorities should try to
recruit more teachers so that children get a better individual education which may
improve their overall education level and therefore may mitigate the problem of
educational inequality.

Improve access to education for girls and women

In countries and regions where girls and women are still discriminated against
due to their gender, it is crucial to raise the awareness that girls are equally
important compared to boys when it comes to the supply with proper education.
By doing so, the value systems in these regions may change and girls may
get better access to educational facilities.

Conclusion
A lack of education is a big global problem. Especially in poor countries, many
children suffer from educational inequality, which may in turn lead to several severe
issues when these children turn into grownups.
Therefore, it is crucial to fight the problem of a lack of education on a global
scale. By doing so, we can ensure a brighter future for many people worldwide.

o Unemployment
Unemployment Solutions and What's Most Cost-Effective
BY KIMBERLY AMADEO Updated March 25, 2020
Source: https://www.thebalance.com/unemployment-solutions-3306211

The solution for unemployment is, of course, to create new jobs. In 2016,
50,000 to 110,00 jobs per month needed to be created to prevent the unemployment
level from rising.
When unemployment creeps above 6% to 7% and stays there, it means the
economy can't create enough new jobs. That's when the government steps in.2
For historical data on U.S. unemployment trends, the Bureau of Labor
Statistics publishes the unemployment rate by year.3 It reports the annual
percentage of the unemployed in the labor force, as far back as 1949. It also
indicates the success or failure
of the fiscal and monetary policies through the years, since they affect the rate of
unemployment.

Monetary Policy
The first solution is expansionary monetary policy from the Federal Reserve.
It's powerful, quick, and effective. Lower interest rates make it easier for families to

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

borrow what they need. That includes expensive items like cars, homes, and
consumer electronics. It stimulates enough demand to put the economy back on
track. Low interest rates also allow businesses to borrow for less. That gives them
the financial capital to hire enough workers to meet rising demand.5

Fiscal Policy
If the recession is really severe, then monetary policy might not be enough on
its own. That's when fiscal policy is needed. The government must either cut taxes or
increase spending to stimulate the economy. An expansionary fiscal policy is slower
than monetary policy to get started. It takes time for Congress and the president to
agree on the next steps. But it can be more effective once executed. It also provides
much-needed confidence that the government will turn things around. Confidence is
crucial for convincing people to spend now for a better future.6
Cutting taxes works like lowering interest rates. Both give businesses and
consumers more money to spend. That increases demand. It gives businesses more
cash to invest and hire more workers.

Government spending can take the form of jobs programs. The government
hires employees directly. It also contracts with companies to build things and provide
services. It provides consumers with the cash they need to buy more products.8

The Most Cost-Effective Solution

Dollar for dollar, what's the best investment that creates the most jobs? A
University of Massachusetts Amherst study found that building mass transit is the
most cost-effective solution. One billion dollars spent on public transportation creates
19,795 construction jobs.9
The next is unemployment benefits. According to the Center for American
Progress, unemployment insurance led to the creation of 1.6 million jobs on average
each quarter from 2008 to 2010.The unemployed are most likely to spend every
dime they get. They buy basics like groceries, clothing, and housing. As a result,
every dollar spent on unemployment benefits stimulates $1.64 in demand.11

How can $1 create $1.64? It does it through the ripple effect. For example, a dollar
spent at the grocery store pays for the food. It also helps pay the clerk's salary, the
truckers who haul the food, and even the farmers who grow it. The clerks, truckers,
and farmers then buy groceries. This ripple effect keeps demand strong, creating
added benefit. Stores keep their employees to supply the goods and services the
unemployed need. Without these benefits, demand would drop. Then retailers would
need to lay off their workers, increasing unemployment rates.

Unemployment benefits work fast. The government writes a check that goes
directly into the economy. Public works projects take longer to get implemented. The
plans must be updated, workers hired, and supplies delivered.
The third-best unemployment solution is funding education. One billion dollars
spent hiring teachers adds $1.3 billion to the economy. Better-educated people can
get higher-paying jobs. They can buy more things with the higher wages they earn.
Each billion also creates 17,687 jobs. That's much better than defense spending. It

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only creates 8,555 jobs for the same investment. Defense is more capital-intensive.
Modern defense relies more on drones, F-35s, and aircraft carriers than soldiers.9
The most popular fiscal stimulus is across-the-board income tax cuts. That's
not the most cost-effective, according to the UMass/Amherst study. One billion
dollars in cuts creates 10,779 jobs. Workers only spend half the money, which in this
case is only $505 million.
As a result, reductions in the tax rate damage the economy. Most people don't
realize they are getting a break until tax time. The tax cut means they pay less in
taxes, but they still have to pay. Psychologically, they are less likely to spend
anything extra. It just doesn't feel like a bonus. As a result, people are more liable to
save anything they get or use it to pay down other debts.1213
A more effective tax cut is in businesses' payroll taxes. The best place to give
business tax relief is with small businesses. They produce 65% of all new jobs.14

Fiscal Policy Risks

The downside of fiscal policy is it adds to the budget deficit. That creates
more government debt. As debt approaches 100% of the economy's total output, it
slows economic growth. Investors could lose the desire for that government's debt.
This makes interest rates rise, increasing the cost of borrowing.15
Advocates of supply-side economics say that, over time, tax cuts boost the
economy enough to replace any lost tax revenue. But according to the Laffer Curve,
that's only true if taxes are over a certain threshold to start with.16

The Bottom Line

The government uses two policies to tackle unemployment: monetary and
fiscal.

Expansionary monetary policy increases the money supply and:

Has more immediate effects.
Stimulates demand, production; and ultimately, employment.
Is managed by the Federal Reserve or a central bank.5
Fiscal policies include government spending and tax cuts. These:

Take more time to have an impact.

Have greater impact on consumerism, so they are more effective as economic
stimuli.
Unfortunately, they increase government debt and add to the budget deficit.

The most cost-effective solutions are fiscal. Building mass transit, granting
unemployment benefits, funding the educational sector, and payroll tax cuts allow
consumers to gain more income which they spend to spur demand.9

o Government Corruption
How do we define corruption?
Source: http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/anticorrupt/corruptn/cor02.htm

The term corruption covers a broad range of human actions. To understand its effect
on an economy or a political system, it helps to unbundle the term by identifying

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

specific types of activities or transactions that might fall within it. In considering its
strategy the Bank sought a usable definition of corruption and then developed a
taxonomy of the different forms corruption could take consistent with that definition.
We settled on a straightforward definition—the abuse of public office for private
gain.1 Public office is abused for private gain when an official accepts, solicits, or
extorts a bribe. It is also abused when private agents actively offer bribes to
circumvent public policies and processes for competitive advantage and profit. Public
office can also be abused for personal benefit even if no bribery occurs, through
patronage and nepotism, the theft of state assets, or the diversion of state revenues.
This definition is both simple and sufficiently broad to cover most of the corruption
that the Bank encounters, and it is widely used in the literature. Bribery occurs in the
private sector, but bribery in the public sector, offered or extracted, should be the
Bank's main concern, since the Bank lends primarily to governments and supports
government policies, programs, and projects.

Bribery. Bribes are one of the main tools of corruption. They can be used by
private parties to "buy" many things provided by central or local governments, or
officials may seek bribes in supplying those things.

Government contracts. Bribes can influence the government's choice of firms to

supply goods, services, and works, as well as the terms of their contracts. Firms may
bribe to win a contract or to ensure that contractual breaches are tolerated.
Government benefits. Bribes can influence the allocation of government benefits,
whether monetary benefits (such as subsidies to enterprises or individuals or access
to pensions or unemployment insurance) or in-kind benefits (such as access to
certain schools, medical care, or stakes in enterprises being privatized).
Lower taxes. Bribes can be used to reduce the amount of taxes or other fees
collected by the government from private parties. Such bribes may be proposed by
the tax collector or the taxpayer. In many countries the tax bill is negotiable.
Licenses. Bribes may be demanded or offered for the issuance of a license that
conveys an exclusive right, such as a land development concession or the
exploitation of a natural resource. Sometimes politicians and bureaucrats
deliberately put in place policies that create control rights which they profit from by
selling.

Time. Bribes may be offered to speed up the government's granting of permission to

carry out legal activities, such as company registration or construction permits.
Bribes can also be extorted by the threat of inaction or delay.
Legal outcomes. Bribes can change the outcome of the legal process as it applies
to private parties, by inducing the government either to ignore illegal activities (such
as drug dealing or pollution) or to favor one party over another in court cases or
other legal proceedings.
The government benefits purchased with bribes vary by type and size. Contracts and
other benefits can be enormous (grand or wholesale corruption) or very small (petty
or retail corruption), and the impact of misinterpretation of laws can be dramatic or
minor. Grand corruption is often associated with international business transactions
and usually involves politicians as well as bureaucrats. The bribery transaction may
take place entirely outside the country. Petty corruption may be pervasive throughout

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the public sector if firms and individuals regularly experience it when they seek a
license or a service from government. The bribes may be retained by individual
recipients or pooled in an elaborate sharing arrangement. The sums involved in
grand corruption may make newspaper headlines around the world, but the
aggregate costs of petty corruption, in terms of both money and economic
distortions, may be as great if not greater.

Theft. Theft of state assets by officials charged with their stewardship is also
corruption. An extreme form is the large-scale "spontaneous" privatization of state
assets by enterprise managers and other officials in some transition economies. At
the other end of the scale is petty theft of items such as office equipment and
stationery, vehicles, and fuel. The perpetrators of petty theft are usually middle- and
lower-level officials, compensating, in some cases, for inadequate salaries. Asset
control systems are typically weak or nonexistent, as is the institutional capacity to
identify and punish wrongdoers.

Theft of government financial resources is another form of corruption. Officials may

pocket tax revenues or fees (often with the collusion of the payer, in effect combining
theft with bribery), steal cash from treasuries, extend advances to themselves that
are never repaid, or draw pay for fictitious "ghost" workers, a pattern well
documented in the reports of audit authorities. In such cases financial control
systems typically have broken down or are neglected by managers.

Political and bureaucratic corruption. Corruption within government can take place
at both the political and the bureaucratic levels. The first may be independent of the
second, or there may be collusion. At one level, controlling political corruption
involves election laws, campaign finance regulations, and conflict of interest rules for
parliamentarians. These types of laws and regulations lie beyond the mandate and
expertise of the Bank but nevertheless are part of what a country needs to control
corruption.2 At another level corruption may be intrinsic to the way power is
exercised and may be impossible to reduce through lawmaking alone. In the extreme
case state institutions may be infiltrated by criminal elements and turned into
instruments of individual enrichment.

Isolated and systemic corruption. Corruption in a society can be rare or

widespread. If it is rare, consisting of a few individual acts, it is straightforward
(though seldom easy) to detect and punish. In such cases noncorrupt behavior is the
norm, and institutions in both the public and private sectors support integrity in public
life. Such institutions, both formal and informal, are sufficiently strong to return the
system to a noncorrupt equilibrium. In contrast, corruption is systemic (pervasive or
entrenched) where bribery, on a large or small scale, is routine in dealings between
the public sector and firms or individuals. Where systemic corruption exists, formal
and informal rules are at odds with one another; bribery may be illegal but is
understood by everyone to be routine in transactions with the government. Another
kind of equilibrium prevails, a systemic corruption "trap" in which the incentives are
strong for firms, individuals, and officials to comply with and not fight the system. And
there may be different degrees of coordination between those taking bribes, ranging
from uncontrolled extortion by multiple officials to highly organized bribe collection

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and distribution systems. Antibribery laws notwithstanding, there are many countries
in which bribery characterizes the rules of the game in private-public interactions.
Systemic corruption may occur uniformly across the public sector, or it may be
confined to certain agencies—such as customs or tax authorities, public works or
other ministries, or particular levels of government.3

Corruption in the private sector. Fraud and bribery can and do take place in the
private sector, often with costly results. Unregulated financial systems permeated
with fraud can undermine savings and deter foreign investment. They also make a
country vulnerable to financial crises and macroeconomic instability. Entire banks or
savings and loan institutions may be taken over by criminals for the purpose of
wholesale fraud. Popular support for privatization or the deepening of financial
markets can be eroded if poor regulation leads to small shareholders or savers
withdrawing when confronted by insider dealings and the enrichment of managers.
And a strong corporate focus on profitability may not prevent individual employees
soliciting bribes from suppliers. Furthermore, when corruption is systemic in the
public sector, firms that do business with government agencies can seldom escape
participating in bribery.

While noting the existence of fraud and corruption in the private sector and the
importance of controlling it, this report is concerned with corruption in the public
sector. Public sector corruption is arguably a more serious problem in developing
countries, and controlling it may be a prerequisite for controlling private sector
corruption.4 Still, Bank activities can also promote the control of bribery and fraud in
the private sector by helping countries strengthen the legal framework to support a
market economy and by encouraging the growth of professional bodies that set
standards in areas like accounting and auditing. In the long run, controlling
corruption in the private sector may require improvements in business culture and
ethics.

What are the causes of corruption?

The causes of corruption are always contextual, rooted in a country's policies,
bureaucratic traditions, political development, and social history. Still, corruption
tends to flourish when institutions are weak and government policies generate
economic rents. Some characteristics of developing and transition settings make
corruption particularly difficult to control. The normal motivation of public sector
employees to work productively may be undermined by many factors, including low
and declining civil service salaries and promotion unconnected to performance.
Dysfunctional government budgets, inadequate supplies and equipment, delays in
the release of budget funds (including pay), and a loss of organizational purpose
also may demoralize staff. The motivation to remain honest may be further
weakened if senior officials and political leaders use public office for private gain or if
those who resist corruption lack protection. Or the public service may have long
been dominated by patron-client relationships, in which the sharing of bribes and
favors has become entrenched. In some countries pay levels may always have been
low, with the informal understanding that staff will find their own ways to supplement
inadequate pay. Sometimes these conditions are exacerbated by closed political

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systems dominated by narrow vested interests and by international sources of

corruption associated with major projects or equipment purchases.

The dynamics of corruption in the public sector can be depicted in a simple model.
The opportunity for corruption is a function of the size of the rents under a public
official's control, the discretion that official has in allocating those rents, and the
accountability that official faces for his or her decisions.5 Monopoly rents can be
large in highly regulated economies and, as noted above, corruption breeds demand
for more regulation. In transition economies economic rents can be enormous
because of the amount of formerly state-owned property essentially "up for grabs."
The discretion of many public officials may also be large in developing and transition
economies, exacerbated by poorly defined, ever-changing, and inadequately
disseminated rules and regulations. Finally, accountability is typically weak in these
settings. The ethical values of a well-performing bureaucracy may have been eroded
or never established. Rules on conduct and conflict of interest may be unenforced,
financial management systems (which normally record and control the collection of
revenues and the expenditure of budgeted resources) may have broken down, and
there may be no formal mechanism to hold public officials accountable for results.
The watchdog institutions that should scrutinize government performance, such as
ombudsmen, external auditors, and the press, may be ineffectual. And special
anticorruption bodies may have been turned into partisan instruments whose real
purpose is not to detect fraud and corruption but to harass political opponents.

A defining characteristic of the environment in which corruption occurs is a

divergence between the formal and the informal rules governing behavior in the
public sector. The Bank is unaware of any country that does not have rules against
corruption, although not all countries have all the rules that may be necessary.
These range from laws making it a criminal offense to bribe a public official to public
service regulations dealing with the expected behavior of public officials, conflicts of
interest, the acceptance of gifts, and the duty to report fraud. Government
agencies—police and army, tax and customs departments, local governments, and
public enterprises—may have their own regulations and codes of behavior. Organic
laws, often embedded in constitutions, cover budgeting, accounting, and auditing,
supported by laws and regulations on public procurement and the safeguarding of
public assets. In addition, there are laws on the conduct of elections and the
appointment of judges, and codes governing the conduct of legislators. Some of
these laws are a colonial inheritance, some have been adapted from countries with a
similar legal tradition, and some are additions to existing laws (for example, providing
for special anticorruption commissions and other watchdog bodies).

Where corruption is systemic, the formal rules remain in place, but they are
superseded by informal rules.6 It may be a crime to bribe a public official, but in
practice the law is not enforced or is applied in a partisan way, and informal rules
prevail. Government tender boards may continue to operate even though the criteria
by which contracts are awarded have changed. Seen in this light, strengthening
institutions to control corruption is about shifting the emphasis back to the formal
rules. This implies acknowledging that a strong legal framework to control corruption
requires more than having the right legal rules in place. It means addressing the

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sources of informality, first by understanding why the informal rules are at odds with
the formal rules and then by tackling the causes of divergence. In some countries the
primary reason for divergence may be political, a manifestation of the way power is
exercised and retained. This limits what the Bank can do to help outside the
framework of its projects. In other countries the reason may be weak public
management systems and inappropriate policies, which the Bank can help improve.

What do economics and political science tell us?

While it would be easy to say that all corruption is bad, the Bank must base its
approach on evidence and analysis of corruption's effects on development. The
political sensitivity surrounding issues of governance underscores the need for such
a foundation. In preparing this report, the Bank examined the conclusions drawn by
economic researchers working on the topic, the perspectives of disciplines other
than economics, and the evidence from the Bank's operational work.

Economic research. The body of research addressing the economic effects of

corruption has grown significantly in recent years. The research is both
macroeconomic and microeconomic, theoretical and empirical. Its conclusions
depend in part on what the researcher views as the bottom line: short-term economic
efficiency in private markets, long-term dynamic efficiency and economic growth,
equity and fairness, or political legitimacy.

One strand of literature explores, primarily from a theoretical perspective, the likely
economic effects of different forms of corruption. Some writings of this group argue
that corruption can be efficiency enhancing. First, the argument is made, corruption
may not distort the short-run efficiency of an economy if it merely entails a transfer of
economic rents from a private party to a government official. Thus a bribe to an
official who is allocating, say, foreign exchange or credit in short supply can be seen
as a market payment for ensuring that resources go to the party most likely to use
them efficiently (the one who can pay the highest bribe). The problem with this line of
reasoning is that it fails to take into account any objective other than short-term
efficiency. In the long run, expectations of bribery may distort the number and types
of contracts put up for bid, the method used to award contracts, and the speed or
efficiency with which public officials do their work in the absence of bribes. It may
also delay macroeconomic policy reform. In addition, the gains from such bribery
may be inequitably distributed (accessible only to certain firms and public officials).

Second, bribes can theoretically increase economic efficiency if they allow firms to
avoid overly restrictive regulations or confiscatory tax rates. That is, bribes lower the
costs of bad regulations to firms that bribe. There may be some validity to this
argument, particularly in the short run. Yet such bribery defuses pressure for broader
reform and invites firms to evade good regulations as well as bad. Furthermore, the
costs of such a system may fall disproportionately on smaller firms.8 A policy
framework based on many legal restrictions and widespread bribery to avoid them is
like a highly regressive system of taxes on the private sector, and few would argue
for such a system in developing countries. And in some transition economies such

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restrictions have proliferated in an uncontrolled way with the express purpose of

extracting rents. This causes a shift of economic activity to the informal sector.

To summarize, models purporting to show that corruption can have positive

economic effects are usually looking only at static effects in the short run. In the long
run, opportunities for bribery are likely to lead public officials to change the
underlying rules of the game or their own behavior in the absence of bribes, and the
results are likely to be costly in terms of economic efficiency, political legitimacy, and
basic fairness.

Another strand of literature examines the links between investment, economic

growth and the quality of government institutions.9 It finds that weak public
institutions, as evidenced by unreliable contract enforcement, unclear property rights,
unpredictable policies, inefficient public administration, corruption, and other
indicators, significantly reduce private investment and lead to slower growth. While
useful in highlighting the broad economic effects of institutional deficiency, much of
the literature has been unable to separate the effect of corruption from other
dimensions of government quality.10

Finally, there is the uneven performance of countries to contend with. While few
would disagree that corruption has undermined development in Africa and has
slowed the emergence of well-functioning market economies in the former Soviet
Union, the coexistence of high growth and systemic corruption in some Asian
countries challenges those who believe that corruption is always economically
harmful. Several explanations have been suggested. First, perhaps predictability is
what matters, and some governments reliably deliver what is "bought" with bribes
while other governments do not.11 Second, others view highly concentrated
corruption at the top of the political system (cited as more the model in some Asian
settings) as less distortionary than uncontrolled corruption at lower levels (as in parts
of the former Soviet Union).12 Third, if political systems are well established and the
rules of the game are known to all, the transactions costs of rent seeking may be
less costly than in less stable, less certain environments. Fourth, corruption may be
imposing environmental and social costs that are not captured in national accounts
data. We do not know these costs, and country experience differs widely even within
Asia. Nobody, however, argues that corruption is good for development, and recent
research suggests that corruption may be restraining growth even in Asia.13 What is
clear is that the nature and dynamics of corruption vary greatly among countries,
making it a diverse and complex phenomenon to address.

Political science. Political scientists look beyond the visible signs of corruption to
the broader setting in which it occurs. They see corruption in relation to the
legitimacy of the state, the patterns of political power, and the engagement of civil
society. Corruption may be a manifestation of the way political power is contested
and exercised. To the leadership the creation and allocation of state rents serves
political purposes: rewarding supporters, buying off opponents, ensuring the backing
of key groups, managing ethnic diversity, or simply accumulating resources to fight
elections. To obtain these resources, leaders may forge alliances with business
groups or create and distribute rents through the bureaucratic apparatus. The

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resulting policies may favor or discourage capital accumulation and economic

growth, depending on the nature of the alliances struck.14 Politicians in such
countries may be aware of the distortionary consequences of such rents but view
them as a necessary tool of political management. If this is the case, the pattern of
corruption will change only if the power structure changes, which may result from a
popular outcry against corruption.

Political scientists also take a historical perspective. Over time most industrial
countries have developed merit-based bureaucratic values, institutionalized
competitive politics, established transparent government processes, and fostered an
active media and an informed civil society. These mechanisms constrain political and
bureaucratic corruption, making it the exception rather than the norm. The transition
may be spurred by an enlightened ruler or, more likely, by the growing power of new
political groups with an interest in better-performing government. In developing
countries, in contrast, government institutions are weaker, civil society is less
engaged, and political and bureaucratic processes are less accountable and
transparent. An effective state apparatus and capacity for law enforcement may be
virtually nonexistent. In such settings, sustained progress in building an honest and
effective state apparatus requires addressing the mix of factors in the state and in
society that give rise to both corruption and weak social and economic performance.
This is an exceedingly complex and long-term effort.15

Public management. The public management view of corruption is clear-cut.

Systemic corruption, in the form of graft and patronage and the inefficiencies that
accompanied it, spurred the nineteenth-century reforms in Europe and North
America that created the modern bureaucratic state. Corruption opposes the
bureaucratic values of equity, efficiency, transparency, and honesty. Thus it weakens
the ethical fabric of the civil service and prevents the emergence of well-performing
government capable of developing and implementing public policies that promote
social welfare.

The machinery of modern government, as it evolved in industrial countries and has

been transferred to developing countries, includes systems that protect public
organizations from corruption and promote accountability. These systems, including
a meritocratic civil service and watchdogs such as supreme audit institutions,
ombudsmen, and public service commissions, should not be neglected. Some
OECD countries seeking to improve government performance through New Public
Management reforms are developing "risk management" perspectives on corruption.
But they do so within a framework of strong financial management control systems
and a renewed emphasis on the ethical values of public service. While economies
may still grow in countries in which corruption is entrenched in the public sector, the
public management view is that successive stages of economic and social
development will be harder if not impossible to achieve without well-performing
government. Ultimately, countries need to create durable institutions to foster and
protect integrity in public life if public policy is to achieve the objectives (such as
poverty reduction and environmental protection) that are at the core of sustainable
economic and social development.

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Combating Corruption
Source: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/governance/brief/anti-corruption

The World Bank Group considers corruption a major challenge to its twin goals of
ending extreme poverty by 2030 and boosting shared prosperity for the poorest 40
percent of people in developing countries. In addition, reducing corruption is at the
heart of the Sustainable Development Goals and achieving the ambitious targets set
for Financing for Development.

Corruption has a disproportionate impact on the poor and most vulnerable,

increasing costs and reducing access to services, including health, education and
justice. Think, for example, of the effect of counterfeit drugs or vaccinations on the
health outcomes of children and the life-long impacts that may have on them.

Empirical studies have shown that the poor pay the highest percentage of their
income in bribes. For example, in Paraguay, the poor pay 12.6 percent of their
income to bribes while high-income households pay 6.4 percent. The comparable
numbers in Sierra

Leone are 13 percent and 3.8 percent respectively. Every stolen dollar, euro, peso,
yuan, rupee, or ruble robs the poor of an equal opportunity in life and prevents
governments from investing in their human capital.

Corruption erodes trust in government and undermines the social contract. This is
cause for concern across the globe, but particularly in contexts of fragility and
violence, as corruption fuels and perpetuates the inequalities and discontent that
lead to fragility, violent extremism, and conflict.
Corruption impedes investment, with consequent effects on growth and jobs.
Countries capable of confronting corruption use their human and financial resources
more efficiently, attract more investment, and grow more rapidly.

The Bank Group recognizes that corruption comes in different forms. It might impact
service delivery, such as when police officers ask for bribes to perform routine
services. Corruption might unfairly determine the winners of government contracts,
with awards favoring friends or relatives of government officials. Or it might affect
more fundamental issues of capture, such as how institutions work and who controls
them, a form of corruption that is often the costliest in terms of overall economic
impact. Each type of corruption is important and tackling all of them is critical to
achieving progress and sustainable change.

Successful anti-corruption efforts are often led by a 'coalition of concerned' –

politicians and senior government officials, the private sector, and by citizens,
communities, and civil society organizations. Increasingly, successfully addressing
corruption will require the concerted attention of both governments and businesses,
as well as the use of the latest advanced technologies to capture, analyze, and
share data to prevent, detect, and deter corrupt behavior.

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The Bank Group leverages innovative technologies to strengthen public sector

performance and productivity, confront corruption and to help foster greater trust and
accountability, particularly in more fragile and conflict environments.

Much of the world's costliest forms of corruption could not happen without institutions
in wealthy nations: the private sector firms that give large bribes, the financial
institutions that accept corrupt proceeds, and the lawyers and accountants who
facilitate corrupt transactions. Data on international financial flows shows that money
is moving from poor to wealthy countries in ways that fundamentally undermine
development.

APPROACH

Corruption is a global problem that requires global solutions. The Bank Group has
been working to mitigate the pernicious effects of corruption in its client countries for
more than 20 years. To reaffirm the Bank’s leadership, President Kim joined leaders
from 40 countries at the 2016 Anti-Corruption Summit hosted by the United
Kingdom, committing a range of steps to confront corruption.

The Bank Group works at the country, regional, and global levels to help its clients
build capable, transparent, and accountable institutions and design and implement
anticorruption programs relying on the latest discourse and innovations. The Bank
Group’s work revolves around sustainability and changing outcomes by helping both
state and non-state actors establish the competencies needed to implement policies
and practices that improve results and strengthen public integrity.

Additionally, the Bank Group works with the public and private sectors as well as civil
society to support efforts to prevent corruption, improve remedies to address
wrongdoing when it occurs as well as work towards improving behaviors, norms, and
standards needed to sustain anti-corruption efforts.

The Bank Group has included Governance and Institutions as a theme in IDA18 – its
Fund for the Poorest Countries – in order to focus global attention on the issue.

Fighting corruption within World Bank Group-financed projects:

The World Bank Group has a zero-tolerance policy toward corruption in its projects.
The Bank Group's approach to fighting corruption combines a proactive policy of
anticipating and avoiding risks in its own projects. The Bank Group subjects all
potential projects to rigorous scrutiny and works with clients to reduce possible
corruption risks that have been identified. The Bank Group’s independent Sanctions
System includes the Integrity Vice Presidency, which is responsible for investigating
allegations of fraud and corruption in World Bank-funded projects. Public complaint
mechanisms are built into projects to encourage and empower oversight, and
projects are actively supervised during implementation.

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When allegations of fraud and corruption are substantiated, companies involved in

misconduct are debarred from engaging in any new World Bank Group-financed
activity. Concerned governments receive the findings of World Bank Group
investigations. To date, the World Bank Group has publicly debarred or otherwise
sanctioned more than 700 firms and individuals.

In fiscal year 2018, the Bank Group debarred or otherwise sanctioned 83 firms and
individuals and recognized 73 cross-debarments from other multilateral development
banks. 66 Bank Group debarments were eligible for recognition by other multilateral
development banks in fiscal year 2018.

Helping countries fight corruption

When approaching anticorruption at the country level, the Bank frames its work in
what can be thought of as an ecosystem.

First, every effort must be made to meet corruption at the gate, putting in place
institutional systems and incentives to prevent corruption from occurring in the first
place. This includes mitigating and detecting potential risks, as well as addressing
weaknesses in the institutions critical to this effort.

Second, prevention must be built on the shoulders of credible deterrence, relying on

accountability and enforcement mechanisms sufficiently strong to send a message to
potential wrongdoers of the potential cost of their misconduct. Deterrence can take
many forms beyond criminal consequences, including administrative and civil
penalties and the Bank has created a world class sanctions and debarment
mechanism to tackle corruption in its projects.

Finally, it is critical to understand and influence the evolution of norms and standards
that can change incentives, strengthen public institutions, and thus move the needle
towards positive perceptions of government needed for longer-term and sustainable
efforts to combat corruption.

At the same time, the Bank Group is increasingly working to understand and address
the power asymmetries that enable the misuse of funds and other public goods, as
discussed in the 2017 World Development Report on Governance and the Law. The
Bank Group is supporting reforms ranging from e-procurement to enhancing
transparency that can help level the playing fields for those with less power.

o Malnourishment
Source: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malnutrition

Malnutrition refers to deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in a person’s intake of

energy and/or nutrients. The term malnutrition addresses 3 broad groups of
conditions:

• undernutrition, which includes wasting (low weight-for-height), stunting (low

height-for-age) and underweight (low weight-for-age);

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• micronutrient-related malnutrition, which includes micronutrient deficiencies (a

lack of important vitamins and minerals) or micronutrient excess; and
• overweight, obesity and diet-related noncommunicable diseases (such as
heart disease, stroke, diabetes and some cancers).

Various forms of malnutrition

Undernutrition

There are 4 broad sub-forms of undernutrition: wasting, stunting, underweight, and

deficiencies in vitamins and minerals. Undernutrition makes children in particular
much more vulnerable to disease and death.

Low weight-for-height is known as wasting. It usually indicates recent and severe

weight loss, because a person has not had enough food to eat and/or they have had
an infectious disease, such as diarrhoea, which has caused them to lose weight. A
young child who is moderately or severely wasted has an increased risk of death, but
treatment is possible.

Low height-for-age is known as stunting. It is the result of chronic or recurrent

undernutrition, usually associated with poor socioeconomic conditions, poor maternal
health and nutrition, frequent illness, and/or inappropriate infant and young child
feeding and care in early life. Stunting holds children back from reaching their
physical and cognitive potential.

Children with low weight-for-age are known as underweight. A child who is

underweight may be stunted, wasted, or both.

Micronutrient-related malnutrition

Inadequacies in intake of vitamins and minerals often referred to as micronutrients,

can also be grouped together. Micronutrients enable the body to produce enzymes,
hormones, and other substances that are essential for proper growth and
development.

Iodine, vitamin A, and iron are the most important in global public health terms; their
deficiency represents a major threat to the health and development of populations
worldwide, particularly children and pregnant women in low-income countries.

Overweight and obesity

Overweight and obesity is when a person is too heavy for his or her height.
Abnormal or excessive fat accumulation can impair health.

Body mass index (BMI) is an index of weight-for-height commonly used to classify

overweight and obesity. It is defined as a person’s weight in kilograms divided by the
square of his/her height in meters (kg/m²). In adults, overweight is defined as a BMI
of 25 or more, whereas obesity is a BMI of 30 or more.

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Overweight and obesity result from an imbalance between energy consumed (too
much) and energy expended (too little). Globally, people are consuming foods and
drinks that are more energy-dense (high in sugars and fats), and engaging in less
physical activity.

Diet-related noncommunicable diseases

Diet-related noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) include cardiovascular diseases

(such as heart attacks and stroke, and often linked with high blood pressure), certain
cancers, and diabetes. Unhealthy diets and poor nutrition are among the top risk
factors for these diseases globally.

Scope of the problem

In 2014, approximately 462 million adults worldwide were underweight, while 1.9
billion were either overweight or obese.

In 2016, an estimated 155 million children under the age of 5 years were suffering
from stunting, while 41 million were overweight or obese.

Around 45% of deaths among children under 5 years of age are linked to
undernutrition. These mostly occur in low- and middle-income countries. At the same
time, in these same countries, rates of childhood overweight and obesity are rising.

Who is at risk?

Every country in the world is affected by one or more forms of malnutrition.

Combating malnutrition in all its forms is one of the greatest global health challenges.

Women, infants, children, and adolescents are at particular risk of malnutrition.

Optimizing nutrition early in life—including the 1000 days from conception to a child’s
second birthday—ensures the best possible start in life, with long-term benefits.

Poverty amplifies the risk of, and risks from, malnutrition. People who are poor are
more likely to be affected by different forms of malnutrition. Also, malnutrition
increases health care costs, reduces productivity, and slows economic growth, which
can perpetuate a cycle of poverty and ill-health.

The United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition

On 1 April 2016, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly proclaimed 2016–2025
the United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition. The Decade is an unprecedented
opportunity for addressing all forms of malnutrition. It sets a concrete timeline for
implementation of the commitments made at the Second International Conference
on Nutrition (ICN2) to meet a set of global nutrition targets and diet-related NCD
targets by 2025, as well as relevant targets in the Agenda for Sustainable

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Development by 2030—in particular, Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2 (end

hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable
agriculture) and SDG 3 (ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all
ages).

Led by WHO and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO), the UN Decade of Action on Nutrition calls for policy action across 6 key
areas:

• creating sustainable, resilient food systems for healthy diets;

• providing social protection and nutrition-related education for all;
• aligning health systems to nutrition needs, and providing universal coverage
of essential nutrition interventions;
• ensuring that trade and investment policies improve nutrition;
• building safe and supportive environments for nutrition at all ages; and
• strengthening and promoting nutrition governance and accountability,
everywhere.

WHO response

WHO aims for a world free of all forms of malnutrition, where all people achieve
health and wellbeing. According to the 2016–2025 nutrition strategy, WHO works
with Member States and partners towards universal access to effective nutrition
interventions and to healthy diets from sustainable and resilient food systems. WHO
uses its convening power to help set, align and advocate for priorities and policies
that move nutrition forward globally; develops evidence-informed guidance based on
robust scientific and ethical frameworks; supports the adoption of guidance and
implementation of effective nutrition actions; and monitors and evaluates policy and
programme implementation and nutrition outcomes.

This work is framed by the Comprehensive implementation plan on maternal, infant,

and young child nutrition, adopted by Member States through a World Health
Assembly resolution in 2012. Actions to end malnutrition are also vital for achieving
the diet-related targets of the Global action plan for the prevention and control of
noncommunicable diseases 2013–2020, the Global strategy for women’s, children’s,
and adolescent’s health 2016–2030, and the 2030 Agenda for sustainable
development.

o Terrorism
How can I help prevent a terrorist attack?
https://www.government.nl/topics/counterterrorism-and-national-
security/question-and-answer/prevent-a-terrorist-attack

You can help reduce the chance of a terrorist attack by keeping an eye out for
suspicious situations, such as an unattended suitcase or someone with a
conspicuous level of interest in the security of a building.

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Be vigilant in public areas

• Be extra vigilant in places with large numbers of people, for example metro
and train stations, festivals and concert venues, and shopping centres.
• Check the location of the emergency exits in every building you enter.
• Don't leave your belongings unattended.

Report suspicious situations

Whether or not a situation is suspicious depends very much on the context. For
example, an unattended suitcase on a train platform does not necessarily mean
anything sinister. Still, the best course of action is to notify a member of staff straight
away. Or call the police.

o The 17 SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals)

Source:https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-
development-goals.html

What are the Sustainable Development Goals?

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals,
were adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015 as a universal call to
action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace
and prosperity by 2030.

The 17 SDGs are integrated—that is, they recognize that action in one area will
affect outcomes in others, and that development must balance social, economic
and environmental sustainability.

Through the pledge to Leave No One Behind, countries have committed to fast -
track progress for those furthest behind first. That is why the SDGs are designed
to bring the world to several life-changing ‘zeros’, including zero poverty, hunger,
AIDS and discrimination against women and girls.

Everyone is needed to reach these ambitious targets. The creativity, knowhow,

technology and financial resources from all of society is necessary to achieve the
SDGs in every context.

What is UNDP's role?

As the lead UN development agency, UNDP is well-placed to help implement the

Goals through our work in some 170 countries and territories.

We support countries in achieving the SDGs through integrated solutions.

Today’s complex challenges—from stemming the spread of disease to preventing
conflict—cannot be tackled neatly in isolation. For UNDP, this means focusing on

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systems, root causes and connections between challenges—not just thematic

sectors—to build solutions that respond to people’s daily realities.

Our track record working across the Goals provides us with a valuable experience
and proven policy expertise to ensure we all reach the targets set out in the SDGs
by 2030. But we cannot do this alone.

Achieving the SDGs requires the partnership of governments, private sector, civil
society and citizens alike to make sure we leave a better planet for future
generations.

o Global Issues, SDGs 2015-2030 and Education

The Why and How of School and Community Partnership

• Opportunities for School-Community Partnership
5 Steps to Better School/Community Collaboration
Simple ideas for creating a stronger network
By Brendan O'Keefe
October 19, 2011

Source: https://www.edutopia.org/blog/school-community-collaboration-brendan-
okeefe

As the old African proverb says, "It takes a village to raise a child." One
could imagine then that it would take a community to raise a school. We
can't rely on local, state, or federal governments to take ownership of the
issues we face locally. We need to work as a community to nurture our
schools for our particular community needs.

I believe the answer to real education/school transformation is strong,

authentic community connections and actions. When families, community
groups, business and schools band together to support learning, young
people achieve more in school, stay in schoo l longer, and enjoy the
experience more.

Great examples of school/community partnerships are happening all over

the world. We need more of them, and we need to ensure they are healthy
and relevant to the needs of 21st century learners.

Throughout my journey setting up the Reinventing School Challenge, I did a

significant amount of research to ensure I had a thorough understanding of
what existed already, what worked, and what was possible.

The more I searched, the themes for successful school transformation

emerged:
• Community/business school partnerships
• Parental collaboration

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• Curriculum connected to real world experiences

• Student voice
• Cross generation learning
• Locals designing solutions to local problems

Whole Community Engagement Is Key

To lift up and raise our schools to a place that suits all 21st century
learners, help needs to come from many parts of the community. The
leading roles should be alternated according to the n eed and focus of the
particular aspect of the transformation project.

If we respect each other and acknowledge our unique contribution, we can

move forward quickly in a positive environment where we can all be
teachers and learners.

I'm approaching this post from an inclusive, design-focused view, and I put
to you ideas that target and engage the four main players I believe can
make all the difference in transforming our schools and curriculum today:
students, parents, seniors/grandparents and local busines ses.

Step 1: Expand Your Vision of School to Include Community

Ryan Bretag writes, "Educators shouldn't be the only ones contributing. The
community should be creating questions, puzzles, quotes, mind benders,
trivia, philosophical and ethical challenges, thought provoking videos,
"graffiti walls," brainstorming spaces, and play areas."

There are so many opportunities for experiential learning to happen out in

the community surrounding the school. We just need to find ways to connect
core curriculum beyond the classroom by attracting the right people and
asking the right questions.

Step 2: Reach Out to All Stakeholders

One of the best ways to connect and create an authentic b ond is to go to the
people who matter most, and meet them on their own turf. A series of
community walks are a great way to start.

Get your teachers, some local businesses on board and go and knock on
people's doors, visit local businesses and senior homes and talk with them.
Try the same approach with groups of students. This time let the students
communicate what they hope and wish for their school and encourage them
to ask for mentoring and support.

Share your dreams for enhanced community-school partnerships, ask

people what matters to them, ask them how they might help, and show them
your passion. Deliver them an open invitation to reconnect, collaborate and
share their experience, skills and time to make a difference.

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Step 3: Create a Community Resource Map

A visual representation of your community and the various skills people
have to offer is a super way to understand what community resources are
available. If you build one, also point out the materials people can supply at
cost or for free, the time they can invest in projects, and how they can
connect to curriculum, and classroom activities. Include the networks they
can utilize to raise awareness of the needs of local children and families,
and always promote and foster resource-sharing and collaboration.

Use libraries to advocate for school-community partnerships and student

learning. Libraries are important hubs and can provide meaningful
connection points outside the school gates.

A community resource map can come in the form of a hand-drawn map (use
a graphic facilitator), Google Map, Mind Map or even a spreadsheet with
some visual outputs.

Step 4: Connect with Curriculum

Much of what we learn as children and adults happens outside the
classroom through real world experiences and from our peers, mentors or
on the job.

How might we connect today's core curriculum with the real world? That is
an important question that is in urgent need of answers. Kids today are
asking far to often for relevance in what they are learning. "Why am I
learning this? I'll never use this!" is a response far too often heard form the
mouths of young people today.

Let's find ways to work with local businesses and subject matter experts to
connect core curriculum to the outside world a nd design engaging learning
experiences in and out of the classroom. Check out Chapter 4 "Asking the
Experts" from Kathleen Cushman's wonderful book Fires in the Mind: What
Kids Can Tell Us About Motivation and Mastery.

Please consider using project-based learning. Try using a matching

technique to match students with subject matter experts, businesses and
community organisations. Here is a great book on the subject by Suzie
Boss. Reinventing Project-Based Learning: Your Field Guide to Real-World
Projects in the Digital Age.

Let's not forget the largely untapped wealth of experience and knowledge
that resides with retires, grandparents and millions of socially isolated
senior citizens in aged care facilities.

Step 5: A Design Challenge for the Community

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Here is an example of a community challenge to reinvent the school

experience. I created the Reinventing School Challenge earlier this year to
encourage discussion, empower youth, teachers and communities to design
and facilitate change locally.

Reinventing school can mean lots of things such as redesigning classrooms,

creating a community garden, creating an open and shared learning space,
designing a course, changing the way students participate in decision
making, you name it!

Using Stanford's K12 lab Design Thinking for Educators a methodology, or

process leading product and service designers use everyday, participants
collaborate to come up with ideas and learning experiences and then share
them online for all to benefit from

How Schools Can Benefit from Community Partnerships

▪ By Taylor Kremer (2017)

Schools experience many benefits by working with community organizations to

accomplish projects and programs that support students. Here are ways community
partnerships benefit both schools and communities.

Increase Impact
By partnering with a community organization you can combine your resources to
have a greater impact at a lower cost. Partnerships can broaden your reach beyond
your students to other children in the community. Pooling resources, such as staff,
volunteers, time, supplies, and space, can help reduce the costs of your programs.

Eliminate Competition
Schools and community organizations with similar goals and programs may be
competing with each other for the same grants and funding. By reaching out to
community organizations that share your goals, you can partner to write grants. Not
only does this increase your odds of funding by eliminating a potential competitor, it
also strengthens your grant proposals. Funders favor proposals where collaboration
extends the reach and impact of the grant. If a school does not have tax-exempt
status, using a community organization as a fiscal agent can widen the school’s
eligibility for grants.

Share Strengths and Expertise

Partnerships allow each organization to take the lead on aspects of the project
where they have expertise. For example, a school could partner with a community
organization to start an after-school program for students. The school may provide a
space to hold the program and identify students who would benefit from attending
the program, while the community organization reaches out to community members
and coordinates volunteers.

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

Schools that partner with community organizations can also reach out for other
needs their school faces. For example, community organizations are useful
resources for teachers who want to invite professionals from a particular field to their
classrooms to engage students in experiential learning.

Involve Your Community

Outside of school, students are interacting with their community on a daily basis.
Making connections in the community gives community members a sense of
responsibility and ownership over students’ learning, which leads individuals in
taking a more active role in supporting their local schools. It also encourages the
entire community to become teachers by contributing their knowledge and expertise
to students.

Community partnerships ultimately bring benefits to both the school and the
community. Partnering with a community organization increases a program’s impact,
strengthens grant proposals, and involves the community in students’ education.

• Legal Bases for Parents and Community Involvement

The Development and Implementation Of Parent and Community

Involvement Programs
https://www2.ed.gov/pubs/SER/ParentComm/chap3.html

Overview
While parents, family, and community members may assume specific roles as they
become involved in the education of children, for example as volunteers in the
classroom (see Epstein and Connors' typology, 1993), a synthesis of the literature
reveals three overarching roles that are created in the development and
implementation of parent and community involvement programs (Lyons, Robbins
and Smith, l983; Lynn, l994). Each of these roles is actualized in very different ways
in relationships in classrooms, schools, and school districts:

• Parents as the primary resource in the education of their children is best

exemplified in home learning. Home learning is the activity, or set of
activities, that parents and family members may engage in to help their
children succeed academically. This partnership role between parents and/or
family members and schools may have the greatest impact on achievement.
• Parents and community members as supporters and advocates for the
education of their children is facilitated through site-based school
restructuring. Restructuring schools to create parent and community
partnerships with schools focuses on organizational structure. Changing
activities; creating new relationships between parents, families, communities,
and schools; and implementing innovative strategies are ways that schools
can restructure to facilitate parent and community involvement in this role.
• Parents and community members as participants in the education of all
children incorporates a broader vision in the partnership between schools
and the populations they serve. Districtwide programs provide the vehicle

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

for parents and community members to be involved in roles that reach beyond
the immediate impact of an individual child to the impact on all children in the
district.

There are key program elements and strategies that are specific to those programs
that are designed and implemented to enhance the partnership roles of parents,
families, communities, and schools. Successful initiatives consider these program
elements and strategies in design, development, and implementation.

• The key program elements specific to home learning are: well-developed

local practices; a willingness of teachers to build on parent strengths; ongoing
recruitment using multiple methods; effective strategies that promote home
learning; and the home learning environment.
• School restructuring activities focus on the following key program elements:
an emphasis on quality education; family participation; and site-based
management.
• Key program elements for districtwide programs include: development and
implementation of policy; embracing the diversity of families and communities;
and a focus on the linkages with the community and other agencies.

This literature reveals that several key program elements cut across all levels of
the education system:

• Communication is a primary building block that takes into account the equal
participation by all the partners.
• Key players including students, parents, families, and community members
are the primary focus in the development and implementation of parent and
community involvement programs. Other key players may be teachers and
administrators.
• Resources such as funding, personnel, etc. are essential in the development
and implementation of parent and community involvement programs.

The roles of parents, families, and communities and the partnerships that are
created with schools speak to programs that are designed, developed, and
implemented at any grade level. Research literature on middle grade parent
involvement will be highlighted.

Overarching Roles Of Parents, Families, and Community Members in the

Development and Implementation of Programs
Parents as a Primary Resource in the Education of their Children

The research literature on enhancing parental roles in this regard generally focuses
on how parents can help their children through home learning activities and the ways
in which such activities can be optimized.

Home Learning

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

Involving parents in home learning activities vastly improves students' productivity

(Rich, l987a; Epstein, l99lb; Walberg, l984) Programs and activities that may be
called "home learning" take many forms, but most commonly include homework,
leisure reading, family discussions, educational games, and enrichment activities
(Moles, 1991).

Key Element: Well-developed local practices. Dauber and Epstein (1991:11)

asserted that "regardless of parent education, family size, student ability, or school
level (elementary or middle school), parents are more likely to become partners in
their children's education if they perceive that the schools have strong practices to
involve parents at school, at home on homework, and at home on reading activities."
Districts and schools play a key role in developing effective school-parent
partnerships to encourage home learning (Birman, l987; Hamilton and Cochran,
l988; Comer, l988b).

The most successful schools design adult-child learning programs with parents
(Crispeels, l99la) to fit the needs and expectations of families who intend to
participate (Zeldin, 1989; Epstein, 1989; Rich, l985; Slaughter and Epps, l987).
Training to work with families adds to the success. (Zeldin, 1989; Chrispeels, 1991a;
Dauber and Epstein, 1991).

Epstein (1991a) has concluded that for teachers, parent involvement in students'
home learning is largely an organizational problem. "Teachers must have clear,
easy, and reliable ways to (a) distribute learning activities (b) receive and process
messages from parents (c) evaluate the help students obtain at home, and (d)
continue to manage and evaluate the parent involvement practices" (Epstein,
1991a:4).

Key Element: A willingness of teachers to build on parent strengths. Effective

programs respect and utilize the strengths of all parents, regardless of parental
income, education, or social status (Zeldin, 1989) to form a strong partnership.
Further, successful programs view even minor involvement as the basis for later,
more active involvement (Eastman, 1988).

Research from the Johns Hopkins Surveys of Schools and Family Connections
(Epstein and Becker, 1987) showed that teachers believe that parents' help is
necessary if schools are to solve problems. Teachers mainly requested that parents
review or practice activities that were taught in class. Some researchers have
focused on how to increase teachers' understandings of the literacy practices that go
on in any home (Brice-Heath, 1983; Cochran, 1987; Slaughter, 1988) which
understanding have been shown to enhance teachers' effectiveness.

Key Element: Ongoing recruitment using multiple methods. Schools need to

use such strategies as home visits, community agencies and word-of-mouth for the
"hard to reach" parents (Zeldin, l989). School-generated print materials usually work
with middle class parents (Pickarts and Fargo, l975; McLaughlin and Shields, l987).
Rich (l985) offered suggestions for recruiting bilingual parents such as bilingual
hotline, bilingual media campaign, etc. In her review of Thompson's Family Math,

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

and Epstein's Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork, Chrispeels (1991a) found

that home learning activities were most effective when there was personal
communication between parents, families, and teachers (for example, receiving
invitations to visit in the school and phone calls about student progress), and when
the school provided translation, transportation, and child care.

Key Element: Effective strategies for promoting home learning. Many

researchers found that parents need specific advice and strategies to enable them to
engage in home learning activities. Successful programs have some of the following
components: l) prescriptive component (Rich, l986a); 2) flexible program to fit
parents' time (Zeldin, l989; Barber, l987); 3) meaningful and interesting (Brown,
l989); 4) on-going projects (Brown, l989; Epstein and Herrick, l99l); 5) parents can
ask questions and listen (Epstein, l99la and l99la:5); 6) personal support of parents
by teachers (Lightfoot, l975; Crispeels, l987b); and 7) teachers encourage parental
involvement (Dauber and Epstein, l99l:l3).

Key Element: The home learning environment. Several researchers pointed to

the importance of the home learning environment (Clark, 1983; Walberg, 1984;
Henderson, 1987; de Kanter, et al., 1986; Zeldin, 1989; Chrispeels, 1991a): overt
modeling of the importance of education, provision of youth enrichment activities,
appropriate household chores, and including children in family decision making . In
general, to promote student motivation to learn, family and school structures need to
be designed to support the developmental demands created by biological, cognitive,
personal, and social growth of the child as he/she matures (Lipsitz, 1984; Epstein,
l986b; Rich, l985).

Home learning in the middle grades. The major emphasis of activities that may be
termed "home learning" in grades four through eight include helping parents:

• become partners with teachers in encouraging children with their schoolwork;

• interact with their children at home to support school goals and programs;
• understand early adolescence and middle grade programs; and
• assist children with decisions that affect their own and the families' futures
(Epstein and Salinas, 1990).

Epstein and Herrick (1991) developed and evaluated a number of specific practices
that teachers could use to increase parent involvement in the home. One such
practice was the use of home learning packets in math and language arts in the first
year to which they added science and health in the second year. These were used
during the summer by parents of students who would enter grades seven and eight.
Evaluations showed that students who worked with their parents completed a greater
number of activities in the packets and that the packets had a moderate effect on
student performance for some students, especially those who had marginal skills.

Parents and Community Members as Supporters and Advocates for the

Education of their Children

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The focus of the review in this area is on practices that are implemented at the
school building level to encourage the role of parents as supporters of their children's
education: to promote contacts with all parents, to help parents learn more about
their children's school programs and progress, and to help them gain information on
home learning activities and home supports for education. The larger community
must also be given options for involvement (USED, l994).

Key Element: A focus on quality education for all students. The research
literature for Effective Schools emphasizes the importance of developing the abilities
of all children regardless of their current achievement level or their cultural, ethnic, or
socioeconomic background. The concept of teaching the whole child has extended
upward from the elementary level. Educators must consider the social, emotional,
physical as well as the academic development of the middle grade student (Davies,
1991).

The changing structure of the family and its related needs must be considered in
relationship to the school and its available resources (Epstein, 1988). Schools and
families must work together to form high, yet realistic expectations that lead to
success for all students as they restructure the school to meet their local needs
(American Indian Science and Engineering Society, 1989; Bliss, 1986; Davies,
1991).

Key Element: Family participation in their children's education. Davies (1991)

recommended that we change from parent involvement to family involvement
because for some children, it is the grandparents, aunts and uncles, brothers and
sisters or even neighbors who make the most significant contribution in supporting
the child's educational development outside of the school. Schools must take the
lead in helping families have the knowledge and skills to provide support to their
children (Bliss, 1986; Moles, 1990; Slaughter and Epps, 1987). Principals need to
take the lead to ensure that parent and community involvement is a high priority for
the school staff, parents, and the community (Purnell and Gotts, 1985).

Specific learning activities can be promoted by specific school practices: providing

homework hotlines, after-school homework tutoring sessions, or assigning interactive

projects that require parents' assistance (Chrispeels, 1991a). Homework must be

clear, of an appropriate quantity, and integrated into the classroom (Walberg, 1984;
Chrispeels, 1991a). Researchers also suggested that the school provide surrogate
family members for students whose parents cannot participate (Davies, 1988).

Key Element: Site-based management. Site-based management has emphasized

the importance of appropriate policies and local decision making as it relates to the
development of effective schools where parents are involved. The Effective Schools
research highlighted the importance of involvement of the school staff and parents in
the development and implementation of comprehensive school improvement plans.
Without such staff and community involvement from the grass roots level both

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

commitment and motivation to carry out these plans was often lacking (Taylor and
Levine, l99l; Smith and O'Day, 1991). In 1987, the Committee for Economic
Development issued a report, Children In Need: Investment Strategies for the
Educationally Disadvantaged, that argued for this grassroots strategy for school
improvement.

Parent Involvement in middle grade school restructuring. Berla, Henderson, and

Kerewsky (1989) outlined the kinds of things that middle schools should be doing if
an effective school/parent/family partnership is in place:

• A clear, welcoming parent involvement policy is published for all to see and
posted in an obvious place.
• The school is organized so that at least one person knows each child well.
• The school office is friendly and open.
• The school sponsors parent-to-parent communication and events.
• A full-time parent contact person is responsible for bringing parents and
school together.
• There is a parent room in the school building.
• Parents and school staff work together to determine parents' needs and
provide necessary services.
• Parents whose primary language is not English are made to feel welcome at
the school and a translator is provided to help them communicate.

The Teachers Involve Parents In Schoolwork (TIPS) model (Epstein, 1987b) and the
New Partnerships for Student Achievement (NPSA) program (Home and School
Institute, 1988; Zeldin, 1989) provide elementary and middle school teachers with
structured homework assignments in reading, language arts, math, science, and the
arts that parents and students work together to complete. Megaskills (Rich, 1985),
on the other hand, teaches parents more generic skills to use in everyday life to help
them to motivate their children to succeed in school. School and home (Smith, in
Zeldin, 1990) offers consistent learning activities for children and rewards them daily
for completed homework.

Parents And Community Members as Participants in the Education of All

Children

In this section the focus is on districtwide programs as a vehicle for meeting both the
common and diverse needs of children. Key elements and the types of linkages that
foster positive interactions are addressed.

Districtwide Parent and Community Involvement Programs

The 1989 Gallup Poll of the Public's Attitude Toward the Public Schools (Gallup and
Elam, 1989) revealed that a majority of parents believed that they should be involved
in tangible ways, e.g., in decisions on allocation of school funds and selection and
hiring of school administrators, in the reform/restructuring of schools (Solomon, l99l).
Snider (1990c) reported that in Chicago parents gained a controlling majority on local
school councils. Other urban districts have explored this "Chicago-style" proposal,

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

including Seattle, Boston, and Houston. In Denver Public Schools, Colorado

Governor Roy Romer ordered the formation of 12-member school councils to
supervise the running of the schools. Parents, community members, business
leaders, and school personnel on these school councils have made decisions and
changes that include: the setting of school goals and priorities, hiring and firing of
administrators, and schoolwide exemptions from districtwide mandated standardized
testing. Educators must be prepared to help parent and community groups by
sharing their knowledge.

Key Element: Development and implementation of policy. As students progress

to the middle grades, it is less likely that parents will become involved (Henderson
and Marburger, l990). However, effective district and state policies will assist in
involving parents and the community (Davies, l987; Heath and McLaughlin, l987;
McLaughlin and Shields, l987; National School Board Association, l988; Williams
and Chavkin, l990) that are vital to the restructuring of schools.

The National Coalition for Parent Involvement in Education (1990) contends that
policies should contain the following concepts:

• Opportunities for all parents to become informed about how the parent
involvement program will be designed and carried out.
• Participation of parents who lack literacy skills or who do not speak English.
• Regular information for parents about their child's participation and progress
in specific educational programs and the objectives of those programs.
• Opportunities for parents to assist in the instructional process at school and at
home.
• Professional development for teachers and staff to enhance their
effectiveness with parents.
• Linkages with social service agencies and community groups to address key
family and community issues.
• Involvement of parents of children at all ages and grade levels.
• Recognition of diverse family structures, circumstances and responsibilities,
including differences that might impede parent participation. The person(s)
responsible for a child may not be the child's biological parent(s) and policies
and programs should include participation by all persons interested in the
child's educational progress.

Key Element: Embracing the diversity of families in the design of programs

and practices. Districtwide programs must consider all families, including those
considered by some schools to be hard to reach (Epstein, 1991b) and at-risk (Zeldin,
l990). The parent involvement program in McAllen, Texas, is exemplary in this area
(D'Angelo and Adler, 1991).

Key element: Focus on the linkages with the community and agencies
supporting education. Businesses are recognizing the importance of quality
education in the communities in which they are located. They interact with the
schools through volunteers, equipment, donations and mini-grants, and such
districtwide programs as Adopt-A-School. Cities-In-Schools is a long standing effort

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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

to align businesses with schools to address the comprehensive services for

students. Cohen (l990) reported that about l,000 companies are also engaged in
efforts to help families balance responsibilities between home and work. The broader
the involvement of the community, the more likely the school will move toward
realizing their full potential (Crispeels, l99lb; Henderson, l986; Jones, l99l; Epstein,
l99lb; Griswold, l986).

Key Program Elements That Cut Across Programs at All Levels

The common elements for successful partnerships are the following and will be
addressed in the following sections: l) communication and home learning, school
restructuring, and district programs; 2) key players are teachers, principals, and
district leadership; and 3) key resources are funding, personnel, training, and
coordination.

Key Element: Communication

Communication and home learning. Several researchers have studied the need
for mutuality between the home and the school to promote home learning activities.
Leler (1983) found that the two-way communication projects showed positive results,
and that the best programs were those that trained parents to be tutors. Cole and
Griffin (1987) also noted that two-way communication is effective, especially when it
is explicitly recognized by educators.

Communication and school restructuring. Parents need basic information

regarding school goals, programs, and policies if they are to be effective in
supporters. Schools must listen to what parents have to say about their involvement
in the schools and then develop programs to meet identified parent needs
(Chrispeels, 1987a). Home visits, parent/teacher conferences, meetings, and
workshops are viewed as the most effective with all types of parents, especially hard
to reach and/or low income parents (Davies,

l988). Radio, television, and audio and video tapes have been used to inform parents
and community members (D'Angelo and Adler, 1991).

Communication and district programs. D'Angelo and Adler (1991) described

effective communication in three areas: face-to-face communication, the use of
technology, and written communication.

Districts in Lima, Ohio; Buffalo, New York; Natchez/Adams, Mississippi; and the
Migrant Education State Parent Advisory Council in New York have used parent
conferencing techniques and the establishment of parenting centers within schools
as vehicles for communication.

Efforts in McAllen, Texas; Poudre School District (Fort Collins, Colorado); San
Diego, California; Indianapolis, Indiana; Casey County, Kentucky; and Omaha,

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Nebraska have successfully integrated technology into their parent/family/community

programs.

Written communication (newsletters, calendars, etc.) has been used effectively in

parent involvement programs in Omaha, Nebraska; Cahokia, Illinois; and Palatine,
Illinois.

D'Angelo and Adler (1991) provided four caveats for improving communication:

• Communication strategies for individual schools should be adapted to match

the needs of families.
• Materials must reach the intended audience.
• If a meeting, workshop, presentation, assembly, or other event presents
information deemed essential for parents, then the schools must find other
ways to get that information to those who cannot be there.
• Don't wait for a problem to arise before contacting parents.

Key Players

The responsibility for effective involvement must begin with building administrators
and teachers (Center for Evaluation, Development and Research, 1990) with support
by the district. They are the ones having direct contact with parents and community
members.

Key Player: Principals. The principal must ensure that parent and community
involvement in the school is well planned, comprehensive, systematic (Crispeels et
al., l988; Henderson and Marburger, l986; Northwest Regional Education Laboratory,
l990), and is appropriate to all types of families. This leadership role of the principal
is particularly important beyond the elementary school because of the decrease in
parent involvement with each passing grade.

Key Player: Teachers. Teachers can reach out to parents to form partnerships that
benefit families and enhance the educational progress of their students. The ones
who take initiatives tend to have higher student achievement gains and feel better
supported by parents (Epstein and Becker, 1982; Epstein, 1987c; Tangri and Moles,
1987).

Key Player: District leadership. District leadership is necessary to provide a

comprehensive and coordinated effort for creating and sustaining effective parent
and community involvement. By aligning district policy with practice, districts are
better able to fulfill the promise that parent and community involvement offers in the
development of quality education for all students.

Resources Needed to Develop, Implement, and Sustain Parent and

Community Involvement Programs

Key Resource: Funding. Currently across the United States, funding for program
development and evaluation at the state level is lacking (Nardine and Morris, 1991).

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Epstein (1991b) , and Chavkin and Williams (1987) suggested that monetary
resources, which demonstrate a commitment to program success, should be
provided by school districts for the implementation of effective programs.

Key Resource: Personnel. Sufficient staff are needed to operate effective programs
(Williams and Chavkin, 1990). Epstein (1991b), Berla (l991) and Earle (l990)
recommended that a family/school coordinator be hired to link school, district, and
state efforts regarding partnerships. This staff person would work with families,
school personnel, and at-risk students.

Key Resource: Training. Teachers should receive preservice and inservice training
if they are to implement a successful parent involvement program (Zeldin, 1990;
Chrispeels, 1991b; Dauber and Epstein, 1991; Comer 1988a; Warner, l99l; Williams
and Chavkin, l990). Epstein and Dauber (1989a) pointed out that math, science, and
social studies teachers may require more assistance than reading and language arts
teachers since they currently do not place as much value on parent involvement.
Planners of home-based parent involvement programs need to reach parents who
most need to be involved, especially low income and minority parents. Training
would make them aware of pitfalls and barriers.

Training for school/family/community partnerships should also include parent

training, especially related to helping parents acquire parenting ideas and leadership
strategies for helping their children achieve literacy skills (Clark, 1989).

Key Resource: Coordination. Davies (1985) wrote that "co-production", i.e.,

parents/families and schools as joint contributors and participants in individual and
collective activities that contribute to more effective instruction and school
achievement, should be initiated by teachers and principals and coordinated with all
school personnel. The implementation of such a project would require a significant
investment of time and funds for development and promotion of materials and for
appropriate teacher and parent training.

While some recent research has focused on methods for creating positive learning
environments in the home (Walberg, 1984), others emphasize programs for
increasing teachers' and administrators' understandings of the 'natural' learning that
occurs with the home (Brice and Heath, 1983; Cochran and Henderson, 1986). Rich
(1985) advocates community outreach efforts, noting that the greater the continuity
and contact, the greater the benefit for the child.

Summary

Parents and community members can adopt a variety of roles and relationships with
schools. Three of the most critical roles they can assume are:

• becoming primary educational resources for their children;

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• becoming supporters and/or advocates for children through site-based school

restructuring efforts; and
• participating in the development and implementation of district programs that
support partnerships.

Home learning activities present the most common vehicles through which parents
and community members assume primary educational roles for elementary and
middle grade children. The most successful of these activities incorporate practices
that take local factors into account and that build on parent strengths. Home learning
activities often take the form of modeling high expectations, supporting schoolwork
and homework, providing a positive learning climate in the home, and attending
conferences. School practices that make positive contributions to parent involvement
include site based management, clear and welcoming policies and communications,
liaison personnel, physical accommodations, and planning geared toward
determining and meeting families' needs.

Districtwide parent and community involvement programs also need to embrace the
diversity of families in the design of policies, programs, and practices. Policies at any
level should contain methods by which all parents, regardless of socioeconomic,
linguistic, or literacy backgrounds, can be informed about programs and the progress
of their children. Professional development opportunities for staff enhance the
effectiveness of any program. Finally, linking the various groups and agencies that
support education with both schools and families strengthens the overall partnership
(Crump and Ellis, l995).

The research literature reveals overarching elements that affect the home/school
connection in whatever form it takes. Two-way communication surfaces repeatedly
as a key to successful partnerships. To improve communication, schools must
become more inclusive and creative, taking advantage of electronic media, new
parent conferencing techniques, and a knowledge of the local community. Principals,
teachers, and district administrators are key players in this partnership. Adequate
resources must be available to enable the development and implementation of
programs.

The Teacher and the Community: Teacher’s Ethical and Professional Behavior

• Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers, Article III

Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers
https://depedtambayan.net/the-code-of-ethics-for-professional-teachers/
Pursuant to the provisions of paragraph (e). Article 11, of R. A.. No. 7836. otherwise
known as the Philippines Professionalization Act of 1994 and Paragraph (a), section
6. P.D. No. 223. as amended, the Board for Professional Teachers hereby adopt the
Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers.

PREAMBLE
Teachers are duly licensed professionals who possesses dignity and reputation with
high moral values as well as technical and professional competence in the practice

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of their noble profession, they strictly adhere to. Observe, and practice this set of
ethical and moral principles, standards, and values.

ARTICLE I – SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

Section 1. The Philippine Constitution provides that all educational institution shall
offer quality education for all competent teachers committed of its full realization The
provision of this Code shall apply, therefore, to all teachers in schools in the
Philippines.

Section 2. This Code covers all public and private school teachers in all educational
institutions at the preschool, primary, elementary. and secondary levels whether
academic, vocational, special, technical, or non-formal. The term “teacher” shall
include industrial arts or vocational teachers and all other persons performing
supervisory and /or administrative functions in all school at the aforesaid levels,
whether on full time or part-time basis.

ARTICLE II – THE TEACHER AND THE STATE

Section 1. The schools are the nurseries of the future citizens of the state: each
teacher is a trustee of the cultural and educational heritage of the nation and is under
obligation to transmit to learners such heritage as well as to elevate national
morality, promote national pride, cultivate love of country, instill allegiance to the
constitution and for all duly constituted authorities, and promote obedience to the
laws of the state.

Section 2. Every teacher or school official shall actively help carryout the declared
policies of the state, and shall take an oath to this effect.

Section 3. In the interest of the State and of the Filipino people as much as of his
own. every teacher shall be physically, mentally and morally fit.

Section 4. Every teacher shall possess and actualize a full commitment and
devotion to duty.

Section 5. A teacher shall not engage in the promotion of any political, religious, or
other partisan interest, and shall not. directly or indirectly, solicit, require, collect, or
receive any money or service or other valuable material from any person or entity for
such purposes

Section 6. Every teacher shall vote and shall exercise all other constitutional rights
and responsibility.

Section 7. A teacher shall not use his position or facial authority or influence to
coerce any other person to follow any political course of action.

Section 8. Every teacher shall enjoy academic freedom and shall have privilege of
expounding the product of his researches and investigations: provided that, if the

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

results are inimical to the declared policies of the State, they shall be brought to the
proper authorities for appropriate remedial action.

ARTICLE III – THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY

Section 1. A teacher is a facilitator of learning and of the development of the youth:
he shall, therefore, render the best service by providing an environment conducive to
such learning and growth.

Section 2. Every teacher shall provide leadership and initiative to actively participate
in community movements for moral, social, educational, economic and civic
betterment.

Section 3. Every teacher shall merit reasonable social recognition for which purpose
he shall behave with honor and dignity at all times and refrain for such activities as
gambling, smoking, drunkenness, and other excesses, much less illicit relations.

Section 4. Every teacher shall live for and with the community and shall, therefore,
study and understand local customs and traditions in order to have sympathetic
attitude, therefore, refrain from disparaging the community.

Section 5. Every teacher shall help the school keep the people in the community
informed about the school’s work and accomplishments as well as its needs and
problems.

Section 6. Every teacher is intellectual leader in the community, especially in the

barangay. and shall welcome the opportunity to provide such leadership when
needed, to extend counseling services, as appropriate, and to actively be involved in
matters affecting the welfare of the people.

Section 7. Every teacher shall maintain harmonious and pleasant personal and
official relations with other professionals, with government officials, and with the
people, individually or collectively.

Section 8. A teacher posses freedom to attend church and worships as appropriate,

but shall not use his positions and influence to proselyte others.

ARTICLE IV – A TEACHER AND THE PROFESSION

Section 1. Every teacher shall actively insure that teaching is the noblest profession,
and shall manifest genuine enthusiasm and pride in teaching as a noble calling.

Section 2. Every teacher shall uphold the highest possible standards of quality
education, shall make the best preparations for the career of teaching, and shall be
at his best at all times and in the practice of his profession.

Section 3. Every teacher shall participate in the Continuing Professional Education

(CPE) program of the Professional Regulation Commission, and shall pursue such
other studies as will improve his efficiency, enhance the prestige of the profession,

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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

and strengthen his competence, virtues, and productivity in order to be nationally

and internationally competitive.

Section 4. Every teacher shall help, if duly authorized, to seek support from the
school, but shall not make improper misrepresentations through personal
advertisements and other questionable means.

Section 5. Every teacher shall use the teaching profession in a manner that makes it
dignified means for earning a descent living.

ARTICLE V – THE TEACHERS AND THE PROFESSION

Section 1. Teacher shall, at all times, be imbued with the spirit of professional
loyalty, mutual confidence, and faith in one another, self sacrifice for the common
good, and full cooperation with colleagues. When the best interest of the learners,
the school, or the profession is at stake in any controversy, teacher shall support one
another.

Section 2. A teacher is not entitled to claim credit or work not of his own. and shall
give due credit for the work of others which he may use.

Section 3. Before leaving his position, a teacher shall organize for whoever
assumes the position such records and other data as are necessary to carry on the
work.

Section 4. A teacher shall hold inviolate all confidential information concerning

associates and the school, and shall not divulge to anyone documents which has not
been officially released, or remove records from the files without permission.

Section 5. It shall be the responsibility of every teacher to seek correctives for what
he may appear to be an unprofessional and unethical conduct of any associates.
However, this may be done only if there is incontrovertible evidence for such
conduct.

Section 6. A teacher may submit to the proper authorities any justifiable criticism
against an associate, preferably in writing, without violating the right of the individual
concerned.

Section 7. A teacher may apply for a vacant position for which he is qualified:
provided that he respects the system of selection on the basis of merit and
competence: provided, further, that all qualified candidates are given the opportunity
to be considered.

ARTICLE VI – THE TEACHER AND HIGHER AUTHORITIES IN THE

PROFESSIONS
Section 1. Every teacher shall make it his duties to make an honest effort to
understand and support the legitimate policies of the school and the administration
regardless of personal feeling or private opinion and shall faithfully carry them out.

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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Section 2. A teacher shall not make any false accusations or charges against
superiors, especially under anonymity. However, if there are valid charges, he
should present such under oath to competent authority.

Section 3. A teacher shall transact all official business through channels except
when special conditions warrant a different procedure, such as when special
conditions are advocated but are opposed by immediate superiors, in which case,
the teacher shall appeal directly to the appropriate higher authority..

Section 4. Every teacher, individually or as part of a group, has a right to seek

redress against injustice to the administration and to extent possible, shall raise
grievances within acceptable democratic possesses. In doing so. they shall avoid
jeopardizing the interest and the welfare of learners whose right to learn must be
respected.

Section 5. Every teacher has a right to invoke the principle that appointments,
promotions, and transfer of teachers are made only on the basis of merit and needed
in the interest of the service.

Section 6. A teacher who accepts a position assumes a contractual obligation to live

up to his contract, assuming full knowledge of employment terms and conditions.

ARTICLE VII – SCHOOL OFFICIALS TEACHERS AND OTHER PERSONNEL

Section 1. All school officials shall at all times show professional courtesy,
helpfulness and sympathy towards teachers and other personnel, such practices
being standards of effective school supervision, dignified administration, responsible
leadership and enlighten directions.

Section 2. School officials, teachers, and other school personnel shall consider it
their cooperative responsibility to formulate policies or introduce important changes
in the system at all levels.

Section 3. School officials shall encourage and attend the professional growth of all
teachers under them such as recommending them for promotion, giving them due
recognition for meritorious performance, and allowing them to participate in
conferences in training programs.

Section 4. No school officials shall dismiss or recommend for dismissal a teacher or

other subordinates except for cause.

Section 5. School authorities concern shall ensure that public school teachers are
employed in accordance with pertinent civil service rules, and private school
teachers are issued contracts specifying the terms and conditions of their work:
provided that they are given, if qualified, subsequent permanent tenure, in
accordance with existing laws.

ARTICLE VIII – THE TEACHERS AND LEARNERS

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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Section 1. A teacher has a right and duty to determine the academic marks and the
promotions of learners in the subject or grades he handles, such determination shall
be in accordance with generally accepted procedures of evaluation and
measurement. In case of any complaint, teachers concerned shall immediately take
appropriate actions, of serving due process.

Section 2. A teacher shall recognize that the interest and welfare of learners are of
first and foremost concerns, and shall deal justifiably and impartially with each of
them.

Section 3. Under no circumstance shall a teacher be prejudiced nor discriminated

against by the learner.

Section 4. A teacher shall not accept favors or gifts from learners, their parents or
others in their behalf in exchange for requested concessions, especially if
undeserved.

Section 5. A teacher shall not accept, directly or indirectly, any remuneration from
tutorials other what is authorized for such service.

Section 6. A teacher shall base the evaluation of the learner’s work only in merit and
quality of academic performance.

Section 7. In a situation where mutual attraction and subsequent love develop

between teacher and learner, the teacher shall exercise utmost professional
discretion to avoid scandal, gossip and preferential treatment of the learner.

Section 8. A teacher shall not inflict corporal punishment on offending learners nor
make deductions from their scholastic ratings as a punishment for acts which are
clearly not manifestation of poor scholarship.

Section 9. A teacher shall ensure that conditions contribute to the maximum

development of learners are adequate, and shall extend needed assistance in
preventing or solving learner’s problems and difficulties.

ARTICLE IX – THE TEACHERS AND PARENTS

Section 1. Every teacher shall establish and maintain cordial relations with parents,
and shall conduct himself to merit their confidence and respect.

Section 2. Every teacher shall inform parents, through proper authorities, of the
progress and deficiencies of learner under him. exercising utmost candor and tact in
pointing out learners deficiencies and in seeking parent’s cooperation for the proper
guidance and improvement of the learners.

Section 3. A teacher shall hear parent’s complaints with sympathy and

understanding, and shall discourage unfair criticism.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

ARTICLE X – THE TEACHER AND BUSINESS

Section 1. A teacher has the right to engage, directly or indirectly, in legitimate
income generation: provided that it does not relate to or adversely affect his work as
a teacher.

Section 2. A teacher shall maintain a good reputation with respect to the financial
matters such as in the settlement of his debts and loans in arranging satisfactorily his
private financial affairs.

Section 3. No teacher shall act, directly or indirectly, as agent of, or be financially

interested in. any commercial venture which furnish textbooks and other school
commodities in the purchase and disposal of which he can exercise official influence,
except only when his assignment is inherently, related to such purchase and
disposal: provided they shall be in accordance with the existing regulations:
provided, further, that members of duly recognized teachers cooperatives may
participate in the distribution and sale of such commodities.

ARTICLE XI – THE TEACHER AS A PERSON

Section 1. A teacher is, above all. a human being endowed with life for which it is
the highest obligation to live with dignity at all times whether in school, in the home,
or elsewhere.

Section 2. A teacher shall place premium upon self-discipline as the primary

principles of personal behavior in all relationships with others and in all situations.

Section 3. A teacher shall maintain at all times a dignified personality which could
serve as a model worthy of emulation by learners, peers and all others.

Section 4. A teacher shall always recognize the Almighty God as guide of his own
destiny and of the destinies of men and nations.

ARTICLE XII – DISCIPLINARY ACTIONS

Section 1. Any violation of any provisions of this code shall be sufficient ground for
the imposition against the erring teacher of the disciplinary action consisting of
revocation of his Certification of Registration and License as a Professional Teacher,
suspension from the practice of teaching profession, reprimand or cancellation of his
temporary/special permit under causes specified in Sec. 23. Article HI or R.A. No.
7836. and under Rule 31. Article VIII. of the Rules and Regulations Implementing
R.A. 7836.

ARTICLE XIII – EFFECTIVITY

Section 1. This Code shall take effect upon approval by the Professional Regulation
Commission and after sixty (60) days following it’s publication in the official Gazette
or any newspaper of general circulation, whichever is earlier.

• Teacher as Facilitator of Learning

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

The teacher as a facilitator and resource person

David Tout (2016)
©Shutterstock/oliveromg
Source: https://www.teachermagazine.com.au/articles/the-teacher-as-a-facilitator-
and-resource-
person#:~:text=In%20an%20applied%20learning%20or,teacher%20plays%20a%20c
ritical%20role.&text=The%20teacher's%20main%20role%20is,teaching%20of%20ski
lls%20when%20necessary.

In the final instalment of his 10-part series on real-world maths, Dave Tout looks
at the role of the teacher as a facilitator and resource person.

This final article in the series looks at the critical role of the teacher as a facilitator
and resource person and their responsibilities in relation to teaching the
mathematics and problem-solving underpinning a context-based teaching
approach.

Of course, the ultimate purpose of all this planning is that the students undertake
the investigation and learn and apply a range of knowledge and skills.

In order for students to successfully achieve the learning and outcomes expected it
is vital that the teacher monitors their progress and intervenes when necessary to
teach any identified mathematics and problem-solving skills that are necessary or
missing for the task being tackled.

These can be introduced in a number of ways, depending on the skills and

experience of the students. This could happen through:

• whole class activities and explanations prior to or during the investigation as

questions arise from the students’ work;
• small group activities based on explanations, worksheets or tasks provided
by the teacher; and,
• individual skills and practice sessions, including worksheets and extracts
from textbooks, computers and the internet.

The relationships between the skills, knowledge, practice and

context-based problem-solving is illustrated in this diagram.

The purpose of using a context-based approach to teaching and learning is that you
will start with the context work – the project, task or investigation. So, the cycle
might start at the top of the diagram but all the other components are critical and
interrelated and are important components of teaching in this way.

The teacher role

In an applied learning or project-based

mathematics classroom the teacher plays a
critical role. The students need to be supported
and guided in order to learn the necessary skills

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

to achieve the desired outcomes. Without this support and direction the
investigation and associated learning will not succeed.

The teacher’s main role is as a facilitator – there to offer support and advice when
needed, and to provide the necessary scaffolding and teaching of skills when
necessary. It is vital that teachers remember to teach and instruct their students in
any particular skill or piece of mathematical knowledge that is required for the task.

The mathematics skills to develop in students

In this style of teaching and learning, there is a range of different

skills that students need to learn. Teachers need to develop students’
abilities to:

• identify and recognise how mathematics can be used in real-life situations

and contexts, enabling them to make connections between mathematics and
the real world (a new skill to many students). This is vital to support students
to be able to transfer their skills to new contexts;
• undertake a range of mathematical operations, applications and processes
including measuring, counting, estimating, calculating, drawing, modelling
and discussing (the underlying mathematical skills and knowledge required
to undertake the required investigations or tasks);
• reflect and think about the mathematics they have been using; that is,
interpret the results and outcomes of the investigation they have undertaken,
including how appropriately and accurately the results fit the situation
(another new skill to many students); and,
• represent, communicate and discuss the results and outcomes of the use
and application of mathematics in terms of their chosen investigation. This
includes both written and oral skills and should incorporate the use of
appropriate technologies.

Classroom activities

Depending on the requirements of the task, the teacher will use the motivation of
the investigation to have a number of classroom activities ready and available.
These will include:

• the work on the investigation/project itself – the initial and ongoing main aim
of the activity;
• choosing appropriate intervention times – the teaching and instruction of
particular knowledge and skills; what is required to get the job done (for
example, if the task requires measurements to be made, then an
understanding of measurements and the metric system is fundamental
knowledge to be taught); and
• both whole group, small group and individual work on skills and practice on
the underlying mathematics skills.

This was illustrated in the above diagram.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Independent vs dependent learners

One important issue that relates to how a teacher might construct the investigation
and the classroom activities relates to how independent and capable the students
are. Some students may be quite dependent learners with neither independent
learning skills nor little learning-to-learn skills. A teacher needs to take this into
account and help students move from being dependent to becoming more
independent learners.

What this means in the classroom is that lessons and activities need to progress
from structured to less structured; from more directed and closed activities to more
open ones; from modelled to less modelled; from supported activities to less
supported.

The teacher role therefore moves from being a supervisor to being more of a
facilitator, scaffolding the learning for the students. Activities and tasks may
progress from being provided as small chunks and tasks to being given as larger
tasks and projects.

Within the same classroom, some students may undertake the task based simply
on the starting open-ended question, whilst others who are less independent or who
are lacking specific content knowledge or problem-solving skills may be provided
with structured questions, tasks and information that would enable them to still
solve the problem. This supports all students, no matter what their level of skill, to
be successfully involved in the same investigation and content as other students.
The more capable students may go way above and beyond what the teacher wants
or expected, but this is one of the positive benefits of teaching this way.

Another way of working with such mixed ability groups in a context-based teaching
classroom is to get students to work in small mixed ability groups, where the more
capable students help and assist the less capable students. Often this means that
all students benefit: the students doing the teaching come to a better understanding
of the skills or knowledge being imparted and the learner may understand the
content better because it is being explained in the language of their peers.

• Teacher leadership and Initiative for Community Participation

https://www.teacher.org/daily/improve-participation-professional-community/

1 - How Well Does the School "Team," and How Can a Teacher Take
"Teaming" to a Higher Level?
The ability to work well with our colleagues can be quite easy, or it can be
nauseatingly difficult. It is interesting how it mirrors the work we do with students in a
classroom. Think about what the needs are of the students seated in front of you.
How can you support these needs in order for them to get along with each other?
A principal has the same task of creating a professional community where the ability
to team is not only expected, but it is cultivated daily. A teacher has a role in this

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

cultivation. They can chose to make or break a learning opportunity for themselves
and their colleagues.

Mutual respect and support comes from teachers who put time into relationships.
They believe, much like with students, that a relationship drives the learning.
Cooperation comes when a common goal and is created, discussed, and
implemented as a team. All work goes back to the achievement of these goals.
Whether a grade level has a multiple teachers or one teacher, the ability to team
starts with someone starting the conversation. Basing conversations on "what is best
for students" supports the goals that are created by the teachers. When working with
a grade level team, one teacher may drive the teaming efforts to work cohesively
when supporting student growth. Another teaming model splits the leader role
among all teachers on the grade level team.

Teachers at some point in their career may find it difficult to team with specific
teachers. This may be for a plethora of reasons, but keeping a positive attitude and a
growth mindset, many of these hurdles can be overcome. Using a rubric, such as the
one provided in the article, The Best Teaming Rubric Out There: How Would You
Score Your Team?, supports teachers conversations and goal setting. Teacher
teams can evaluate where they are on the rubric, and create an action plan with
SMART goals in order to get to the next level in the rubric. Starting small is
recommended, but constant conversations and celebrations help make the transition
more enjoyable and long lasting.

In this article, the following advice can support your teaming efforts,

"Great teams combine a mix of activities that support high academic rigor and
provide experiences that support cultural team building. These teams understand the
strengths and weaknesses of their team members. They learn to capitalize on these
areas to ensure they are efficient and effective, and they understand they are only as
strong as their weakest members."

2 - As Teachers Create a Sense of Urgency for Learning with Students,

How Can They Model and Maintain This Sense of Urgency for Learning
Themselves?
Teachers are continually trying to create and maintain a sense of urgency with their
students. We only have students each year 180 days for roughly six hours of
instruction. That equates to around 1,080 hours a year. The entire year has over
7,000 hours. 1/8 of the entire year is devoted to learning. When looking at these
statistics, that is not much time! This is true for teachers, as well.

Becoming stagnant in your teaching position can become toxic. You no longer want
to take professional development opportunities, or work with your colleagues, nor
pick up a book. Closing yourself off from the rest of the school and educational world
can create a sense of insignificance and can lead to quitting your job, and failing the
students.

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

If we truly believe we are "lifelong learners," we must find new ways to get better.
Exemplary teachers are humble enough to know they have areas that can be
improved upon, and they know how to find the best ways to learn for ourselves. They
engage in learning that supports our weaknesses and makes them better teachers.
All students go through school with one or several subject areas that are
academically lower, as well as specific soft skills that can be improved upon.
Likewise, teachers have stronger discipline areas and soft skills, as well as weaker
ones. Through honest self-reflection, teachers can devise a plan for further
development and improvement. As referenced in the recent article, 5 Questions to
Tackle When Reflecting on Teaching, it is stated, by the author,

"All teachers should establish metacognitive processes. The multitude of benefits far
outweigh educators skipping or not making sure this process occurs every day.
Funny as it may sound, many effective administrators find a secret hiding place, take
a walk, or may even take an extended bathroom visit, in order to reflect, gather
themselves, and tackle the next problem. Teachers must find time to reflect as well.
Master teachers put reflection into their day in several areas."
The sense of urgency created within teachers to become better should be visible and
in conversations with colleagues and administrators. Keeping teacher growth goals
at the forefront should be nurtured in daily observations, and similarly, there should
be visible signs that the entire school is working on professional development with
corresponding growth goals. For example, there may be district goals, school goals,
grade level goals, and individual classroom teacher goals. What makes this powerful
is when these goals are created together, integrated into daily work, and two-way
feedback is encouraged and celebrated.

3 - As a Teacher Encourages Students to Serve the Community, How Can

a Teacher Serve the School?
The strongest schools in America create a sense of community not only on campus,
but also within the larger community. They create projects that teach students to give
back to the community and create a sense of service and pride. Much the same,
teachers must model and do this at their level within the school. They must
continually think about how they can serve their school. An environment with a
positive school culture leads itself for more teachers "stepping up and leaning in" to
serve. The opportunities are boundless when working with a strong team of teachers
and leaders.

A crossing guard that is missing, to an absent food service worker, exemplary

teachers find areas to serve to support the greater good of the school. Without
missing a beat, these teachers think about their students' needs first, then they think
about how they can volunteer to support when someone is missing or something
needs to be done. Their own students our flourishing and they are able and have
time to support others. One of the greatest gifts we can give is time. You can hear
these exemplary teachers stating, "I can do that today."

Teacher leaders step up and participate on school teams, district committees, and
even community organizations. They find ways they can support the community, the

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

school of learners, and their colleagues. They constantly base their decisions around
"what's best for students." You hear and see them communicating with colleagues,
eliciting feedback, and are exquisite listeners. They are trusted by their colleagues
and peers, and even revered!

Exemplary teachers give back, and they are notorious for supporting the youngest
educators through mentorships, giving of resources and supplies, and over course,
their time. These teachers also support the professional development of their
colleagues. They help push ideologies, ask growth questions, remain humble, and
support and provide for the greater good of the school. You may see these teachers
starting book clubs, participating or starting Twitter chats, pushing social media to
further the brand of their classroom, grade level, school, and district.

4 - How Can a Teacher Cultivate and Grow the Professional Community

Through Supporting School, District, and Even Community Projects or
Initiatives?
A community, district, school, and even a classroom can have a "brand." This is an
abstract concept that drives the perception of a given entity. Hearts and minds are
affected by this brand. A brand can be either positive or negative for a person…it is
all based on experience. For example, what do you think of when you hear the words
from these common businesses: McDonald's, Nike, Coke, Ford, etc. Thoughts may
rush your head and they are usually associated with positive or negative
experiences, some may be from commercials or ads, while others may be from
trying the product, or waiting in a line, or the service they provide.

A school's brand can be self-created or created over time by the community. Most
recently, schools are finding that if they are not continually promoting their product
(students) and telling their story, they are not in control of the brand that is being
created. We have to ask ourselves, "Who would you rather have tell your story; other
people or you?" A teacher can have a significant role in creating, sustaining, and
promoting the brand of the school, district, and community. Exemplary teachers
celebrate the accomplishments of their students, colleagues, and community
members. They understand that by celebrating the positives, reframing all negative
events as growth opportunities, they are more successful in tackling the educational
hurdles that lay in front of them.

A great story from the article, 6 Questions to Tackle When Communicating with
Families, connects a metaphorical "brand" to a cattle brand and states how this word
has been transformed to mean so much more,

"During the time of the "Wild West," cowhands, a cowboy hired to manage and take
care of cattle, were hired by large cattle companies. Cattle were worth a lot of money
and stealing them from other cattle companies occurred routinely. In order to put a
stop to this thievery, cattle companies started putting a brand, a hot iron burned into
the cow's hide leaving a special mark. Anyone caught with a cow that did not have
their brand, was prosecuted either by a circuit rider judge or vigilante justice. These
cowhands were not paid a lot of money and cattle thievery became a booming

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

business. Reliable cowhands were hard to find. When a cattle company found such
a person, they treated them well. In return, a cowhand put their lives on the line to
manage the cows and keep them safe and secure. They had pride in their work and
they "rode for the brand." This means that took pride in the cattle company they
worked for, and they worked hard to keep their precious commodity safe!"
In 2017, a school district in Montana chose their yearly focus to be on trauma-
informed classroom strategies. The administration chose some common activities
that all school

administrators would participate, and subsequent schools would implement within in

the district. Speaker presentations and powerful professional development were
required for all teachers. Individual schools then devised PLC's around this theme,
as well as specific professional development offerings for staff members. Many
schools led book studies, invited other speakers into their schools, connected with
community service providers, and even involved the students in this education. One
school used a PLC to create grade level trauma-informed lessons (K-6) that
empowered the students and created a sense of empathy, kindness, as well as
building tolerance. Exemplary teachers stepped up and leaned in to support the
administration's goals, and even shared their learning experiences across the
school. Great example of "Riding for the Brand."

5 - How Can a Teacher Become a True Teacher Leader?

Teacher leaders are hard to find, but they are out there. They support a unique niche
within a school community. Without teacher leaders, a school maybe stagnant or the
principal may be stuck doing the majority of leadership work in a school. When jobs
are shared and leadership opportunities are cultivated, a school can thrive.

Teacher leaders can support the school through various activities. Here is a list of
the most common characteristics of a teacher leader from a 2007 article, The Many
Faces of Leadership, by Charlotte Danielson.

• Excellent Communicator -
o Speaking and more importantly, listening
o Able to collaborate with colleagues, respected and even revered
o Initiate regular meet times to confer with colleagues students
o Develop procedures to share assessment data make plans for individual
o Lead a school wide or district wide initiative (homework, grading, etc…)
• Teaching and Learning -
o A master of the content, curriculum, and instructional strategies
o Serve on district curriculum committees
o Help design mentoring programs
o Makes presentations at state or local conferences
o Organizes a lesson study to examine a teaching team's or department's
approach
• School-wide Policies and Programs -

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o Serve as building liaison to student teachers

o Lead school task forces
o Represent the school in districtwide or statewide programs for schools

Teacher leaders start with a strong administration that sees a need to cultivate and
grow their employees. Through this growth process, new administrators are
developed. A school's ability to predict success by furthering their mission and vision
are multiplied by having several leaders within a school district. These are strong
examples of successful professional learning communities.

• Professional Teacher with Honor and Dignity

Dignity and respect in the classroom

This article provides strategies for structuring small group work, with a focus on
addressing difficult or sensitive topics.
Student interaction plays an important role in learning in higher education.
In order to make student interaction effective and safe for participants, teaching staff
must create an environment in which people treat each other with dignity, courtesy
and respect, while also promoting open and critical exchange of ideas.
This guidance is intended to help teaching staff develop their own way to strike this
balance.
Provide a framework
It helps to make your expectations clear from the outset. Some useful ground rules
include:

• treat each other with dignity and respect

• listen to each others’ points of view, recognising that there may be disagreement
• keep discussion and comments on the topic, and off the people
• do not use inflammatory or offensive language, sarcasm, or raised voices.

In addition, consider reminding students that if they have a disability or impairment

which might affect participation you can support them better if they let you know.

Small group work

Ensure that the tasks and the expected outcomes are clearly defined: uncertainty
can allow confident students to dominate. It also helps to put instructions for tasks in
writing, and either provide them in advance, or allow plenty of time for reading.
Consider whether to allow students to select their own groups or whether you will
allocate them yourself, either randomly or in some other way. If students select their
own groups they may self-segregate in ways which can be unhelpful.
Recognise that, left to themselves, students may not distribute the group’s workload
fairly and consider whether to provide additional structure to address this.
Structure the tasks so that group members have clear roles and responsibilities. If
tasks are unsupervised or off-site, consider providing a brief role description for a
chair to manage meetings and keep the group on task.

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

For extended group work, particularly when it is assessed, consider requiring each
student to keep a record of how the group decided on tasks, arranged meetings and
allocated work. This can encourage them to keep in mind the need for fairness, and
may provide you with a useful record of the group’s activity.
Addressing difficult or sensitive topics
Prepare yourself
Know yourself. If you know your own positions on issues, and your own sensitivities,
you are less likely to get drawn into the controversy.
Decide whether you are going to maintain impartiality or acknowledge your own
beliefs.
Be honest with yourself about your level of experience and skill in managing the
classroom and facilitating group work. Seek additional guidance and training if you
need to.
Structure the debate
Ask students to participate in discussions with the aim of understanding other
people’s reasons for their points of view, and articulating the reasons for their own.
Give students a chance to write before speaking, or to talk with a partner before
speaking to the whole group.
Encourage active listening: before presenting their own viewpoint, ask students to
acknowledge the previous speaker by restating content or indicating that they heard
the other’s message.
Model good practice yourself by being open to multiple perspectives; if you are open
with the students about your own views, be careful to distinguish between evidence
and speculation, and encourage students to do the same.
Encourage students to distinguish between evidence and opinion by using “I…”
statements when expressing opinions.

Ask students to think about how their own reactions to the topic reflect the reactions
of the broader society. What might students learn from their own behaviour and that
of their classmates?
Responding to difficult situations in the classroom
Keep calm. The students trust you to maintain control and will respond to your
calmness.
Don’t avoid the issue. Universities are where learning is supposed to happen, and it
is up to you to enable students to tackle difficult issues in a constructive way.
Possible response: Ask the students to pause and write down what they think were
the last couple of claims or statements made. Then use what they have written to
slow the debate down and pull apart what’s been said.
Possible response: ask the student to rephrase their comments so as to reduce
emotional reactions and increase the likelihood that their point of view will be
absorbed and understood.
Possible response: “It makes me uncomfortable to hear you saying….” (perhaps
especially appropriate where offensive words or phrases have been used, even in an
aside to a fellow student).
Possible response: Redirect an offensive comment by putting it on the table as a
topic for general discussion. Say, “Many people think this. What reasons might
someone have for holding this view?” Then, “Why do those who disagree hold other
views?”

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Possible response: adjourn the class and deal with individuals or small groups
privately before reconvening.
If a topic emerges in class and you have too little information to address it
adequately, defer the discussion until next week and suggest that you all take the
opportunity to inform yourselves ready for a balanced discussion
Debrief afterwards with a peer or mentor; managing conflict can be deceptively
stressful, even when you think you’re coping. Talk about what happened, keep it in
perspective, and consider how you will manage it next time.
Follow up afterwards with any student who seemed upset. Make use of the
University’s Counselling Service, both to refer students and to seek support yourself.
Last thoughts
There are some simple and basic things most people already do which can increase
the likelihood that students will respond positively to you and to each other in the
classroom. Their feasibility will vary in some cases with the size of the group, but
consider whether you:

• arrive, start and end on time

• ensure that everyone can hear and see what’s happening
• provide course and session outlines (and stick to them as far as is reasonable)
• communicate your expectations and criteria for assessment
• make eye contact with all students
• demonstrate respect for authors and researchers with whom you disagree
• use students’ names when you speak to them
• turn up for advertised office hours
• provide opportunities for questions, and respond to them seriously and
thoughtfully.

• The Parents-Teachers Association

Revised Guidelines Governing Parents-Teachers Associations (PTAs) at the School
Level
Source: https://www.deped.gov.ph/2009/06/01/do-54-s-2009-revised-
guidelines-governing-parents-teachers-associations-ptas-at-the-school-level/

1. General Policy
1. Every elementary and secondary school shall organize a Parents-
Teachers Association (PTA) for the purpose of providing a forum for
the discussion of issues and their solutions related to the total school
program and to ensure the full cooperation of parents in the efficient
implementation of such program.Every PTA shall provide mechanisms
to ensure proper coordination with the members of the community,
provide an avenue for discussing relevant concerns and provide
assistance and support to the school for the promotion of their common
interest. Standing committees may be created within the PTA
organization to coordinate with community members. Regular fora may
be conducted with local government units, civic organizations and other
stakeholders to foster unity and cooperation.
2. As an organization operating in the school, the PTA shall adhere to all
existing policies and implementing guidelines issued or hereinafter may

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

be issued by the Department of Education.The PTA shall serve as

support group and as a significant partner of the school whose
relationship shall be defined by cooperative and open dialogue to
promote the welfare of the students.
2. Organization of PTAs at the School Level
1. Membership in a PTA is limited to parents, or in their absence the
guardian, of duly enrolled students, and teachers in a given school.For
this purpose, a guardian is hereby defined as any of the following: a)
an individual authorized by the biological parent/s to whom the care
and custody of the student has been entrusted; b) a relative of the
student within the fourth degree of consanguinity or affinity provided
that said relative has the care and custody over the child; c) an
individual appointed by a competent court as the legal guardian of the
student; or d) in case of an orphan, the individual/institution who has
the care and custody of the student.A teacher-member refers to
homeroom advisers, subject teachers, and non-teaching personnel.
2. Within fifteen (15) days from the start of the school year the Homeroom
Adviser and the Parents/Guardians shall organize the Homeroom PTA
with the approval of the School Head.
3. The elected presidents of the Homeroom PTAs and their respective
Homeroom Advisers shall elect the Board of Directors within thirty (30)
days from the start of the school year. The Board of Directors shall
immediately elect from among themselves the executive officers of the
PTA on the same day of their election to the Board.
4. The official name of the PTA shall bear the name of the school
(example: Parents-Teachers Association of Rizal High School or Rizal
High School Parents-Teachers Association).
5. For representation in the Local School Board and other purposes, the
schools’ PTAs within a municipality or city or province shall federate
and select from among the elected Presidents their respective officers.
The president-elect shall sit as representative of the Federation to the
said Local School Board.
3. General Assembly
1. The General Assembly shall be composed of all parents of enrolled
students of the school, Board of Directors and Officers of the PTA,
School Head, Homeroom Advisers, Subject-Teachers, and Non-
Teaching Personnel.
2. The General Assembly shall be convened by the PTA Board of
Directors immediately after the PTA has been organized. The General
Assembly shall be convened as may be necessary but in no case less
than twice a year. The Board shall coordinate with the School Head as
to time, venue and other details of the General Assembly.
3. The General Assembly shall be a venue for presentation and
discussion of the PTA’s programs, projects, financial statements,
reports and other matters.
4. The General Assembly may invite or consult with other members of the
community such as local government officials and civic organizations to
solicit their support or active participation in school activities.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

4. Board of Directors and Officers

1. The administration of the affairs and management of activities of the
PTA is vested with the Board of Directors and its officers in accordance
with these guidelines or their respective Constitution and By-Laws, if
any, which shall adhere to the following:
1. The Board of Directors shall be composed of fifteen (15)
members who shall elect from among themselves the
association’s executive officers; namely: President, Vice-
President, Secretary, Treasurer, Auditor, or other equivalent
positions, who shall oversee the day-to-day activities of the
associations;
2. Parent-members shall comprise two-thirds (2/3) and teacher-
members one-third (1/3) of the Board of Directors;
3. A teacher-member cannot hold any position in the PTA except
as a member of the Board of Directors or as Secretary;
4. The School Head shall not serve as a member of the Board of
Directors but as adviser to the PTA;
5. The term of office of the Board of Directors and its Officers shall
be one (1) year from the date of election. In no case shall a PTA
Board Director serve for more than two (2) consecutive terms;
6. In case of vacancy in the Board of Directors as a result of
expulsion, resignation or death, the vacancy shall be filled, for
the unexpired term of the office, by a majority vote of the Board
of Directors from among the Presidents of Homeroom PTAs in a
special meeting called for such purpose.
7. Among the committees that may be formed to handle specific
activities of the PTAs are: a) Committee on Finance; b)
Committee on Programs and Projects; c)
Audit Committee; d) Election Committee; e) Grievance
Committee; f) Ways and Means Committee; g) Committee on
External and Community Affairs;
8. The heads of the committees shall preferably come from the
Board of Directors, Homeroom Presidents and Homeroom
Advisers; and
9. The PTA may or may not be incorporated with the Securities
and Exchange Commission (SEC). If incorporated, the
registered entity shall, as far as practicable, be used in the
organization of the PTA by the elected Board of Directors. In any
event, the formal notification by the elected Board of Directors
outlined below and the issuance of the Certificate of Recognition
by the School Head shall be the operative act to recognize the
PTA.
5. Recognition and Monitoring of PTAs
1. There shall be only one PTA that will operate in a school which shall be
recognized by the School Head upon formal notification in writing by
the elected Board of Directors. The recognition shall be valid for one
year from the date of election.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

2. Together with the formal notification in writing, the elected Board of

Directors shall submit Oaths of Office of the Board of Directors and
Officers (Enclosure No. 1) including a list of directors and officers.
3. A Division PTA Affairs Committee shall be created in the Division
Office to be composed of the following:Chairperson – Schools Division
Superintendent
Members – Assistant Schools Division Superintendent Division
Administrative Officer
Division Education Supervisor (In-Charge of PTA)
Division PESPA President (Elementary)
or Division NAPSSHI President (Secondary) President of the Division
Federation of PTA
President of the Division Federation of SSG
4. The Division PTA Affairs Committee shall monitor the activities of the
PTAs and their compliance with reports and other requirements,
arbitrate disputes and settle matters that may be submitted to it for
resolution especially on PTA representation issue.
6. Privileges of Recognized PTAs
1. A PTA is authorized to collect voluntary contributions from
parents/guardian-members once it has been duly recognized and given
a Certificate of Recognition by the School Head (Enclosure No. 2).
Such collections, however, shall be subject to pertinent issuances of
the DepED and/or existing pertinent ordinances of the local
government unit concerned, if any.
2. In addition, a duly recognized PTA shall have the following
privileges:The DepED may allow the PTA to construct a building or
structure within the school premises for its office, provided however,
that the PTA shall donate such building or structure and other
permanent fixtures to the school. Any improvement made on such
building, structure or fixture that cannot be removed from such building
or structure without causing damage thereto shall be deemed the
property of the school. A written agreement shall be executed before
the improvement or construction. A Deed of Donation shall also be
executed by and between the PTA and the school immediately after
the completion of the improvement or construction;
1. The use of any available space within the school premises as its
office or headquarters, provided, that costs pertinent to
electricity, water and other utilities shall be for the account of the
PTA; provided however, that should the school need such
space, the PTA shall so vacate the space immediately. The
maintenance and improvement of the office shall be in
accordance with the School Improvement Plan;
2. Representation in the School Governing Council;
3. Authorization to undertake fund-raising activities to support the
school’s academic and co-curricular programs, projects and
activities subject to pertinent DepED guidelines;

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

4. Participation in the school’s inspection and acceptance

committee and as an observer in the school’s procurement
activities subject to the provisions of R.A. No. 9184; and
5. Collaboration in relevant school activities.
7. Activities
All PTA activities within the school premises or which involve the school, its
personnel or students shall be with prior consultation and approval of the
School Head.
8. Financial MattersSuch collections shall be made by the PTA subject to the
following conditions:If collection of the School Publications Fee, Supreme
Student Government (SSG) Developmental Fund and other club membership
fees and contributions is coursed through the PTA as requested by the
concerned organization, the amount collected shall be remitted immediately to
the school, SSG or other student organizations concerned on the day it was
collected. The pertinent organization shall deposit the funds with a reputable
bank on the next banking day under the organization’s account. No service
fee shall be charged against any student organization by the PTA.

Non-compliance or any violation of the aforementioned conditions shall be a

ground for the cancellation of the PTA’s recognition and/or the filing of
appropriate charges as the case may be.

1. Policy on Collection of Contributions

Cognizant of the need of an organization for adequate funds to sustain
its operations, a duly recognized PTA may collect voluntary financial
contributions from members and outside sources to enable it to fund
and sustain its operation and the implementation of its programs and
projects exclusively for the benefit of the students and the school
where it operates. The PTA’s programs and projects shall be in line
with the School Improvement Plan (SIP).
1. The contributions should be a reasonable amount as may be
determined by the PTA Board of Directors;
2. Non-payment of the contributions by the parent-member shall
not be a basis for non-admission or non-issuance of
clearance(s) to the child by the school concerned;
3. The contributions shall be collected by the PTA Treasurer on a
per parent-member basis regardless of the number of their
children in school;
4. No collection of PTA contributions shall be done during the
enrollment period; and
5. No teacher or any school personnel shall be involved in such
collection activities.
2. Safekeeping of FundsAll collections of contributions or proceeds of
fundraising activities shall be deposited in a reputable banking
institution as determined by the Board of Directors. The PTA’s
Treasurer or a duly authorized representative shall undertake the
collection and shall issue official receipts/acknowledgement receipts.In
no case shall any school official or personnel be entrusted with the

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

safekeeping and disbursement of collections made by the PTA. All

disbursements of funds shall be in accordance with generally accepted
accounting and auditing rules and regulations.

All disbursements shall be accompanied by appropriate resolutions

indicating thereof the purposes for which such disbursements are
made.

No cash advances shall be allowed without valid liquidation of previous

cash advances.

3. Financial Statement ReportThe books of accounts and other financial

records of the PTA shall be made available for inspection by the
School Head and/or the Division PTA Affairs Committee at any time.An
Annual Financial Statement signed jointly by the PTA President,
Treasurer and Auditor shall be submitted to the School Head not later
than thirty (30) days after the last day of classes. Such financial
statement shall be audited by an external and independent auditor,
posted in the PTA Bulletin Board, and presented to the General
Assembly during the next school year.

The PTA shall also submit to the School Head not later than November
30, a mid-school year financial statement report ending October 30
duly audited and signed by the members of the PTA’s audit committee.

Failure to submit such financial statement report shall be a ground for

the cancellation of the recognition of the PTA by the Division PTA
Affairs Committee upon the recommendation of the School Head.

4. Transparency and AccountabilityFor purposes of transparency and

accountability, all documents pertaining to the operations of the PTA
shall be open to public examination.PTA are required to install a PTA
Bulletin Board outside of its office where announcements, approved
resolutions, required reports and financial statements shall be posted.
9. Prohibited Activities and Sanctions
1. PTAs are prohibited from:
1. Interfering in the academic and administrative management and
operations of the school, and of the DepED, in general;
2. Engaging in any partisan political activity within school premises;
3. Operating a canteen/school supplies store, or being a
concessionaire thereof inside the school or nearby premises, or
offering these services to the school as its client either directly or
indirectly;
4. Selling insurance, pre-need plans or similar schemes or
programs to students and/or their parents; and
5. Such other acts or circumstances analogous to the foregoing.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

2. PTA Officers and members of the Board of Directors are prohibited

from collecting salaries, honoraria, emoluments or other forms of
compensation from any of the funds collected or received by the PTA.
3. PTAs shall have no right to disburse, or charge any fees as service
fees or percentages against the amount collected pertinent to the
School Publication Fee, Supreme Student Government (SSG)
Developmental Fund and other club membership fees and
contributions.
4. In no case shall a PTA or any of its officers or members of the Board of
Directors call upon students and teachers for purposes of investigation
or disciplinary action.
5. The recognition of any PTA shall be cancelled by the Division PTA
Affairs Committee upon the recommendation of the School Head
concerned for any violation of the above-mentioned prohibited activities
and these Guidelines.Thereafter, the School Head may call for a
special election to replace the Board of Directors of the PTA whose
recognition was cancelled. Criminal, civil and/or administrative actions
may be taken against any member or officer of the Board of the PTA
who may appear responsible for failure to submit the necessary annual
financial statements or for failure to account the funds of the PTA.
10. Transitory Provision
Existing and duly recognized PTCAs and its Federations shall no longer be
given recognition effective School Year 2009-2010. They shall cease
operation at the end of School Year 2008-2009 and given until June 30, 2009
to dissolve, wind up their activities, submit their financial reports and turn-over
all documents to the School Heads and Schools Division Superintendents,
respectively.
11. Repealing Clause
All existing DepED Memoranda, Orders and other administrative issuances of
similar nature which are inconsistent with this Order are hereby deemed
repealed and superseded accordingly.Strict implementation of this Order is
directed.

Encls.: As stated
Reference: DepED Order: No. 23, s. 2003 Allotment: 1- -(D.O. 50-97)

• The School Governing Council

Read the powerpoint presentation found
athttps://www.slideshare.net/hola2xhola/deped-school-governing-council-sgc-
orientation

• The Professional Teacher Does

TEACHING PROFESSION: BEYOND COMPARE

Source: https://www.deped.gov.ph/2016/09/27/84632/

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

“Listen to Understand, Speak to be Understood, Educate to Improve, Touch to

Create a Beautiful Tomorrow”

Teachers are considered modernized heroes considering their countless efforts in

the transmission of knowledge and transformation of character in every learner for a
hopeful environment. In the simplest term, a teacher is someone who educates
beyond limits, risks without taking chances and opportunities, encourages in down
moments, promises even if it is hopeless, smiles in difficulties, and who loves without
compromise.

Teachers are highly – empowered individuals. They constantly educate using their
own story of experiences. They read a lot, attend trainings to acquire new skills,
learn and discover, and continually expand their competence and serve others.
Likewise, radiate positive energy by being enthusiastic, hopeful, believing, and
optimistic. Their actions and attitudes are in consonance to the real situations by
being balanced, temperate, moderate, and wise. On the other hand, teachers are
flexible and can adjust to different situations. They can easily navigate to the
different stakeholders in the community for the improvement of the school. Teachers
are also smart considering that they are very productive in working with the co –
teachers in school. Truly, they produce outputs in new and creative ways.

Teachers indeed are modernized heroes. Their function is the most critical and
challenging responsibility in the society – to teach and transform. Most of the time,
their functions are being extended at homes, sleeping late at night in preparing
quality learning packages for the learners. There are also some teachers who
initiated a good practice in school which is “Adopt – A – Learner” through feeding the
malnourished children, providing pencils, papers and notebooks and even free lunch
just to encourage the learners to stay in the four walls of the room. One can’t ignore
the obvious fact that a teacher’s role is very necessary and important, not just as
being considered second parents but more so as heroes and keeper of everybody’s
dream. No other government employees can surpass the sacrifices of the teachers
just to produce functional doctors, engineers, leaders, nurses, lawyers, and even
teachers working now in our society. Of course these extraordinary professionals are
also considered heroes but teachers serve as the living vehicle in the transmission of
knowledge and transforming character that geared towards the fulfilment of that
dream.

Lastly, no doubt teachers make a big difference in the life of every learner. These
teachers who are front liners in bringing out dreams and keeping those dreams come
true are amazing things, yet, seldom have been seen, recognized, and realized by
most people in the society nowadays.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:
• https://www.slideshare.net/AlReuben/parents-involvement-in-school-
69182866

171
 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

• http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/PB11_ParentInvolvement08.pdf
• https://www.teacherph.com/legal-bases-of-philippine-educational-system/
• https://www.slideshare.net/AnneCastro10/the-code-of-ethics-for-professional-
teachers-
89796153#:~:text=15.,excesses%2C%20much%20less%20illicit%20relations.
• http://teachercodes.iiep.unesco.org/teachercodes/codes/Asia/Philippines.pdf
• https://www.oecd.org/berlin/43541655.pdf
• https://www.slideshare.net/jyotikathju/the-professional-teacher-61670106

Let’s Check
Activity 1. Multiple Choice.
Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer by encircling it.

1. Toward the end of the school year, the mother of one of the candidates for honors
visits you to ask about her child’s chances of graduating with honors. She brings a
basket of fruits in season for you. What should you do?
a. Reject the basket of fruits and tell her that you have enough at home.
b. Accept the fruits and assure the mother that the daughter will be given honor
student.
c. Respectfully reject the offer and explain that you might be accused of bribery.
d. Explain the chance of the daughter objectively and graciously accept the offer.
2. Which of the following is NOT correct under the Code of Ethics for Teachers
regarding teacher and business?

a. No teacher shall act, directly or indirectly, as agent of, or be financially interested

in any commercial venture which furnishes textbooks and other school commodities.
b. A teacher has no right to engage, directly or indirectly, in legitimate income
generation.
c. A teacher shall maintain a good reputation with respect to the financial matters
such as in the settlement of his debts and loans in arranging satisfactorily his private
financial affairs.
d. None of the above.

3. Every teacher shall participate in the_____ program of the PRC and shall pursue
other studies as will improve his efficiency, prestige, and strengthen his or her
competence.
a. Professional Enhancement
b. Maximizing Learning Competence
c. Continuing Educational Enhancement
d. Continuing Professional Education

4. During the distribution of the report card, which of the following must be the
foremost concern of a teacher?
a. Discuss the projects of the school.
b. Discuss the progress as well as the deficiencies of the students.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

c. Discuss the unsettled bill of the students.

d. Discuss the complaints of other teachers and classmates of the students.

5. Miss Reyes is a new teacher like you. During her first few weeks in school, she felt
like quitting teaching. At the end of the day she is totally burned out. If you were in
her place from whom will you ask assistance?

a. from the principal

b. from the parents
c. from co-teachers
d. from pupils

Activity2..Enumeration and Elaboration:

1. What are the Global Issues? Enumerate them and Give solution/solutions on how to
address them.
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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

2. Enumerate and Elaborate 17 SDGs.

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Let’s Analyze

Activity 1.Explain thoroughly your answers to the following questions.

1. How do the different global concerns affect the education?

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

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2. How Schools Can Benefit from Community Partnerships

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3. Compare and contrats the different leadership styles.
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4. Why is it important for teachers to familiarize and apply the code of ethics?

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Activity 2.Choose the best option by putting a check on the space provided for each
choice. Explain your answer.

Situation no. 1
Being a person known for his integrity and credibility, Mr. Elbert R. Tolentino has
been serving as part of the Board of Election Canvassers for the past 10 years.
However, in the coming elections, his mother will be running as barangay captain.
Because of this, he is asked to campaign for her. Is it alright for him to campaign for
his mother’s candidacy? Explain your answer.

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Situation no. 2
Mr. Mario Ocampo, who has been teaching for the last 25 years, refused to attend
an important conference in Mindanao. Every time he is asked by the principal to
attend such an activity, he always requests a new teacher to attend. As a
professional teacher, is it right to express refusal in attending conferences.

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Situation no. 3
Ms. Rose Q. Reyes posted two-piece swimwear picture of herself in her Facebook
page. She received negative comments from the community and stakeholders. Ms.
Reyes justified that she has the right to post anything on her Facebook account
since it was her personal account. Is it right for Mrs. Reyes to do such?

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Situation no. 4
During barangay fiesta, Mr. Ben Y. Maya was designated as the fiesta directorate
chairman. Because of his talent, he accepted the task willingly even without any
honorarium. He facilitated culture-based activities that made their barangay fiesta a
significant one. Is it alright for Mr. Maya not to receive any compensation for his
services rendered since this will be a precedent for the succeeding activity
coordinator?

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Situation no. 5
Mrs. Dae P. Habalo, of Sibulan National High School refused to admit a student for
not being a resident of the said barangay where the school is located. Is it right for
her to do so?

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

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Situation no. 6
Traditionally, a civic parade is held with school participating during Independence
Day. All teachers and students are required to attend. All of Mrs. Katherine Y.
Sedillo’s students are excited to join the said parade but she did not join them due to
personal reason and only asked the president of the class to check the attendants of
his classmates. Is the decision of Mrs. Sedillo not answerable for any untoward
incident to happen to the students?

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Situation no. 7
Madam Estelita Ramos, a teacher III at Malunta Elementary School has a takehome
pay of P 7,500.00 every month. She decided to borrow money from Provincial
Savings Bank with a monthly deduction of P3,500. In the same month she also
borrowed money to First Diamond Lending Company with a monthly deduction of P
3,500.00. In the first 2 months she enjoyed a take home pay of P7,500.00 because
the 2 lending institutions will deduct on the 3rd month from the date she borrowed. Is
it alright for Mrs. Ramos to borrow the amount considering that she don’t have
enough take home pay when the deduction will take effect?

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Situation no. 8
Mr. Ricky dela Cruz is one of the youngest teacher in Silab Community High School.
Due to his young age he has lots of friends and barkadas. After school hours, he is
always seen with his friends in an internet cafe playing Dota, in gambling dens, and
in beerhouses. He also frequently seen in discos during weekends. Is Mr. Cruz
acting as a good model to his students?

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

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Activity 3: Scenarios
You are a lecturer or course director responsible for the learning environment of
these students. What will you do? Could this have been prevented?

1. A student often uses terminology that is generally regarded as unacceptable to

describe people from minority ethnic groups. This is making the tutorial group
uncomfortable, and another student has objected in class. The student insists that,
as she is not directing the terms at an individual in the tutorial group or within the
lecture hall, people should be less politically correct and stop taking offence.
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2. Some students are given a piece of assessed group work to complete over
several weeks. A Muslim student does not attend the first meeting because it is in
the pub, and roles as part of assessed group work are decided at this meeting. He
asks for the second meeting to be held somewhere else - other students agree, but
derogatory comments and unacceptable 'banter' follows. In addition, key decisions &
discussions continue to happen informally in the pub. He is now asking to work with
a different group.
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3. A woman student is on an engineering course dominated by men. She is

partnered with a man for an assessment. Another student tells him that he had
better be careful as he is aware that she has made a complaint under the Sex
Discrimination Act in the past. He has now asked the tutor to work with someone
else. There is also a rumour going round the students that she is a ‘serial
complainer’ and she has received some unpleasant e-mails (with sexual content)
from a hotmail account which make reference to her sex discrimination
complaint.
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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

4. A disabled student has additional time for assessments and use of a

dictaphone to tape lectures. Another student starts using negative and
patronising language when talking about disabled people: this includes saying
that they are not as competent as other students because of all the special
treatment they get, and shouldn't be allowed to be awarded qualifications. They
also approach the lecturer to say that the student should not be allowed to tape
record lectures.
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5. A woman student has been getting excellent marks in class. There are
persistent rumours that the lecturer is a lesbian and that the student is sleeping
with her in exchange for good marks, and derogatory comments about them both
have appeared on Facebook linked to the student society. Other students have
been whispering and sniggering behind her back, and the student’s attendance is
dropping.
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In a Nutshell

Activity 1. The study of Global Issues that Concern Schools and Society, The Why
and How of School and Community Partnership, and The Teacher and the
Community: Teacher’s Ethical and Professional Behavioris indeed important to every
individual. Based from the definition of the most essential terms in the study of
curriculum and the learning exercises that you haved one, please feel free to write
your arguments or lessons learned below. I have indicated my arguments or lessons
learned.

1. Anybody who teaches or wants to teach must be informed about the different
global issues that concern schools and society.
2. The teacher must follow and observe the Teacher’s Ethical and Professional
Behavior.

Your Turn

3.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

4.

5.

Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Big Picture C

Week 6-7: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to:
a. Differentiate between leadership and management, describe different
organization leadership styles and explain what situational leadership,
servant leadership and transformational leadership are, explain the meaning,
advantages and disadvantages of SBM as well as the roles, functions and
competencies of school heads and discuss culture, ways to contribute to the
building of positive culture and explain the importance of school policies and
their functions.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Differentiate between leadership and
management, describe different organization leadership styles and explain
what situational leadership, servant leadership and transformational
leadership are, explain the meaning, advantages and disadvantages of SBM
as well as the roles, functions and competencies of school heads and
discuss culture, ways to contribute to the building of positive culture and
explain the importance of school policies and their functions.

Metalanguage
Please proceed immediately to the “Essential Knowledge” part since the first
lesson is also definition of essential terms.

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the 6 th and 7th
weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential
knowledgethat will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Thus, you are expected to
utilize other books, research articles and other resources that are available in the
university’s library e.g. ebrary, search.proquest.cometc.

Chapter 8 Organizational Leadership

• Organizational Leadership

Organizational Leadership: Nurturing Leadership in Your School

Source:
http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/104150/chapters/Organizational-
Leadership@-Nurturing-Leadership-in-Your-School.aspx

For nearly a century, schools have functioned in the autocratic style of the line-staff
model: principals are managers and teachers are their employees, often voiceless
and powerless to influence their superiors' quest to improve student achievement.
But with the growing emphasis on high-stakes testing and the advent of No Child

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Left Behind, many school leaders are seeking more effective organizational behavior
by drawing on the leadership potential of all stakeholders, especially teachers.
Schools making this change are creating and expanding teachers' roles as leaders.
For principals, this trend is a shift from “relying on the power of the system” to
“seeking to empower others”—or, more specifically, a shift from “seeking to be in
control” to “letting go of control and building a community of relationships that tends
to be self-organizing” (Caine & Caine, 2000, p. 8). Lending support to the need for
transformation, Buchen (2000) argues that “the only leadership that will make a
difference is that of teachers. They alone are positioned where all the fulcrums are
for change. They alone know what the day-to-day problems are and what it takes to
solve them. They, not the principals, should be the ones to hire new teachers. They
know what is needed.”
A task force report from the School Leadership for the 21st Century Initiative (2001)
echoes these sentiments. It states: “Mischaracterized though they often are as
incompetent know-nothings, teachers are, paradoxically, also widely viewed as . . .
indispensable but unappreciated leaders in the truest meaning of the word. . . . It
would be difficult to find a more authentic but unacknowledged example of
leadership in modern life” (p. 1). The report claims that teachers are essential to
reform and that they possess a body of knowledge yet to be exploited.
But we already knew that. That's common sense.
We educators also knew that the role ripest for this kind of metamorphosis is that of
the department chair in high schools or the team leader in elementary and middle
schools.
Department chairs and team leaders walk a fine line: they are neither teacher nor
administrator. They nurture colleagues and teach alongside them, but they also must
retain allegiance to their administrators. They lack line authority. Considering how
essential teacher leaders are to improving achievement, this is perhaps the most
curious aspect of their roles. They are constantly reminded, by both administrators
and teachers, of all they cannot do—regardless of their potential for positive change,
which is often greater than that of all other leaders in a school because of their broad
sphere of influence.
Teacher leaders possess a semblance of authority but no formal power—only the
illusion of power. For example, a department chair cannot complete teacher
evaluations. She cannot place a memo or letter in someone's personnel file, nor can
she dismiss a teacher. As a result, she must find other ways to motivate, mobilize,
and lead teachers. She must rely on intrinsic leadership abilities, knowledge of group
dynamics, influence, respect, and leadership by example to boost the productivity of
her department.
In myopic schools, the role of department chair is limited to that of a paper pusher.
These schools view the teacher leader as someone who will complete the master
schedule, order supplies, maintain inventory, and pass along administrative
directives to the department. These schools either don't know how else to capitalize
on the strengths of their teacher leaders or are uncomfortable doing so. True, these
traditional responsibilities are critical to maintaining the wellness of a school, but in
terms of improving the health of an organization, forward-thinking schools have
moved beyond this.
In schools where transformational leadership is present, administrators recognize
that the leadership of a department chair or team leader can make a significant

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

difference to the climate and culture of the school. They are not threatened by a
teacher's influence or exercise of leadership, nor by giving up some control. These
administrators strive to encourage and cultivate leadership and “make better use of
the unique strengths and contributions [that] department heads can bring to school
management and improvement” (Weller, 2001, p. 80). At these schools, teacher
leaders act as coaches and mentors, observe classrooms so that instruction can be
refined and best practices implemented, and attempt to realize a vision or to
“reculture” the environment. With the pressure of high-stakes testing and the need to
meet state and federal benchmarks, administrators rely on these leaders to improve
achievement and even defer to them in certain instances.

Roles for Teacher Leaders

Although the traditional teacher leader is still important in a school, other leadership
positions can have as much influence in ensuring student achievement. These roles
offer teachers a greater voice in shaping programs, supporting the mission, and
guiding a team toward its goal, which will ultimately help the students and the school
achieve.
Not all leadership positions are formal in nature. Every school has teacher leaders
who do not serve—and may never have served—as official leaders, which is one of
the most unique components of teacher leadership. In any kind of organization,
informal leaders command a great deal of respect; they have much say and sway in
determining a team's climate or the chances of a proposal's adoption, and they are
often sought after for advice.
Similarly, not all leadership roles are fixed—meaning assigned, specific positions.
Someone might act as a mentor one week and then assume the role of innovator
with a unique proposal the following week. These fluid and spontaneous roles are
just as essential as the leader to the success of the team. Ideally, these people are
the supporters whom the leader can trust and turn to for help in a variety of matters.
It is also expected that leadership roles will change, shift, and evolve over time. If
someone was a team leader for the past five years, it does not guarantee him that
role for a sixth year. Leadership roles should not be determined by seniority.
Therefore, if standardized results are marginal or a teacher's leadership is
questionable, a change is warranted. Don't be afraid to make changes; change,
along with its potential for struggle and conflict, is often an essential ingredient of
success.
If you are a department chair or team leader, you probably have already realized
how difficult it is to accomplish everything that your job entails. Effective teacher
leaders are usually given more responsibility, whether they want it or not, so you
need to learn how not to overburden your teachers and how to say no (and that there
is nothing wrong in doing so) to avoid burnout. Although the following leadership
positions can enhance teachers' professional self-worth, these roles are equally
significant to you: delegating (not avoiding) responsibility is critical if you hope to
succeed as a leader.
Moreover, these roles can be vehicles for grooming future leaders. Aside from
becoming a department chair, counselor, or administrator, a teacher has very little
opportunity for career advancement within a school building. Not only can the
leadership possibilities below benefit a school or a program, they can also spark

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

interest in pursuing a position at the central office or collegiate level, where teachers
can have an even greater influence on education.
Grade Level/Subject Area Leader
The grade level leader coordinates specific organizational needs (whether the 5th
grade will take its annual class trip to Philadelphia, what supplies to order, and so
on), and he runs meetings that address concerns and strategies regarding specific
students.
This leadership position is often further broken down by content area or instructional
concerns. Through horizontal alignment, the subject area specialist coordinates
curriculum across the grade level, providing instructional leadership and support to
teachers of a common subject. For instance, the subject leader might call a meeting
to discuss why some 6th graders are having more success than others in
comprehending photosynthesis, and which strategies have been effective in
conveying the concept.
Monitoring the instruction and assessments of the teachers on the grade level is
paramount since every student in each subject area is expected to possess the
same set of skills and body of knowledge at the end of the year. These leaders
initiate curriculum mapping and scrutinize the assessments used. Analyzing data
also plays a large role in improving student achievement, so leaders should be
aware of the most recent data about the team and its progress toward certain
benchmarks. Finally, these leaders create staff development opportunities for their
teams, because they best know the challenges that the teams face.
Vertical Leader
This role is similar to the above, except that the leader is in charge of seeing that
curriculum is aligned up and down the grade levels. For example, the 6th grade
vertical team leader ensures that students have acquired the knowledge and skills in
their previous math classes that they need for success at the benchmark level. If not,
leaders find ways to tighten the instruction and the curriculum. They also promote
collaboration and share pertinent content literature.
Backup Leader
Train future leaders by rotating teachers as the backup to your position. Invest time
to sit down with them and explain the nature of your job, or to discuss situations that
arise during the course of your day. You might have them proofread one of your e-
mail messages so they can learn about the issues you deal with (plus, it is always a
good idea to have an extra set of eyes look over something you wrote).
Let them join you in interviews. Afterward, meet with them immediately to explain
your line of questioning or to see what characteristics of the applicant they picked up
on. Send them in your place to meetings where they will learn how time-consuming,
and at times frustrating, a leadership position can be and how to cope with that.
Have them assume your responsibilities when you are absent.
Basically, let them experience your experience, similar to an informal internship
where they can get an overview of your position and its nuances. While you are
equipping them with essential skills and knowledge, you may be creating your
successor for when you move on. Even if you don't leave in the near future, your
backup will have been trained to take a leadership position elsewhere. As one of my
administrators used to preach, begin the cycle anew and help reform education from
within.

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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Mentor
This person takes on the responsibility of coaching and advising novice teachers and
teachers who are new to the school system. With more and more novice teachers
leaving the field within the first few years of teaching, the mentor is not only
concerned with instructional and organizational needs; he also lends emotional and
moral support to alleviate the stress that the job creates.
A mentor need not always be the strongest instructional leader, but he should have a
solid grounding in best practices and his content area. He should be able to suggest
ideas and strategies to assist in classroom instruction. And he must be astute
enough to read people (that is, he must be perceptive and have a high emotional
intelligence). Because of the importance of retaining teachers, new employees
should be carefully placed and matched with mentors, either by a lead mentor, who
oversees mentors in the entire building, or by the team or department leader. (See
Resource 1.)
Peer Coach
Not a new concept, peer coaching has received much attention in recent years and
is embraced and advanced in some school districts. A peer coach is similar to a
mentor except that with this pair, both teachers—not necessarily novices—function
as mentor and as protégé. In this relationship, the word “peer” is key. Because peer
denotes equality, these teachers' classroom visits are nonthreatening. They are not
evaluative and prescriptive; they are diagnostic and constructive, allowing teachers
to experiment and take risks without fear of judgment.
After each has observed the other in class, peer coaches discuss observed
instructional behaviors, actions, and practices, which can include giving feedback on
plans, lessons, instruction, classroom presence, and classroom management. There
is a safe environment among these volunteers that enables them to converse in a
candid manner and learn from each other. This ultimately benefits the teachers'
growth, the team's growth, and the students' growth.
Note-Taker/Recorder
It is imperative to keep a record of every meeting because we tend to have selective
memories, especially when we are passionate about an issue. An accurate record of
what was discussed and what was decided can be helpful in case of future
disagreement, as well as in bringing people who missed the meeting up to speed.
Minutes should document who was present, who was absent, and who was late.
Working from an agenda, the note-taker keeps a record of issues and questions
raised and the resulting dialogue, outcomes, and resolutions. In circumstances
where there may be rancor over what the minutes reflect, it might be prudent to have
two people record them and compare notes to ensure their accuracy.
Although it might be interpreted that the note-taker is in cahoots with you if she sits
next to you, proximity can be helpful. It enables her to look over your shoulder at
your own notes in case she misses something and to stay on top of every issue. It is
also a good idea to keep the minutes in a central place so all teachers, regardless of
what team they are serving on, have access to them.
Parliamentarian/Timekeeper
This person alleviates the team leader's responsibilities by keeping the group on task
with the agenda. After a stressful day of work, it is natural for a meeting to

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

degenerate into a complaint session or, in worse cases, a complete digression into
the social lives of the group's members. This leader keeps the group plowing ahead
and reminds members when they are nearing the cutoff or have exceeded the time
limit for a topic. Meetings should be productive, and the main reason they often are
not is that someone has been allowed to derail the group and pursue his own topics
of discussion while everyone waits for someone else to intervene.
Presenter
Too often schools are obsessed with spending money to send teachers to
conferences outside the system when the answers, knowledge, and resources are
right there within their own walls. Both weak and strong school systems tend to
underuse the extraordinary wealth of talent they possess.
Target one of your teacher's strengths and ask him to give a presentation. Or ask
someone, or a team, to read a professional article and report back to the group on it.
This role is by no means fixed. For example, the team leader can begin by selecting
someone to present. Then the role should rotate through the team, perhaps in a
“popcorn” fashion (often used during reading activities), where the last person to
present picks the next person to present. This kind of staff development should be
the focus for most of your team meetings.
Conference Attendee
After you have exhausted your team's resources, try to send your teachers to
seminars, depending on your budget. They should also attend local, state, and
national conferences. However, this should not be a free vacation. The attendee
should clearly understand that she is responsible for bringing information back to the
team at the next meeting. This sharing can lead to further meeting topics and action
research.
Speaker/Writer
Have your teachers identify something that they do extremely well and encourage
them to polish, organize, and market it by submitting proposals to present at
conferences. Or encourage them to share their experiences and successes by
writing articles for various educational journals. These are great opportunities for
them to grow professionally and to network—and it brings your school good publicity.
Moreover, if they impress someone with their presentation or article, then that could
turn into a speaking engagement—a chance to make a few extra dollars with little
additional preparation. As one colleague explained, a strong presentation is like an
annuity because it keeps on paying.
School Plan Chair
Contrary to how it is viewed and used (or not used) in some schools, the school plan
is a vital, fluid document that should guide your team toward improving student
achievement. The role of school plan chair usually does not rotate because
consistency and continuity are extremely important. The school plan chair has an
integral position in coordinating and guiding the school toward achieving its vision.
People should not feel penalized for holding this position in spite of the work it might
entail. If your school functions in a collegial and cooperative manner, a team leader
or department chair will not have to bear the brunt of this responsibility. The school
plan chair should be charismatic, compassionate, and organized. She will be working
with all the teachers in the building; a group effort is needed to create or enhance
this document.

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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Faculty Representative
Some school systems have faculty councils where teacher leaders bring team,
department, and faculty issues to the administration. If teachers are concerned that a
tardy policy is not being enforced, for example, then the faculty representative would
bring this issue to the council. Other school systems have a council where teachers
can bring issues directly to the superintendent. If teachers are concerned about the
number of inservice days that the county is mandating, this would be the forum to
bring such a concern. And, finally, some schools have instructional councils that
teachers sit on, where leaders discuss issues pertaining to classroom and
buildingwide instruction.
A faculty representative seeks out the questions, concerns, and issues of his
colleagues and brings them, verbatim when possible, to a more powerful body. He
could set up a drop-box in the building or, with the aid of the building's technology
specialist, establish an e-mail account that would protect the anonymity of teachers
posting or sending messages. This leader brings back minutes to the team or school
so people know what has been decided and can confirm that their concerns have
been accurately represented.
A union representative is a similar position. A strong teacher advocate, the union rep
listens to faculty concerns and works closely with the administration and external
bodies. This leader, who in many ways is a watchdog, protects and ensures teacher
interests, advises teachers who believe their rights have been infringed, and, in
some states, plays a role in negotiating contracts.
Host Teacher
A host teacher is someone who is willing to sponsor a practicum student or a student
teacher from the local college or university. Finding the right match is crucial; you
want the visiting student to have the best and most realistic experience possible.
Some host teachers might view this role as a vacation because someone else will be
responsible for teaching their classes. It should be stressed that hosting a student
teacher involves much time and can even be quite burdensome, especially if the
person is not as well prepared as he should be.
This leader models exemplary instructional practices, techniques, and strategies for
the student teacher to observe during his stay. After the student teacher has
observed the host teacher's classes for a couple of weeks, the bulk of the teaching
load is turned over to him. The host teacher assists with unit and lesson planning
and helps him create assessments. Although it would seem that the host teacher has
fewer responsibilities because she is teaching fewer classes, she has the
responsibility of coaching and mentoring the aspiring teacher. She observes classes,
provides timely and meaningful feedback and constructive criticism to her student
teacher, and conferences with both him and the college supervisor regarding his
progress.
If a team leader or department chair isn't the host teacher, he should meet with the
student teacher to provide an overview of the program and its policies. Meeting
again at the end of the student's stay to answer lingering questions will provide
closure to the experience.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Instructional Audit Leader

Every public school must go through some kind of an accreditation cycle. This leader
serves on the school's accreditation committee by gathering evidence to
demonstrate that the school is meeting certain standards; he meets with the visiting
committee, and then reports its recommendations to the school or relevant team and
assists in making any necessary changes. A variation of this role is for a teacher to
serve on the committee that visits schools on the cycle. In doing so, the leader can
learn more about the functioning of the total school and its programs and can bring
back information about successful programs and ideas.
Search Committee Panelist
In schools where administrative applicants must interview with a panel—a team
usually consisting of the principal or her designee, teachers, and, in some cases,
even parents and students—a teacher might enjoy having a hand in finding the best
fit for the school and community by sitting on such a panel. Although he might not
have a voice in creating the panel questions, he can, with the principal's permission,
canvass the school to determine the characteristics and qualities the faculty is
looking for in their new administrator. If he has the principal's trust, he might even be
the one to organize and coordinate the panel; he could review résumés or tap other
teachers to serve with him on the team.
Community Leader
All teachers should be involved in their communities not just because of the obvious
reasons but also because of the political ramifications. At a time when budgets are
slashed because community members do not have children attending the local
school and are loath to pass a tax increase, and when a significant portion of the
public believes that teachers work only “9:00 to 3:00 and have summers free,” PR
work is needed to demonstrate the many services that a school provides and the
good things that occur there.
Teachers can reach out to the surrounding community by volunteering to teach
courses in their areas of specialty, by attending community functions to show their
support, or by attending community meetings to keep abreast of concerns. Attending
PTSA meetings or serving as a liaison between the PTSA and the faculty is another
way to build connections.
Teachers can also exhibit leadership by actively engaging the community. A leader I
know initiated a “community and texts” program, a kind of book club where every
student, parent, and community member was invited to read the same book and
meet at the school for book talks. This leader had incredible success in uniting
property owners and businesses and showcasing the innovative things the school
was doing.
Other kinds of community outreach can be targeted solely at parents. I hosted two
events, one on the SAT and one on our AP program, so parents could become
better informed. Securing guest speakers, sending letters home in multiple
languages, and using the PTSA to promote the events drew some of the largest
audiences the school had seen and did wonders in involving parents in their
children's education.
Student Activities Coordinator
Often an administrator is the one to oversee the placement of sponsors and coaches
to the groups needing sponsorship. But a teacher might be able to forge a tighter
bond between students and organization sponsors by finding the best match. A good

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

match could have a direct influence on student achievement because, as some

literature suggests, extracurriculars and achievement are related. In addition to
overseeing student groups, this leader might encourage teachers to become
sponsors or encourage groups to plan joint events.
Technology Leader
This person does not initially need to be the technology guru of the team. She should
have an interest in technology, but she can be trained in this area. The leader
coordinates the team's technological needs and serves as a troubleshooter when
glitches arise. If your building has a technology committee, she serves as a liaison to
that group and assists in making buildingwide decisions concerning technology.
Web Page Curator
This position is best suited for a technophile. Many teachers love technology and
crave the opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge of it—and will jump at the
chance to use it. Tap these feelings and abilities by making someone responsible for
creating or monitoring a department or team Web page. This can be a vital resource
for parents and students in addition to being a great PR vehicle. This person might
create links to other helpful Web sites, post bios of your teachers, write an online
newsletter, or work on anything else that would be beneficial to the learning
community.
Supplies Coordinator
A supplies coordinator may not be necessary on all grade levels or in all subject
areas. For example, a high school history department may be concerned only with
books and traditional supplies, but a 7th grade science team might need someone to
coordinate the use, inventory, and ordering of lab equipment and supplies. This
leader's responsibility is to determine what the team needs and ensure it has the
materials for success.

Leadership Qualities
Although the options for leadership are varied, there are a number of qualities that
leaders have in common. Many of these characteristics are seen in effective
teachers, which might be why people gravitate toward them and why they seek
leadership positions. Look for the following traits in the teachers in your department
and in your school, and steer your potential teacher leaders toward growth
opportunities.
Principled
One of the problems with U.S. politics today is that few representatives are willing to
take a stand and fight for what they truly believe in. It's not surprising that people are
apathetic and voter turnout is consistently low. People want someone to believe in,
someone who will “fight the good fight” and risk the consequences of doing so, and
teachers are no different.
It would seem that tenured teachers have little to lose because they have job
security, but repercussions can take the form of having their schedules changed,
being forced to “float” between rooms, not receiving administrative support, or being
unable to advance in their careers. A teacher who weighs these risks and still wants
his voice heard over the din is a leader whom people want to work with and to follow.
These teachers are student centered and not motivated by stipends or how being a
leader makes them feel.

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

A principled person is also trustworthy. Earning the trust of colleagues is no small

feat, and maintaining confidentiality can be difficult sometimes. Those who confide in
you expect you to keep information to yourself, and if you do, you can be rewarded
in a variety of ways.
Honest and Ethical
By choice or not, people will generally follow their leaders. If a leader is honest and
ethical, however, he will be respected, which is more important. An elementary
school team leader was asked not to tell one of his teachers that she would be
inheriting a very disruptive student midway through the marking period. If he withheld
this information and was later asked if he had previous knowledge of it, he would
either have to lie, which he was uncomfortable doing, or admit the truth, which he
believed would diminish his leadership.
The day he learned of the news, he decided it was best to tell the teacher after
school what was going to happen the next day. Consequently, the teacher respected
him for being forthright and treating her as a professional. He was able to prevent
her emotional outburst, which would have occurred the following day when the
disruptive student walked into her classroom—and which would have affected the
teacher, her students, the leader, the guidance department, and the administration.
And his leadership was strengthened as a result.
Organized
A disorganized teacher leader would be hard-pressed to handle all her
responsibilities inside and outside of the classroom while holding a leadership
position. Organized, though, does not mean that every paper is tucked neatly away
in a manila folder or that a workstation is spotless. Being organized means having
some kind of system in place, however foreign it may appear to others, to stay
focused and on track, which facilitates being able to handle the myriad
responsibilities necessary for teaching and leading.
Perceptive
Nowadays, too few people listen carefully to what others are saying, and too many
ignore facial expressions, gestures, and other clues. Being sensitive to people's
needs and concerns is crucial. It is essential to be able to discern when your team is
overwhelmed, when a meeting ceases to be productive, and when your teachers
need assistance or direction but are reluctant to ask for it.
Sensing what people need and when they need it is a key leadership quality.
Successful leaders are able to read people. They mentally note people's reactions
and remember certain situations, and they are able to connect the dots along the
way. They perceive differences between what people say and what they do. They
are observant, as they note the school politics, identify potential threats, and adjust
accordingly so that their actions are not damaging. Trusting their instincts is another
way that these leaders are effective: they know when to go with their gut.
Empathetic and Supportive
People are more inclined to follow someone who understands what they are going
through. It is not good enough for a leader to imagine what it is like to have a class of
35 freshmen; she needs to have had such a large group herself. This is why
administrators who had only a brief tenure in the classroom, or who never taught,
have a tough time leading: they are unable to convince their constituency that they
have “been there, done that.” A lack of direct experience makes it difficult for them to

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

provide viable and valuable suggestions to teachers, or for teachers to trust and act
on recommendations they receive.
An empathetic and supportive leader assists others emotionally, socially, and
instructionally, and forges connections with them. Without being judgmental, she
finds ways to help people recognize and learn from their mistakes. She is not intent
on punishing people but instead on helping them.
Altruistic
Much as a mother feeds her children first when there is not enough to go around,
those who put the needs of others ahead of their own have a solid understanding of
what true leadership entails. The sacrifice may involve waiting until everyone else
receives supplies or taking on an unappealing task. Leaders sacrifice their planning
periods, their free time, and sometimes even their personal lives for the benefit of
others. A leader understands that the health of the family depends on letting others
eat before she does.
Accessible
The concept of having an “open-door policy” has lost almost all its cachet. Some
profess it but don't practice it, whereas some preach it but make others feel awkward
for taking advantage of it. We obviously should be accessible during contract hours.
But because the nature of the job demands that we often take our work home, we
should be accessible after hours as well.
An administrator made himself accessible to me by giving me both his home phone
number and his cell phone number, and when I called, he never made me feel that I
was intruding on his time. He understood that for us to be successful, these kinds of
sacrifices were necessary. In turn, all my teachers have my contact information.
When a new hire needed to reach me, he was astonished when a colleague gave
him my cell phone number, exclaiming, “You mean he doesn't mind if you call him
during the weekend?”
Of course, you need to set limits. I know a department chair who would receive
phone calls from one of her teachers several times a week simply to talk about his
day. This chair was going beyond being accessible; she was unable to set and
communicate boundaries.
Resourceful
Obstacles do not slow down a good leader; they are opportunities for him to flex his
problem-solving muscles. People are inspired to work with a leader who can
circumvent roadblocks, devise creative solutions, and use the network. For example,
a resourceful teacher does not accept a shortage of funds as the bottom line; he
knows whose pockets to pick or finds people to subsidize the team's needs.
Fair
Being professional means putting aside personal prejudices for the good of the
students. A fair leader hears all voices, does not play favorites (although she may
have them), and is not self-serving. Treating everyone fairly is more important than
treating everyone equally, and a fair leader is an impartial leader. She does not allow
friendships or rivalries to impede the group's progress, especially when moving
toward improved achievement. She understands that she walks a fine line,
expresses that to her teachers, and practices fairness toward all whenever possible.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Accepting
Accepting people for who and what they are shows leadership. Although placing
blame may make a leader feel more secure, it is better for the group if he accepts
people's flaws and shortcomings and learns how to work with them (or around them).
Also, rather than passing the buck, accepting the blame for a problem demonstrates
responsibility. Teachers respect and want to work with leaders who are willing to be
accountable, a rare quality indeed in our current age of abdication of responsibility.
Vulnerable
Leaders who own up to mistakes or share their errors with their colleagues, with an
explanation of what they learned from the experience, are valued. Leaders who
admit mistakes show a willingness to grow. They are perceived as human, not as
unapproachable academics in an ivory tower or arrogant know-it-alls. Not afraid to
admit when they do not know an answer, they are willing to learn and ask others for
the answers. And humility can be refreshingly disarming.
Forward-Thinking
Some people have a knack for anticipating what might happen next. Whether it is
predicting the outcome of a meeting or a situation or analyzing political and
educational trends, the ability to plan for what may be coming down the pike is a
talent that not many possess. Successful athletes demonstrate this on a regular
basis by just seeming to know what is needed or where they are needed. Successful
teacher leaders are no different. Conducting a parametric analysis (where education
is, where it has been, and where it is headed) can put a team on the cutting edge.
Leaders can save their group time and growing pains by suggesting change and
giving choices rather than mandates, which are always less palatable.
Futurists are often risk-takers. The teacher in a previous scenario who had the
dilemma of whether or not to inform a colleague about a decision is a risk-taker of
sorts. He was not foolhardy; he did not rush into the situation but weighed the risks
and the consequences and took action. As General George S. Patton once
remarked, taking calculated risks is quite different from being rash. Examples of risks
include piloting a new idea or strategy or supporting someone who is willing to do so.
Similarly, these people seize the initiative instead of waiting for others to act. They
recognize the far-reaching effects of a good idea and get the ball rolling.
Global
Seeing the bigger picture is a skill that facilitates problem solving. A teacher leader is
not always able to understand why decisions are made and how they affect the
entire organizational structure, but she does comprehend the ramifications on her
team. She is able to see beyond her classroom to at least her hallway. She doesn't
deal in scraps; she deals in what is best for all students and teachers.
Decisive and Incisive
Leadership demands an action-oriented, decisive person: those leaders who get
things done are the most appreciated. They take the initiative and make things
happen. Penetrating to the heart of an issue shows a keen and quick mind—and it
can save time. In a profession where time is limited and people spend an inordinate
amount of time discussing, debating, and deliberating issues, respect belongs to the
person who, without making a rushed decision, can consider all angles and cut to the
chase.

Intelligent

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Intelligence as a key quality may sound obvious, but a leader I know was not
respected because he lacked depth in his content knowledge. Once teachers
realized this, they ran academic circles around him to hide what was really going on
in their classrooms, and students used this to their advantage to help them get what
they wanted.
Similarly, teachers resent leaders who simply give an answer because they are
expected to have one. Students can sense when adults fake their way through an
explanation, but adults can be more perceptive and unforgiving. Even though it
seems that anti-intellectualism is rampant in our society, educators value intelligence
and crave an intelligent leader.

The Leadership Choice

You already possess a powerful strategy for improving achievement: nurturing
teacher leadership. Most people want to feel that they are part of something
significant, that what they do matters, and that they are contributing members to a
common goal that affects achievement. Teacher leadership meets this need
because it creates a greater sense of ownership, buy-in, and community.
Although administrators hold influential positions in guiding a school toward its goals,
it is the teacher leader's interpretation, support, and implementation of decisions—
his and the administration's—that move an organization forward. He simultaneously
deals with a myriad of obstacles and runs interference so that an avalanche of
issues does not deluge the main office.
If a teacher leader is effective, he will rarely need to disturb an administrator, and
what administrator would not appreciate more time to devote to her responsibilities?
In fact, by taking on more responsibility or solving problems creatively, he can build
rapport with her. The teacher leader, in turn, will be better supported by his
administrator, which will ultimately increase his effectiveness. Moreover, because of
high-stakes testing, administrators are spending more time out of the building at
workshops, meetings, and training sessions or promoting the school, so the need for
teacher leadership has never been more obvious. Identify those teachers in your
department who are integral to its success and train them as teacher leaders.
There will be those who rise to the challenge and those who attempt to knock them
down. Leadership breeds envy, and we teachers can be very petty people
sometimes. What is baffling is that we're not envious of other teacher leaders
because of what their positions bring. Most often, no tangible rewards are associated
with teacher leadership. Many department chairs and mentors receive some kind of
financial compensation, but dedicated leaders do not take on these roles for
remuneration (and it usually is nominal in relation to the hours they spend).
Most teachers accept leadership as a reward in itself: they derive a sense of self-
worth from having their voices heard, developing vision, or serving their students and
colleagues. Desirable as this satisfaction is, it should hardly evoke envy or (at worst)
maliciousness. But it can. I'm not here to explain human nature but to remind you
that these kinds of feelings and behaviors exist.
To mollify those who are discontented, you or an administrator might be tempted to
grant them leadership positions. This tactic might work in some cases. Perhaps
putting such people in the spotlight will unleash their latent leadership abilities or
force them to step up to the plate. This is not always the case, however, and such a
decision can backfire with horrendous consequences. Remember that the business

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

of educating children is not Little League baseball: everyone does not get a chance
to swing the bat. A score is kept, and there are winners and losers. To give everyone
a chance to play, regardless of ability, is damaging to students and can be even
more damaging to the game.
Our student athletes realize this. Students are not selected to start on the varsity
team simply because they are seniors. They know that it takes more than a desire
and a commitment to win: their abilities determine their roles. To use another
analogy, a high-profile legal case is not given to a lawyer simply because it is his turn
in the firm to have one. That would not be serving a defendant's interests. Lawyers
receive such cases because they earn them. The same should hold true for your
teachers. If adolescents and other professionals can understand this concept, you
need to believe that your teachers will understand it also. If a teacher who lacks
leadership qualities and abilities feels it is unfair that she does not have a leadership
position, find another way to make her feel valued.

• Leadership Versus Management

Source: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-difference-between-educational-
management-and-Connolly-
James/85d6cee32424554c2e8644246f9995ac169bd06e?p2df

Educational management and educational leadership are central concepts in

understanding organising in educational institutions but their meaning, the difference
between them and their value in educational organising remain the subject of
debate. In this article, we analyse and contrast the two concepts. We conclude that
educational management entails carrying the responsibility for the proper functioning
of a system in an educational institution in which others participate. Carrying a
responsibility of this kind is a state of mind and does not necessitate actions, though
it typically and frequently does. In contrast, educational leadership is the act of
influencing others in educational settings to achieve goals and necessitates actions
of some kind. When those carrying a delegated responsibility act in relation to that
responsibility, they influence and are therefore leading. Although educational
leadership is ideally undertaken responsibly, in practice it does not necessarily entail
carrying the responsibility for the functioning of the educational system in which the
influence is exercised. Through our analysis, the notion of responsibility, which is
underplayed in considerations of organising in educational institutions, comes to the
fore. Educational responsibility is an important notion and it should play a more
prominent role in analyses of organising in educational institutions.

The Difference Between Leadership and Management

By Nikita DuggalLast updated on Jul 13, 202014503243
https://www.simplilearn.com/leadership-vs-management-difference-article

Many wonder about the differences between leadership and management. Are they
mutually exclusive? Do professionals have both qualities—or do they learn one or
the other over a long period of time? These questions are just the tip of the iceberg.
In this article, we will take a look at both.

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

What is Leadership? What is Management?

The words “leader” and “manager” are among the most commonly used words in
business and are often used interchangeably. But have you ever wondered what the
terms actually mean?

What Do Managers Do?

A manager is the member of an organization with the responsibility of carrying out
the four important functions of management: planning, organizing, leading, and
controlling. But are all managers leaders?

Most managers also tend to be leaders, but only IF they also adequately carry out
the leadership responsibilities of management, which include communication,
motivation, providing inspiration and guidance, and encouraging employees to rise to
a higher level of productivity.

Unfortunately, not all managers are leaders. Some managers have poor leadership
qualities, and employees follow orders from their managers because they are
obligated to do so—not necessarily because they are influenced or inspired by the
leader.

Managerial duties are usually a formal part of a job description; subordinates follow
as a result of the professional title or designation. A manager’s chief focus is to meet
organizational goals and objectives; they typically do not take much else into
consideration. Managers are held responsible for their actions, as well as for the
actions of their subordinates. With the title comes the authority and the privilege to
promote, hire, fire, discipline, or reward employees based on their performance and
behavior.

What Do Leaders Do?

The primary difference between management and leadership is that leaders don’t
necessarily hold or occupy a management position. Simply put, a leader doesn’t
have to be an authority figure in the organization; a leader can be anyone.

Unlike managers, leaders are followed because of their personality, behavior, and
beliefs. A leader personally invests in tasks and projects and demonstrates a high
level of passion for work. Leaders take a great deal of interest in the success of their
followers, enabling them to reach their goals to satisfaction—these are not
necessarily organizational goals.

There isn’t always tangible or formal power that a leader possesses over his
followers. Temporary power is awarded to a leader and can be conditional based on
the ability of the leader to continually inspire and motivate their followers.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Subordinates of a manager are required to obey orders while following is optional

when it comes to leadership. Leadership works on inspiration and trust among
employees; those who do wish to follow their leader may stop at any time. Generally,
leaders are people who challenge the status quo. Leadership is change-savvy,
visionary, agile, creative, and adaptive.
What Are The Traits A Manager Possesses?

Below are four important traits of a manager:

1. The ability to execute a Vision
Managers build a strategic vision and break it down into a roadmap for their team
to follow.
2. The ability to Direct
Managers are responsible for day-to-day efforts while reviewing necessary
resources, and anticipating needs to make changes along the way.
3. Process Management
Managers have the authority to establish work rules, processes, standards, and
operating procedures.
4. People Focused
Managers are known to look after and cater to the needs of the people they are
responsible for: listening to them, involving them in certain key decisions, and
accommodating reasonable requests for change to contribute to increased
productivity.

What Are The Traits A Leader Possesses?

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Below are five important traits of a leader:

1. Vision
A leader knows where they stand, where they want to go and tend to involve the
team in charting a future path and direction.
2. Honesty and Integrity
Leaders have people who believe them and walk by their side down the path the
leader sets.
3. Inspiration
Leaders are usually inspirational—and help their team understand their own roles
in a bigger context.
4. Communication Skills
Leaders always keep their team informed about what’s happening, both present
and the future—along with any obstacles that stand in their way.
5. Ability to Challenge
Leaders are those that challenge the status quo. They have their style of doing
things and problem-solving and are usually the ones who think outside the box.
The Three Important Differences Between A Manager and A leader
Being a manager and a leader at the same time is a viable concept. But remember,
just because someone is a phenomenal leader, it does not necessarily guarantee
that the person will be an exceptional manager as well, and vice versa. So, what are
the standout differences between the two roles?
1. A leader invents or innovates while a manager organizes
The leader of the team comes up with new ideas and kickstarts the organization’s
shift or transition to a forward-thinking phase. A leader always has his or her eyes
set on the horizon, developing new techniques and strategies for the organization.
A leader has immense knowledge of all the current trends, advancements, and
skillsets—and has a clarity of purpose and vision. By contrast, a manager is
someone who generally only maintains what is already established. A manager
needs to watch the bottom line while controlling employees and workflow in the
organization and preventing any chaos.

In his book, The Wall Street Journal Essential Guide to Management: Lasting
Lessons from the Best Leadership Minds of Our Time, Alan Murray cites that a
manager is someone who “establishes appropriate targets and yardsticks, and
analyzes, appraises and interprets performance.” Managers understand the
people they work with and know which person is the best fit for a specific task.
2. A manager relies on control, whereas a leader inspires trust:

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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

A leader is a person who pushes employees to do their best and knows how to
set an appropriate pace and tempo for the rest of the group. Managers, on the
other hand, are required by their job description to establish control over
employees, which, in turn, helps them develop their assets to bring out their best.
Thus, managers have to understand their subordinates well to do their job
effectively.
3. A leader asks the questions “what” and “why", whereas a manager leans
more towards the questions “how” and “when”:
To be able to do justice to their role as a leader, some may question and
challenge authority to modify or even reverse decisions that may not have the
team’s best interests in mind. Good leadership requires a great deal of good
judgment, especially when it comes to the ability to stand up to senior
management over a point of concern or if there is an aspect in need of
improvement. If a company goes through a rough patch, a leader will be the one
who will stand up and ask the question: “What did we learn from this?”Managers,
however, are not required to assess and analyze failures. Their job description
emphasizes asking the questions “how” and “when,” which usually helps them
make sure that plans are properly executed. They tend to accept the status quo
exactly the way it is and do not attempt a change.

The Three Tests

In the article Three Differences Between Managers And Leaders, Vineet Nayar
discusses three tests he devised to help managers decide if they have successfully
made the shift from managing people to leading them.

1. Counting Value vs. Creating Value:

Managers are the only ones who count value, he says. There are some who cut
down on the value by disabling or otherwise countering ideas and people who add
value.
Leaders, however, focus instead on working to generate a certain value that is
over and above that which the team creates—and is as much a creator of value
as their followers. Nayar goes on to say that, “Leading by example and leading by
enabling people are the hallmarks of action-based leadership.”
2. Circles of Influence vs. Circles of Power:
As mentioned previously, managers have subordinates and leaders gain
followers, which implies that managers create a circle of power while leaders
create a circle of influence. Nayar offers advice on how to identify which circle you
have around you. He says, “The quickest way to figure out which of the two you’re
doing is to count the number of people outside your reporting hierarchy who come
to you for advice. The more that do, the more likely it is that you are perceived to
be a leader.”

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

3. Leading People vs. Managing People:

One responsibility of a manager is controlling a group in order to accomplish a
specific goal. Leadership, on the other hand, is the ability of an individual to
motivate, influence, and enable other employees to make a contribution to the
success of an organization. Inspiration and influence separate leaders from
managers—not control and power.

• School Head Must be Both a Leader and a Manager

Principals as Leader-Managers
2016
https://www.educationworld.com/a_admin/admin/admin451.shtml

Principals often view leadership and management as two different roles, but
the most effective principals know how to blend the two. Included: Tips for
combining leadership and management skills to be a more effective
administrator.
Successful principals learn to seamlessly blend their roles as managers and leaders
and understand the importance of both tasks, according to educators, authors, and
consultants Dr. Harvey Alvy and Dr. Pam Robbins. The pair, co-authors of The New
Principal's Fieldbook: Strategies for Success once led a session on this topic at the
convention of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
"Principals are responsible for both leadership and management," said Dr. Alvy, a
former principal and professor in the department of education at Eastern Washington
University. "A lot of principals separate the two roles and do not realize how the roles
go hand-in-hand."
Many leaders view management responsibilities at a lower level or lower "rank"
because they have little to do with vision, mission, culture building, and instructional
supervision, according to Dr. Alvy. But management goes hand-in-hand with
leadership; many of the culture-building and culture-shaping aspects of the job are
accomplished through combining leadership and management.
How to Lead and Manage
For example, when a principal is "monitoring" student dismissal at 3 p.m., that
responsibility should be viewed as both management and leadership, Dr. Alvy said,
because the principal is making sure students are safe as they are leaving
school and taking the opportunity to talk with students, teachers, and bus drivers
about the day and important educational issues -- such as, "Monica, I heard you did
great on your math test yesterday; well done!"
In assessing their skills as managers and leaders, administrators should not
separate the two roles, Dr. Alvy added.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

"It is hard to determine [a principal's success in those roles]

unless a principal has a clear vision and mission of his or "One principal had a
her job -- one that is focused on instructional leadership," sign that said 'Out
he noted. "We cannot determine if we are successful unless Learning' that he
we have a target or standard to judge our performance. The would put on his
leadership vision needs to be about helping students door when visiting
succeed academically and as citizens, and helping faculty classrooms. He had
and staff develop as professionals with a common vision note cards with
and mission about school and student success. Based on every teacher's
the vision and mission the leader needs to set goals, and name on them and
assess whether the goals have been addressed during the would mark the date
year." he visited a
According to Dr. Alvy and Dr. Robbins, successful school classroom and what
leaders combine management and leadership strategies the teacher was
effectively by doing."
• maximizing quality instructional time.
• using data.
• managing their time effectively.
• using faculty meetings to leverage professional learning.
• reflecting.
"Also consider the emotional needs of the child," Dr. Robbins said. "You need to
build heart into the school plan. Remember heart in the equation of learning."
According to Robbins, one principal noticed a few months before graduation that
certain kids were at risk of not graduating. So the principal ordered graduation robes
early and took pictures of the kids in the robes, put them in frames, and gave them to
the kids. "That inspired many of them to complete school."
Managing Time, Data
A simple way to maximize learning time is by observing how effectively teachers use
the first five minutes of class time, Dr. Alvy said. "Look at how the first five minutes of
class goes. If you lose five minutes a day, that's 15 hours of instructional time a
year." He also recommends principals pick up examples of student work as they
walk around the building.
"One of the most valuable management tools is data," Dr. Alvy added. "Make sure
you make decisions based on research. Consider what do on a daily basis to
improve student achievement. Remember to put data in context."

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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

To successfully use data, combine leadership and

management roles, Dr. Alvy continued. "While managers "Another principal
are concerned with generating and collecting data sources, had blue cards. As
leaders go beyond merely connecting, and scrutinize the he walked around
most valuable data sources given contextual realities and the building, he
perceptions," he said. "Leaders then make decisions and jotted down
act in the best interests of students, faculty, and the maintenance
school." problems and gave
One new principal, for example, in reviewing student them to his
referrals, noticed that kids only were referred to the office secretary, who
for negative reasons, said Dr. Robbins, an educational called the custodian.
consultant who lives in Virginia. The principal told the The secretary
teachers that he wanted to change the policy so kids were passed on the cards
referred for good things as well. He papered the wall in his to the custodian.
office with notes from kids who wrote about the good things When the work was
they did and signed their names. done, the custodian
"It changed the climate of the school," Dr. Robbins noted. returned the card to
Principals also should take the time to walk through the the principal, signed
school, a strategy Dr. Alvy and Dr. Robbins call Leading and dated."
and Learning by Wandering Around.
"One principal had a sign that said 'Out Learning' that he would put on his door when
visiting classrooms," Dr. Alvy noted. "He had note cards with every teacher's name
on them and would mark the date he visited a classroom and what the teacher was
doing."
Another principal had blue cards, Dr. Alvy added. As he walked around the building,
he jotted down maintenance problems and gave them to his secretary, who called
the custodian. The secretary passed on the cards to the custodian. When the work
was done, the custodian returned the card to the principal, signed and dated.
"Ask yourself, 'What parts of the school should I be visiting but I'm not?'" Dr. Alvy
said. "Where you go in the building says a lot about you."
To help manage time, Drs. Alvy and Robbins recommended Covey's time
management matrix. This suggests dividing tasks into categories urgent and
important, urgent and not important, not urgent and important, not urgent and not
important
"You need to organize and execute around priorities," Dr. Alvy added.
He also suggested administrators establish a Tickler File with information they will
need for the month, and for more long-term planning. "You also can put notes on file
for next year, such as 'shorten the graduation speech' or 'don't invite someone back
because of crude language'."
Faculty Meetings as Staff Development
Faculty meetings also should be treated as prime opportunities for staff
development. "They should not be times to review items that can be delivered via e-
mail," Dr. Alvy said. "They should be planned with the idea that every teacher can
gain valuable information from the meeting."

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

Use faculty meetings to leverage learning time, he said. To

do that, use meetings for instructional curricular and "One principal
assessment issues that foster student learning, such as noticed a few
analyzing data to make decisions about needed months before
interventions for students. Also, foster opportunities to graduation that
analyze student work and showcase students. Start the certain kids were at
meeting with a student who received an award or who plays risk of not
an instrument; something inspirational. graduating. So the
One possibility is for teachers and administrators to read an principal ordered
article together and discuss it. graduation robes
Principals also should provide opportunities to build trust, early and took
collaboration, and individual and organizational capacity, as pictures of the kids
well as employ celebrations to call attention to treasured in the robes, put
school values. them in frames, and
Reflect, Reflect gave them to the
Many principals would say that reflecting on their job and kids. That inspired
what they do is a luxury they can't afford, but Drs. Alvy and many of them to
Robbins insist it is critical to being good leader-managers, complete school."
because reflection deepens learning perspectives.
As an example of the value of reflection, Dr. Robbins noted that one principal
realized that kids referred for fighting were being teased about body odor. The
principal did some research and learned that the students reported for fighting were
receiving free or reduced-price lunches, and thought the families might not be able to
afford certain hygiene products. The principal asked people who traveled to collect
the soap and shampoo hotels leave in the rooms and donate them to the school. The
principal made it known to the students that the supplies were available. "No one has
abused the supplies, and the fights dropped to zero," Dr. Robbins said.
For principals who say they cannot find time to reflect, Dr. Alvy said he would
sympathize with their frustration and time management constraints. "I then would ask
them to talk about their typical day," he told Education World. "We would engage in a
conversation about their vision, mission, and goals for the year. If instructional
leadership and supervision for student growth and teacher success are not part of
the mission and vision, I would suggest strongly refocusing their priorities."
At the same time, Dr. Alvy noted, principals need to remember that there are days in
which the best plans go awry -- that is just part of the job. "The daily surprises are a
reality, thus it is essential to focus on the mission and vision," he said. "The mission
and vision serve as a compass to guide one over and around the hurdles that occur
each day."

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

A School Principal as a Leader and a Manager

http://olga-schooleadership.blogspot.com/2011/01/principal-as-leader-
and-manager.html

(From Sally Aguilar)

Every principal is a leader of a school, his decision is expected to be followed

because it is for everyone’s benefit and for the improvement of the school as a
whole. He is the one guiding the people in the school where to go. His role is not
only limited in the field of education, but also in the community where he resides. A
principal is also a manager because he not only lead but manage the whole
organization so that whatever plans they have for the betterment of the school, the
stakeholders can attain it to reach the goals and visions sets with the support of
every individual.

School leadership (Wikipedia) is a process of enlisting and guiding the talents and
energies of teachers, pupils, and parents toward achieving common educational
aims. Administration and management are terms that connote stability through the
exercise of control and supervision. The concept of leadership was favored because
it conveys dynamism and pro-activity. The principal or school head is commonly
thought to be the school leader; however, school leadership may include other
persons, such as members of a formal leadership team and other persons who
contribute toward the aims of the school. Leadership arguably presents only a partial
picture of the work of school, division or district, and ministerial or state education
agency personnel, not to mention the areas of research explored by university
faculty in departments concerned with the operations of schools and educational
institutions. For this reason, there may be grounds to question the merits of the term
as a catch-all for the field.

Leadership requires vision. It is a force that provides meaning and purpose to the
work of an organization. Leaders of change are visionary leaders, and vision is the
basis of their work. (Manasse, 1986, p. 151) "Associated with a vision has to be a
plan, a way of reaching the goal". The values and beliefs of individuals affect their
behavior and in leaders they influence the vision leaders hold of their school or
district.

Values are principles an individual considers to be important or desirable, for

example honest communication; beliefs are ideas considered to be true and on
which people are willing to act, for example, believing that all children can learn.
Manasse (1986). Leaders for change recognize that the people in the organization
are its greatest resource. "To lead change the leader must believe without question
that people are the most important asset of an organization" (Joiner, 1987 p. 2). This
characteristic has three dimensions. The first is the leaders' valuing the professional
contributions of the staff, while the second is the leaders' ability to relate to people.
The third dimension is fostering collaborative relationship.

I agree with the ideas mentioned that a Principal should be a leader who can

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BEED Program
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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

communicate to his people and listen also to their opinion, needs and wants. That he
should be a leader and a manager, and being one he must be good in his chosen
profession and dedicated to his work. That as a principal he should set example and
be a model of his words and beliefs and that he is also a very good listener.

Being a principal is not an easy task, this is what I realized upon enriching myself
thru surfing the net, and during the class discussion, because he is not only leading
but also managing the school and especially the individuals with unique personality.
Where the school is going, it is the leader leading them and the people who are
working in that institution, the students he is catering and also the community, the
parents and everyone. Not only the authority, accountability but it is the leader’s
responsibility to guide to be a school of good standing or a performing school and a
model school for the learners to enroll to because their parents knew that their
children be in good hands if they send their offspring to this school. So principal
should possess the good qualities in order to lead and manage his school to have
quality teaching and better curriculum implementation.

• Types of Skills Demanded of Leaders

4 Essential Types of Skills that All Leaders Need

https://www.ccl.org/blog/4-essential-types-skills-leaders-need/
September 2, 2016
Ask any leadership coach or expert what’s needed to be an effective leader, and
many of them will provide a laundry list of skills to master.

Although it’s true that leaders need to be equipped with numerous skills, fortunately
these skills can be simplified and more easily understood by grouping them into a
typology that consists of 4 broad types or categories of skills.

This typology was discovered by Steve Scullen, a professor at Drake University, and
colleagues by factor analyzing
leadership skill ratings collected via two
360◦ assessments.
The 4 skill types include:

1. Technical skills – the specific

methods and techniques related to a
leader’s functional area. They may
include but are not limited to:
• Mastering vocabulary,
work unit knowledge, and operating
rules in order to understand how a
business works.
• Understanding the
technical knowledge that is needed to
do one’s job.
• Mastering new job-related
skills quickly.

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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

2. Administrative skills – include areas such as planning, organizing, delegating,

coordinating, and staffing. More specific skills may include but are not limited
to:
• Setting direction for one’s work group.
• Linking one’s work responsibilities to the organization’s overall mission.
• Taking charge and/or action when needed.
• Engaging in problem solving.
• Delegating appropriate tasks to direct reports.
• Hiring and building teams with talented people.
• Adapting operational plans as needed.
• Making good decisions in a timely manner.
3. Human skills – refer to a leader’s ability to work effectively with his or her work
teams. More specific skills may include but are not limited to:
• Remaining calm and positive when things are not going well.
• Being pleasant and having interpersonal warmth.
• Showing interest in others’ needs and goals.
• Investing in and developing others.
• Inspiring others to be committed to their work.
• Maintaining good working relationships with others.
• Gaining the trust, cooperation, and respect of others.
• Resolving conflict without alienating people.
4. Citizenship behaviors – capture other beneficial aspects of work behavior that
are typically voluntary in nature. They may include but are not limited to:
• Helping direct reports and team members with non-work-related problems.
• Displaying enjoyment and enthusiasm for working hard.
• Volunteering to assume new job responsibilities when the organization is
in need (without extra compensation – at least in the short-term).
• Being loyal or committed to one’s organization.
How do we know that these skills really matter?
A recent study at CCL and Davidson College expanded on the work by Steve
Scullen and colleagues and demonstrated empirically that all 4 skill types are related
to leaders’ actual effectiveness, or success, at work.

That is, leaders with more technical, administrative, and human skills, as well as
higher levels of citizenship behaviors, were perceived by their bosses to be more
effective leaders as compared to leaders who were not as adept at these skills.

Additionally, although leaders need all 4 skill types, some are more important than
others. Our study revealed that administrative and human skills are more critical to a
leader’s perceived effectiveness than are technical skills and citizenship behaviors.

Are these skills equally important regardless of gender and

organizational level?
We found all 4 skill types to be equally important for both men and women leaders.
Men and women were also equally adept at utilizing human, administrative, and
technical skills, but women engaged in more citizenship behaviors than men.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Human skills, technical skills, and citizenship behaviors appear to be equally

important to the success of middle-level leaders and upper-level executives;
however, while administrative skills are important for middle-level leaders, they are
even more critical to upper-level executives’ effectiveness at work.

Middle-level leaders and upper-level executives seem to be equally adept at utilizing

human, administrative, and technical skills, but upper-level executives engage in
more citizenship behaviors as compared to middle-level leaders.

18 Skills You Need to Be a Successful Leader

https://www.careeraddict.com/leadership-skills
Joanna Zambas

ShutterstockWhether you’re up for the next managerial role or you want to impress your
boss with your leadership abilities for a supervisory position, you’ll need to have a number
of professional skills and natural qualities that allow you to successfully interact with others
and handle crucial situations.

If you aspire to lead a team, here are the top skills needed to be the best at the job
and

1. Effective Communication
All great leaders are good communicators; they have the ability to get their point
across in a constructive manner and have strong interpersonal skills. They must
master all forms of communication, including one-on-ones, company meetings and in
written form. You should have the ability to be sensitive to people’s situations and
give them the time to share their thoughts and problems.

2. Proactivity
A successful leader doesn’t wait for things to happen; they are proactive and they
anticipate desired results. They identify threats and take action against them. They
are constantly thinking of ways to improve and do better; whether that goal is
business-related or personal, they always strive to do better.

3. Ability to Motivate
Good leaders and managers inspire their employees to do better and motivate those
around them. This fire in their belly comes from their passion and pride to be the best
and to achieve more than they ever expected. And as the great Maya Angelou once
said: ‘Nothing will work unless you do’. So if you want to encourage, you need to
show people how.

4. Organisation
Organisational skills are crucial in management positions; you need to be able to
handle a number of different projects and spend ample time on each, ensuring you
meet deadlines. If you lack this quality, you should find techniques and methods to
help you be more organised.

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

5. Confidence
Confidence is important in this role as people will look at you on how to behave,
particularly when things are going pear-shaped. If you remain calm and confident in
all situations, you’ll teach your staff to carry the same air and morale.

6. Analytical
Analytical skills are also one of the key characteristics of a good manager. If you are
a good analyst, you will be able to make correct decisions and solve problems
effectively. ‘…Analytical skills often prove vital in navigating through the situation. If
you are struggling with uncertainty or doubt, an analytical approach can help to put
you on the right track.’

7. Decision-Making
Being able to make decisions quickly and correctly is an effective skill to have; you
have to decide what the best action is to take against a specific problem. Genevieve
Fish writes on MyDomaine: ‘To help yourself make wise, time-effective decisions,
limit your options. Consider three to four possible scenarios, and weigh the pros and
cons of each. Any more considerations than that and you will suffer from a paradox
of choice.’

8. Creativity
Creative thinking skills are essential when it comes to leadership roles; you need to
be able to think outside of the box and come up with new and innovative ideas at any
given moment. You can also encourage your staff members to come up with new
ideas that enhance the overall growth of the business.

9. Delegation
When you are really passionate about a project, it’s very difficult to let go of certain
tasks and hand them over to colleagues to complete. However, if you hired correctly,
you’ll know where people’s strengths lie, and will be able to get the best-qualified
person for the job to complete it. Being able to hand out tasks appropriately and set
deadlines is a key skill for an effective leader.

10. Flexibility
A good and effective leader is adaptable to unexpected situations and problems.
Being flexible allows you to pick up and drop tasks when needed and in order of
priority. Another important factor is allowing your staff to be flexible – you’ll be much
more respected if you offer them better working conditions, giving them a good work-
life balance.

11. Honesty
When you are open and honest with your team, you’ll open the path for truthful
behaviour. Your staff will respect you and your decisions and, in turn, will make
better choices. The same policy goes for your relationship with clients and suppliers
– good leaders always have a truthful line of communication.

12. Negotiation

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

As a manager, you will have to communicate with staff, upper management,

customers, suppliers and competitors. You will need to be able to negotiate correctly,
ensuring your reputation is not put on the line. If you are purchasing a high order,
you could negotiate on the price to increase profits and save costs. Many people
think this is an easy skill to learn but the art of appropriate negotiation takes a while
to master.

13. Positivity
Great leaders know that they won’t have a highly motivated team if they themselves
aren’t positive. When things are falling through the gaps, encourage your team
members to do better, pick themselves up and carry on. Don’t shout at them or make
them feel intimidated; it’s neither effective nor productive. To make the workplace a
happy environment, create a few rewards to boost morale; this could be afternoon
cupcakes or Friday beers, for example.

14. Industry Expertise

In order to be a great leader, you need to know the ins and outs of your specific field.
You are the person with solutions to problems, and should possess the voice of
authority. This expertise must also determine important decisions and help you
understand what is and isn’t possible for each position. For example, a good website
design leader won’t ask his or her team to build a website function that isn’t feasible.
Instead, the leader should suggest an alternative.

15. Trustworthiness
The most respected leaders display integrity and honesty, gaining the trust and
loyalty of employees and clients. If you are trustworthy, employees will want to work
harder and deliver better results. Trusted leaders don’t have a large staff turnover
rate, as workers feel satisfied in their position with a good motivator and teacher
behind them.

16. Time Management

Time management is a vital skill to have when working in any position, especially in
a managerial role, whether remotely or in an office. You will not only have to manage
your own time but also the company’s time and efforts. You’ll need to keep on top of
project deadlines, staff requirements and any other tasks and challenges that arise
on a daily basis. Managers must decide where to invest the company’s time and
resources, which will give them a good profit return.

17. Problem-Solving
As a person of power, you’ll need to solve a number of issues that arise daily. This
could be for a client, employee or your personal manager. Whatever the situation,
you have to think quickly and logically, not allowing emotional stress or time pressure
to alter your ideas. Peter Economy says: ‘Leaders are recruited, trained and chosen
to solve organisational problems, and to take advantage of opportunities in the
marketplace.’

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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

18. Feedback
Giving regular feedback is essential in the workplace. If an employee has done a
good job, let them know about it – don’t what until their annual review to tell them
that they have exceeded your expectations. Mark Murphy says: ‘What… matter[s] is
whether your employees know whether or not they’re doing a good job.’

• Leadership Styles
https://www.americanexpress.com/en-us/business/trends-and-insights/articles/the-7-
most-common-leadership-styles-and-how-to-find-your-own/

The seven primary leadership styles are:

1. Autocratic Style
The phrase most illustrative of an autocratic leadership style is "Do as I say."
Generally, an autocratic leader believes that he or she is the smartest person at the
table and knows more than others. They make all the decisions with little input from
team members.

This command-and-control approach is typical of leadership styles of the past, but it

doesn't hold much water with today's talent.

That's not to say that the style may not be appropriate in certain situations. For
example, you can dip into an autocratic leadership style when crucial decisions need
to be made on the spot, and you have the most knowledge about the situation, or
when you're dealing with inexperienced and new team members and there's no time
to wait for team members to gain familiarity with their role.

2. Authoritative Style
The phrase most indicative of this style of leadership (also known as "visionary") is
"Follow me." The authoritative leadership style is the mark of confident leaders who
map the way and set expectations, while engaging and energizing followers along
the way.

In a climate of uncertainty, these leaders lift the fog for people. They help them see
where the company is going and what's going to happen when they get there.

Unlike autocratic leaders, authoritative leaders take the time to explain their thinking:
They don't just issue orders. Most of all, they allow people choice and latitude on
how to achieve common goals.

3. Pacesetting Style
"Do as I do!" is the phrase most indicative of leaders who utilize the pacesetting
style. This style describes a very driven leader who sets the pace as in racing.
Pacesetters set the bar high and push their team members to run hard and fast to
the finish line.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

While the pacesetter style of leadership is effective in getting things done and driving
for results, it's a style that can hurt team members. For one thing, even the most
driven employees may become stressed working under this style of leadership in the
long run.

An agile leadership style may be the ultimate leadership style required for leading
today's talent.
Should you avoid the pacesetting style altogether? Not so fast. If you're an energetic
entrepreneur working with a like-minded team on developing and announcing a new
product or service, this style may serve you well. However, this is not a style that can
be kept up for the long term. A pacesetting leader needs to let the air out of the tires
once in a while to avoid causing team burnout.

4. Democratic Style
Democratic leaders are more likely to ask "What do you think?" They share
information with employees about anything that affects their work responsibilities.
They also seek employees' opinions before approving a final decision.

There are numerous benefits to this participative leadership style. It can engender
trust and promote team spirit and cooperation from employees. It allows for creativity
and helps employees grow and develop. A democratic leadership style gets people
to do what you want to be done but in a way that they want to do it.

5. Coaching Style
When you having a coaching leadership style, you tend to have a "Consider this"
approach. A leader who coaches views people as a reservoir of talent to be
developed. The leader who uses a coach approach seeks to unlock people's
potential.

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Leaders who use a coaching style open their hearts and doors for people. They
believe that everyone has power within themselves. A coaching leader gives people
a little direction to help them tap into their ability to achieve all that they're capable of.

6. Affiliative Style
A phrase often used to describe this type of leadership is "People come first." Of all
the leadership styles, the affiliative leadership approach is one where the leader gets
up close and personal with people. A leader practicing this style pays attention to
and supports the emotional needs of team members. The leader strives to open up a
pipeline that connects him or her to the team.

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

Ultimately, this style is all about encouraging harmony and forming collaborative
relationships within teams. It's particularly useful, for example, in smoothing conflicts
among team members or reassuring people during times of stress.

7. Laissez-Faire Style
The laissez-faire leadership style is at the opposite end of the autocratic style. Of all
the leadership styles, this one involves the least amount of oversight. You could say
that the autocratic style leader stands as firm as a rock on issues, while the laissez-
faire leader lets people swim with the current.

On the surface, a laissez-faire leader may appear to trust people to know what to do,
but taken to the extreme, an uninvolved leader may end up appearing aloof. While
it's beneficial to give people opportunities to spread their wings, with a total lack of
direction, people may unwittingly drift in the wrong direction—away from the critical
goals of the organization.

This style can work if you're leading highly skilled, experienced employees who are
self-starters and motivated. To be most effective with this style, monitor team
performance and provide regular feedback.

Choosing Leadership Styles

Knowing which of the leadership styles works best for you is part of being a good
leader. Developing a signature style with the ability to stretch into other styles as the
situation warrants may help enhance your leadership effectiveness.

1. Know yourself.
Start by raising your awareness of your dominant leadership style. You can do this
by asking trusted colleagues to describe the strengths of your leadership style. You
can also take a leadership style assessment.

2. Understand the different styles.

Get familiar with the repertoire of leadership styles that can work best for a given
situation. What new skills do you need to develop?

3. Practice makes a leader.

Be genuine with any approach you use.Moving from a dominant leadership style to a
different one may be challenging at first. Practice the new behaviors until they
become natural. In other words, don't use a different leadership style as a "point-
and-click" approach. People can smell a fake leadership style a mile away—
authenticity rules.

4. Develop your leadership agility.

Traditional leadership styles are still relevant in today's workplace, but they may
need to be combined with new approaches in line with how leadership is defined for
the 21st century.

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

Today's business environments are fraught with challenges due to the changing
demographics and the employee expectations of a diverse workforce. This may call
for a new breed of leader who is an amalgam of most of the leadership styles
discussed here.

As the Chinese proverb goes, the wise adapt themselves to circumstances, as water
molds itself to the pitcher. An agile leadership style may be the ultimate leadership
style required for leading today's talent.

10 Common Leadership Styles

May 22, 2020
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/10-common-leadership-
styles

At some point in your career, you may take on a leadership role in some capacity.
Whether you’re leading a meeting, a project, a team or an entire department, you
might consider identifying with or adopting a defined leadership style.

Most professionals develop their own style of leadership based on factors like
experience and personality, as well as the unique needs of their company and its
organizational culture. While every leader is different, there are 10 leadership styles
commonly used in the workplace.

Why are leadership styles important?

As you develop leadership skills, you’ll likely use different processes and methods to
achieve your employer’s objectives and meet the needs of the employees who report
to you. To be effective as a manager, you might use several different leadership
styles at any given time.

By taking the time to familiarize yourself with each of these types of leadership, you
might recognize certain areas to improve upon or expand your own leadership style.
You can also identify other ways to lead that might better serve your current goals
and understand how to work with managers who follow a different style than your
own.

Here are 10 common leadership styles:

1. Coach
A coaching leader is someone who can quickly recognize their team members’
strengths, weaknesses and motivations to help each individual improve. This type of
leader often assists team members in setting smart goals and then provides regular
feedback with challenging projects to promote growth. They’re skilled in setting clear
expectations and creating a positive, motivating environment.

The coach leadership style is one of the most advantageous for employers as well
as the employees they manage. Unfortunately, it’s often also one of the most
underutilized styles—largely because it can be more time-intensive than other types
of leadership.

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Example: A sales manager gathers their team of account executives for a meeting
to discuss learnings from the previous quarter. They start the meeting by completing
an assessment together of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats
regarding the team’s performance. The manager then recognizes specific team
members for exceptional performance and goes over the goals achieved by the
team. Finally, the manager closes the meeting by announcing a contest to start the
next quarter, motivating the salespeople to reach their goals.

2. Visionary
Visionary leaders have a powerful ability to drive progress and usher in periods of
change by inspiring employees and earning trust for new ideas. A visionary leader is
also able to establish a strong organizational bond. They strive to foster confidence
among direct reports and colleagues alike.

This type of leadership is especially helpful for small, fast-growing organizations, or

larger organizations experiencing transformations or corporate restructuring.

Example: A teacher starts a group at work for colleagues who want to help resolve
anxieties and issues students have outside of school. The goal is to help students
better focus on and succeed at school. He has developed testing methods so they
can find meaningful ways to help students in a quick, efficient way.

Related: How to Demonstrate Leadership Skills at Work

3. Servant
Servant leaders live by a people-first mindset and believe that when team members
feel personally and professionally fulfilled, they’re more effective and more likely to
produce great work regularly. Because of their emphasis on employee satisfaction
and collaboration, they tend to achieve higher levels of respect.

A servant leader is an excellent leadership style for organizations of any industry and
size but is especially prevalent within nonprofits. These types of leaders are
exceptionally skilled in building employee morale and helping people re-engage with
their work.

Example: A product manager hosts monthly one-on-one coffee meetings with

everyone that has concerns, questions or thoughts about improving or using the
product. This time is meant for her to address the needs of and help those who are
using the product in any capacity.

4. Autocratic
Also called the authoritarian style of leadership, this type of leader is someone who
is focused almost entirely on results and efficiency. They often make decisions alone
or with a small, trusted group and expect employees to do exactly what they’re
asked. It can be helpful to think of these types of leaders as military commanders.

This leadership style can be useful in organizations with strict guidelines or

compliance-heavy industries. It can also be beneficial when used with employees

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who need a great deal of supervision—such as those with little to no experience.

However, this leadership style can stifle creativity and make employees feel
confined.

Example: Before an operation, the surgeon carefully recounts the rules and
processes of the operation room with every team member who will be helping during
the surgery. She wants to ensure everyone is clear on the expectations and follows
each procedure carefully and exactly so the surgery goes as smoothly as possible.

5. Laissez-faire or hands-off
This leadership style is the opposite of the autocratic leadership type, focusing
mostly on delegating many tasks to team members and providing little to no
supervision. Because a laissez-faire leader does not spend their time intensely
managing employees, they often have more time to dedicate to other projects.

Managers may adopt this leadership style when all team members are highly
experienced, well-trained and require little oversight. However, it can also cause a
dip in productivity if employees are confused about their leader’s expectations, or if
some team members need consistent motivation and boundaries to work well.

Example: When welcoming new employees, Keisha explains that her engineers can
set and maintain their own work schedules as long as they are tracking towards and
hitting goals that they set together as a team. They are also free to learn about and
participate in projects outside of their team they might be interested in.

Read more: Laissez Faire Leadership: Definition, Tips and Examples

6. Democratic
The democratic leadership style (also called the participative style) is a combination
of the autocratic and laissez-faire types of leaders. A democratic leader is someone
who asks for input and considers feedback from their team before making a decision.
Because team members feel their voice is heard and their contributions matter, a
democratic leadership style is often credited with fostering higher levels of employee
engagement and workplace satisfaction.

Because this type of leadership drives discussion and participation, it’s an excellent
style for organizations focused on creativity and innovation—such as the technology
industry.

Example: As a store manager, Jack has hired many brilliant and focused team
members he trusts. When deciding on storefronts and floor design, Jack acts only as
the final moderator for his team to move forward with their ideas. He is there to
answer questions and present possible improvements for his team to consider.

7. Pacesetter
The pacesetting leadership style is one of the most effective for driving fast results.
These leaders are primarily focused on performance. They often set high standards
and hold their team members accountable for hitting their goals.

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While the pacesetting leadership style is motivational and helpful in fast-paced

environments where team members need to be energized, it’s not always the best
option for team members who need mentorship and feedback.

Example: The leader of a weekly meeting recognized that an hour out of everyone’s
schedule once a week did not justify the purpose of the meeting. To increase
efficiency, she changed the meeting to a 15-minute standup with only those she had
updates for.

8. Transformational
The transformational leadership style is similar to the coach style in that it focuses on
clear communication, goal-setting and employee motivation. However, instead of
placing the majority of the energy into each employee’s individual goals, the
transformational leader is driven by a commitment to organizational objectives.

Because these types of leaders spend much of their time on the big picture, this style
of leading is best for teams that can handle many delegated tasks without constant
supervision.

Example: Reyna is hired to lead a marketing department. The CEO asks her to set
new goals and organize teams to reach those objectives. She spends the first
months in her new role getting to know the company and the marketing employees.
She gains a strong understanding of current trends and organizational strengths.
After three months, she has set clear targets for each of the teams that report to her
and asked individuals to set goals for themselves that align with those.

Related: What Does Leadership Mean?

9. Transactional
A transactional leader is someone who is laser-focused on performance, similar to a
pacesetter. Under this leadership style, the manager establishes predetermined
incentives—usually in the form of monetary reward for success and disciplinary
action for failure. Unlike the pacesetter leadership style, though, transactional
leaders are also focused on mentorship, instruction and training to achieve goals and
enjoy the rewards.

While this type of leader is great for organizations or teams tasked with hitting
specific goals, such as sales and revenue, it’s not the best leadership style for
driving creativity.

Example: A bank branch manager meets with each member of the team bi-weekly
to discuss ways they can meet and exceed monthly company goals to get their
bonus. Each of the top 10 performers in the district receives a monetary reward.

10. Bureaucratic
Bureaucratic leaders are similar to autocratic leaders in that they expect their team
members to follow the rules and procedures precisely as written.

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The bureaucratic leadership style focuses on fixed duties within a hierarchy where
each employee has a set list of responsibilities, and there is little need for
collaboration and creativity. This leadership style is most effective in highly regulated
industries or departments, such as finance, healthcare or government.

Example: Managers at a Department of Motor Vehicles office instruct their

employees to work within a specific, defined framework. They must take many steps
to complete a task with strict order and rules.

Remember, most leaders borrow from a variety of styles to achieve various goals at
different times in their careers. While you may have excelled in a role using one type
of leadership, another position may require a different set of habits to ensure your
team is operating most effectively.

By understanding each of these leadership types, and the outcomes they’re

designed to achieve, you can select the right leadership style for your current
situation.

• The Situational Leadership Model

https://online.stu.edu/articles/education/what-is-situational-leadership.aspx
What Is Situational Leadership®? How Flexibility Leads to Success

Situational Leadership® is an adaptive leadership style. This strategy encourages

leaders to take stock of their team members, weigh the many variables in their
workplace and choose the leadership style that best fits their goals and
circumstances. In the words of leadership theorist Ken Blanchard, “In the past a
leader was a boss. Today’s leaders can no longer lead solely based on positional
power.”
Situational Leadership® is the model of choice for organizations around the world
that want to do the following:
• Develop people and workgroups
• Establish rapport and to bring out the best in their people
• Use a common leadership style across all units in an organization, be it local,
national, or international
Situational Leadership® Defined
Situational Leadership® is flexible. It adapts to the existing work environment and
the needs of the organization. Situational Leadership® is not based on a specific skill
of the leader; instead, he or she modifies the style of management to suit the
requirements of the organization.
One of the keys to Situational Leadership® is adaptability. Leaders must be able to
move from one leadership style to another to meet the changing needs of an
organization and its employees. These leaders must have the insight to understand

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when to change their management style and what leadership strategy fits each new
paradigm.
There are two mainstream models of Situational Leadership®, one described by
Daniel Goleman and another by Ken Blanchard and Paul Hershey.
The Goleman Theory of Situational Leadership®
Daniel Goleman, the author of Emotional Intelligence, defines six styles within
Situational Leadership®.
1. Coaching leaders, who work on an individual’s personal development as well
as job-related skills. This style works best with people who know their limitations
and are open to change.
2. Pacesetting leaders, who set very high expectations for their followers. This
style works best with self-starters who are highly motivated. The leader leads by
example. This style is used sparingly since it can lead to follower burnout.
3. Democratic leaders, who give followers a vote in almost all decisions. When
used in optimal conditions, it can build flexibility and responsibility within the
group. This style is, however, time consuming and is not the best style if
deadlines are looming.
4. Affiliative leaders, who put employees first. This style is used when morale is
very low. The leader uses praise and helpfulness to build up the team’s
confidence. This style may risk poor performance when team building is
happening.
5. Authoritative leaders, who are very good at analyzing problems and
identifying challenges. This style is good in an organization that is drifting
aimlessly. This leader will allow his or her followers to help figure out how to
solve a problem.
6. Coercive leaders, who tell their subordinates what to do. They have a very
clear vision of the endgame and how to reach it. This style is good in disasters
or if an organization requires a total overhaul.
Situational Leadership® According to Blanchard and Hersey
The second model is based on the work done by Blanchard and Hersey. Their theory
is based on two concepts: leadership itself, and the developmental level of the
follower. Blanchard and Hersey developed a matrix consisting of four styles:
1. Telling leaders = S1 (specific guidance and close supervision): These leaders
make decisions and communicate them to others. They create the roles and
objectives and expect others to accept them. Communication is usually one
way. This style is most effective in a disaster or when repetitive results are
required.
2. Selling = S2 (explaining and persuading): These leaders may create the roles
and objectives for others, but they are also open to suggestions and opinions.
They “sell” their ideas to others in order to gain cooperation.
3. Participating = S3 (sharing and facilitating): These leaders leave decisions to
their followers. Although they may participate in the decision-making process,
the ultimate choice is left to employees.

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4. Delegating = S4 (letting others do it): These leaders are responsible for their
teams, but provide minimum guidance to workers or help to solve problems.
They may be asked from time to time to help with decision-making.
Stages of employee development in Situational Leadership®
Along with leadership qualities, Blanchard and Hersey defined four types of
development for followers or employees:
1. Low Competence: High Commitment
2. Some Competence: Low Commitment
3. High Competence: Variable Commitment
4. High Competence: High Commitment
Blanchard and Hersey also suggest that each of the four approaches should be
paired with different “readiness levels” among team members. For example, the
lowest readiness level (R1) should work best with the “telling” style (S1), while the
highest readiness level (R4) should be most responsive to the “delegating” approach
(S4).
Differences between Situational Leadership® and other leadership styles
The difference between Situational Leadership® and other leadership styles is that
Situational Leadership® incorporates many different techniques. The style of choice
depends upon the organization’s environment and the competence and commitment
of its followers.
History of Situational Leadership®
In 1969, Blanchard and Hersey developed Situational Leadership® Theory in their
classic book Management of Organizational Behavior. This theory was first called
the “Life Cycle Theory of Leadership.” During the mid-1970s, it was renamed the
Situational Leadership® Theory.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the two developed their own styles. Blanchard’s
first book, The One-Minute Manager, came out in 1982. Hersey further developed
the Situational Leadership® Model in his 1985 book, The Situational Leader. Both
men have continued to refine and update their Situational Leadership® theories.
Blanchard said situational leaders tend to choose between “directive behavior” (what
and how) and “supportive behavior” (developing commitment, initiative, and positive
attitudes). The readiness level concept for Situational Leadership® II was revised to
incorporate individual development levels.
Examples of Situational Leadership®
Blanchard and his Situational Leadership® collaborators have provided detailed
case studies involving companies and public institutions. Prominent examples
include Adobe, WD-40, Anthem Blue Cross Blue Shield, British Telecom, the city of
Battle Creek, Michigan, Genentech, the San Diego Padres, and the Royal New
Zealand Navy.
Any team environment that has frequent turnover provides an opportunity to apply
Situational Leadership® principles. Sports teams, for instance, represent clear
examples of Situational Leadership® because team rosters are constantly changing.

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One president and two of the most successful coaches in college basketball history
have attributed much of their success to how they adapted to changing players and
circumstances.
Dwight Eisenhower
Dwight D. Eisenhower was the president of the United States after World War II. He
was also the Allied Commander during the war. He was known for his diplomacy and
his ability to get the allied leaders to work together to defeat the Nazi war machine.
His background in the military taught him how to order and direct military exercises,
and he needed to be a statesman not only to manage the strong personalities of the
allied leaders, but to run for president and then win two terms of office.
Pat Summitt
Patricia Sue Summitt was the head coach of the Tennessee Lady Volunteers for
over 38 years. Every few years, she was faced with building a whole new basketball
team. Despite that, she ended her career with a 1,098-208 overall record as a
basketball coach. She was named head coach for the U.S. women’s basketball
team in the 1984 Olympics, where the team won a gold medal.
John Wooden
John Wooden was named the head coach of UCLA’s men’s basketball team. In his
first eight years, he won three Pacific Coast championships. During that time he had
team members graduate and new members start on the team. Beginning with the
1963-64 season, the team won seven straight championships.
UCLA’s record 88-game winning streak and string of championships ended in 1974.
One of his quotes reflects his adaptive and Situational Leadership® philosophy:
“When you’re through learning, you’re through.”
Situational Leadership® Quotations
How do professionals become better situational leaders? It might be helpful to
consider these quotes from experienced leaders and apply them to your
circumstances:
• Margaret Wheatley: “Leadership is a series of behaviors rather than a role for
heroes.”
• Colin Powell: “Leadership is solving problems.”
• Mahatma Gandhi: “I suppose leadership at one time meant muscles, but today
it means getting along with people.”
• John D. Rockefeller: “Good leadership consists of showing average people
how to do the work of superior people.”
• Margaret Thatcher: “You may have to fight a battle more than once to win it.”
• John Wooden: “It’s what you learn after you know it all that counts.”
Situational Leadership® Style Requirements
Here are some of the characteristics of the Situational Leadership® style:

• Insight: The situational leader must be able to understand the needs of the
followers, then adjust his or her management style to meet those needs

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• Flexibility: Situational leaders must be able to move seamlessly from one type
of leadership style to another
• Trust: The leader must be able gain his or her followers’ trust and confidence
• Problem solving: The situational leader must be able to solve problems, such
as how to get a job done using the best leadership style available
• Coach: The situational leader must be able to evaluate the maturity and
competence of the followers and then apply the right strategy to enhance the
follower and their personal character
Advantages and Disadvantages of Situational Leadership®
Situational Leadership® does not work well in all circumstances. Let’s look at the
advantages and disadvantages of the leadership style:
Situational Leadership® pros:
• Easy to use: When a leader has the right style, he or she knows it
• Simple: All the leader needs to do is evaluate the situation and apply the correct
leadership style
• Intuitive appeal: With the right type of leader, this style is comfortable
• Leaders have permission to change management styles as they see fit
Situational Leadership® cons:
• This North American style of leadership does not take into consideration
priorities and communication styles of other cultures
• It ignores the differences between female and male managers
• Situational leaders can divert attention away from long-term strategies and
politics
Benefits of Situational Leadership®
“What is the best leadership style?” Hersey and Blanchard found it fruitless to
provide one answer to this question. Everything depends on the specific situation,
which is why they collaborated to develop the Situational Leadership® Model.
Situational Leadership® means “choosing the right leadership style for the right
people,” according to Blanchard and Hersey. It also depends on the competence and
maturity of the followers. This is a time in history when leaders look less like bosses
and more like partners.

• Servant Leadership
https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/servant-leadership.htm

Servant Leadership
Putting Your Team First, and Yourself Second

© iStockphoto
MarkLinnard
Find out how meeting others’ needs can make you a more effective leader.

A good objective of leadership is to help those who are doing poorly to do well and to
help those who are doing well to do even better.– Jim Rohn, American entrepreneur.

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Everyone on Samit's team knows that he's "there for them." He checks in with them
often to see how they are, and he helps them develop the skills they need to
advance their careers, even if this means that they may move on.
Samit also makes an effort to see situations from others' perspectives. He makes
decisions with the team's best interests in mind, and ensures that everyone has the
resources and knowledge they need to meet their objectives.
As a result of this, his team is one of the most successful in the department, with low
staff turnover and high engagement.
Samit is an example of a "servant leader." In this article, we'll explore what servant
leadership is, and the advantages it can bring you as a leader. We'll also look at
situations where it isn't appropriate.
What Is Servant Leadership?
Robert K. Greenleaf first coined the phrase "servant leadership" in his 1970 essay,
"The Servant as a Leader." However, it's an approach that people have used for
centuries.
As a servant leader, you're a "servant first" – you focus on the needs of others,
especially team members, before you consider your own. You acknowledge other
people's perspectives, give them the support they need to meet their work and
personal goals, involve them in decisions where appropriate, and build a sense of
community within your team. This leads to higher engagement, more trust, and
stronger relationships with team members and other stakeholders. It can also lead to
increased innovation.
Servant leadership is not a leadership style or technique as such. Rather it's a way of
behaving that you adopt over the longer term. It complements democratic leadership
styles, and it has similarities with Transformational Leadership – which is often the
most effective style to use in business situations – and Level 5 Leadership – which
is where leaders demonstrate humility in the way they work.
However, servant leadership is problematic in hierarchical, autocratic cultures where
managers and leaders are expected to make all the decisions. Here, servant leaders
may struggle to earn respect.
Important:
Remember that servant leadership is about focusing on other people's needs – not
their feelings. Don't avoid making unpopular decisions or giving team members
negative feedback when this is needed.
Also, do not rely on it exclusively – use it alongside styles like Transformational
Leadership, where you develop an inspiring vision of the future, motivate people to
deliver this, manage its implementation, and build an ever-stronger team.

How to Become a Servant Leader

According to Larry C. Spears, former president of the Robert K. Greenleaf Center for
Servant Leadership, these are the 10 most important characteristics of servant
leaders:
1. Listening.
2. Empathy.
3. Healing.
4. Awareness.
5. Persuasion.
6. Conceptualization.

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7. Foresight.
8. Stewardship.
9. Commitment to the growth of people.
10. Building community.
From "Character and Servant Leadership: 10 Characteristics of Effective, Caring
Leaders" by Larry C. Spears, published in "The Journal of Virtues and Leadership,"
Vol. 1, Issue 1. Reproduced with permission.

Once you've decided to prioritize other people's needs over your own in the long
term, you can work on developing your skills in each area. Let's look at how you can
do this.
1. Listening
You'll serve people better when you make a deep commitment to listening intently to
them and understanding what they're saying. To improve your listening skills , give
people your full attention, take notice of their body language, avoid interrupting them
before they've finished speaking, and give feedback on what they say.
2. Empathy
Servant leaders strive to understand other people's intentions and perspectives. You
can be more empathetic by putting aside your viewpoint temporarily, valuing others'
perspectives, and approaching situations with an open mind.
3. Healing
This characteristic relates to the emotional health and "wholeness" of people, and
involves supporting them both physically and mentally.
First, make sure that your people have the knowledge, support and resources they
need to do their jobs effectively, and that they have a healthy workplace . Then take
steps to help them be happy and engaged in their roles.
You could also use a tool such as the Triple Bottom Line to think about how your
organization can make a positive impact on the people you lead and the customers
you serve.
4. Self-Awareness
Self-awareness is the ability to look at yourself, think deeply about your emotions
and behavior, and consider how they affect the people around you and align with
your values .
You can become more self-aware by knowing your strengths and weaknesses , and
asking for other people's feedback on them. Also, learn to manage your emotions ,
so that you consider how your actions and behavior might affect others.

5. Persuasion
Servant leaders use persuasion – rather than their authority – to encourage people
to take action. They also aim to build consensus in groups , so that everyone
supports decisions.
There are many tools and models that you can use to be more persuasive, without
damaging relationships or taking advantage of others. You should also build your
expert power – when people perceive you as an expert, they are more likely to listen
to you when you want to persuade or inspire them.
6. Conceptualization

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This characteristic relates to your ability to "dream great dreams," so that you look
beyond day-to-day realities to the bigger picture.
If you're a senior leader in your company, work through and develop a robust
organizational strategy . Then, whatever level you're at, create mission and vision
statements for your team, and make it clear how people's roles tie in with your
team's and organization's long-term objectives. Also, develop long-term focus so
that you stay motivated to achieve your more distant goals, without getting
distracted.
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7. Foresight
Foresight is when you can predict what's likely to happen in the future by learning
from past experiences, identifying what's happening now, and understanding the
consequences of your decisions.
You can use tools such as SWOT Analysis and PEST Analysis to think about your
current situation and environment, while Scenario Analysis helps you understand
how the future could play out. Use the ORAPAPA checklist when you make a
decision, to learn from experience and make sure that you've considered all the
angles.
Also, learn to trust your intuition – if your instinct is telling you that something is
wrong, listen to it!
8. Stewardship
Stewardship is about taking responsibility for the actions and performance of your
team, and being accountable for the role team members play in your organization.
Whether you're a formal leader or not, you have a responsibility for the things that
happen in your company. Take time to think about your own values, as well as those
of your organization, so that you know what you will and won't stand for. Also, lead
by example by demonstrating the values and behaviors that you want to see in
others, and have the confidence to stand up to people when they act in a way that
isn't aligned with them.
9. Commitment to the Growth of People
Servant leaders are committed to the personal and professional development of
everyone on their teams.
To develop your people , make sure that you use Training Needs Assessments to
understand their developmental needs and give them the skills they need to do their

jobs effectively. Also, find out what their personal goals are, and see if you can give
them projects or additional responsibilities that will help them achieve these.
10. Building Community
The last characteristic is to do with building a sense of community within your
organization.
You can do this by providing opportunities for people to interact with one another
across the company. For instance, you could organize social events such as team
lunches and barbecues, design your workspace to encourage people to chat

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informally away from their desks, and dedicate the first few minutes of meetings to
non-work-related conversations.
Encourage people to take responsibility for their work, and remind them how what
they do contributes to the success and overall objectives of the organization.
Tip:
See our article on Leadership Styles to explore popular leadership approaches and
the advantages and disadvantages of each one.
And see this Expert Interview for a valuable discussion on the misconceptions and
realities of servant leadership.
Key Points
You are a servant leader when you focus on the needs of others before you consider
your own. It's a longer-term approach to leadership, rather than a technique that you
can adopt in specific situations. Therefore, you can use it with other leadership styles
such as Transformational Leadership.
You can become a servant leader by working on these 10 characteristics:
1. Listening.
2. Empathy.
3. Healing.
4. Awareness.
5. Persuasion.
6. Conceptualization.
7. Foresight.
8. Stewardship.
9. Commitment to the growth of people.
10. Building community.
Servant leaders are likely to have more engaged employees and enjoy better
relationships with team members and other stakeholders than leaders who don't put
the interests of others before their own.

• Transformational Leadership

A Closer Look at the Effects of Transformational Leadership

By: Kendra Cherry

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-transformational-leadership-2795313

Have you ever been in a group where someone took control of the situation by
conveying a clear vision of the group's goals, a marked passion for the work, and an
ability to make the rest of the group feel recharged and energized? This person just
might be what is called a transformational leader.

Transformational leadership is a leadership style that can inspire positive changes in

those who follow. Transformational leaders are generally energetic, enthusiastic, and
passionate. Not only are these leaders concerned and involved in the process; they
are also focused on helping every member of the group succeed as well.

Quick Background

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BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

The concept of transformational leadership was initially introduced by leadership

expert and presidential biographer James MacGregor Burns. According to Burns,
transformational leadership can be seen when "leaders and followers make each
other to advance to a higher level of moral and motivation."1

Through the strength of their vision and personality, transformational leaders are
able to inspire followers to change expectations, perceptions, and motivations to
work towards common goals.

Later, researcher Bernard M. Bass expanded upon Burns's original ideas to develop
what is today referred to as Bass’s Transformational Leadership Theory. According
to Bass, transformational leadership can be defined based on the impact that it has
on followers. Transformational leaders, Bass suggested, garner trust, respect, and
admiration from their followers.2

Components

Bass also suggested that there were four different components of transformational
leadership.

1. Intellectual Stimulation: Transformational leaders not only challenge the

status quo; they also encourage creativity among followers. The leader
encourages followers to explore new ways of doing things and new
opportunities to learn.
2. Individualized Consideration: Transformational leadership also involves
offering support and encouragement to individual followers. In order to foster
supportive relationships, transformational leaders keep lines of
communication open so that followers feel free to share ideas and so that
leaders can offer direct recognition of the unique contributions of each
follower.
3. Inspirational Motivation: Transformational leaders have a clear vision that
they are able to articulate to followers. These leaders are also able to help
followers experience the same passion and motivation to fulfill these goals.
4. Idealized Influence: The transformational leader serve as a role model for
followers. Because followers trust and respect the leader, they emulate this
individual and internalize his or her ideals.

So what are some typical signs of a transformational leader? Groups led by this type
of leader tend to be both successful and loyal. They give a lot to the team and care
deeply about the group's ability to accomplish its goals. Turnover tends to be quite
low as transformational leaders are able to inspire a great deal of commitment in
their followers.

Effects

In their classic text, Transformational Leadership, authors Bass and Riggio

explained:

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

"Transformational leaders...are those who stimulate and inspire followers to both

achieve extraordinary outcomes and, in the process, develop their own leadership
capacity. Transformational leaders help followers grow and develop into leaders by
responding to individual followers' needs by empowering them and by aligning the
objectives and goals of the individual followers, the leader, the group, and the larger
organization."

Researchers have found that this style of leadership can have a positive effect on
the group.

"Research evidence clearly shows that groups led by transformational leaders have
higher levels of performance and satisfaction than groups led by other types of
leaders," explained psychologist and leadership expert Ronald E. Riggio in an article
for Psychology Today.3

The reason, he suggests, is that transformational leaders believe that their followers
can do their best, leading members of the group to feel inspired and empowered.

What can you do to become a more transformational leader? Leadership experts

suggest that having a strong, positive vision of the future plays a critical role. Not
only is it important to believe in this vision yourself; you've also got to inspire others
to buy into your vision as well.

Being genuine, passionate, supportive, and trustworthy are all key characteristics
that will help motivate followers to support your goals for the group.
Link to Well-Being

According to the results of one study, this style of leadership can also have a positive
influence on employee well-being.4

The study published in the Journal of Occupational and Environmental

Medicine involved surveying workers at several different German information and
communication technology companies. Researchers asked participants to answers
questions about their employer's leadership style.

A score for transformational leadership was then determined based on qualities such
as providing intellectual stimulation, giving positive feedback for good performance,
leading by example, and helping employees feel like they were making a contribution
toward the goals of the group.

Simple Tips for Achieving Goals

The researchers discovered that employees who identified a higher level of

transformational leadership in their employers also had higher reported levels of
well-being. The effect stayed significant even after researchers controlled for factors
that are linked to well-being such as job strain, education, and age.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

"The results of this study suggest that a transformational leadership style, which both
conveys a sense of trust and meaningfulness and individually challenges and
develops employees, also has a positive effect on employee well-being," the authors
summarized.

Boost Your Creativity With These 10 Psychological Tricks

Real-World Applications

So what impact could such results have for managers and workers?

The study's authors suggest that the results are important and can help companies
develop

What is transformational leadership? A model for motivating innovation

Growth and change are inevitable in IT, but transformational leadership
can inspire workers to embrace change by fostering a company culture
of accountability, ownership and workplace autonomy.

By Sarah K. White
Senior Writer, CIO | 21 FEBRUARY 2018 19:00 SGT
https://www.cio.com/article/3257184/what-is-transformational-leadership-a-model-
for-motivating-innovation.html

What is transformational leadership?

Transformational leadership is a leadership style in which leaders encourage, inspire
and motivate employees to innovate and create change that will help grow and
shape the future success of the company. This is accomplished by setting an
example at the executive level through a strong sense of corporate culture,
employee ownership and independence in the workplace.

Transformational leaders inspire and motivate their workforce without

micromanaging — they trust trained employees to take authority over decisions in
their assigned jobs. It’s a management style that’s designed to give employees more
room to be creative, look to the future and find new solutions to old problems.
Employees on the leadership track will also be prepared to become transformational
leaders themselves through mentorship and training.

Transformational leadership model

The concept of transformational leadership started with James V. Downton in 1973
and was expanded by James Burns in 1978. In 1985, researcher Bernard M. Bass
further expanded the concept to include ways for measuring the success of
transformational leadership. This model encourages leaders to demonstrate
authentic, strong leadership with the idea that employees will be inspired to follow
suit.

While Bass’ model dates to the ’70s, it’s still an effective leadership style practiced
today — this style of authentic leadership never changes, just the environments it’s

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

used in. It’s applicable across every industry, but it’s especially vital to the fast-paced
tech industry where innovation and agility can make or break a company.

For a deeper look at the transformational leadership model, see "How to apply
transformational leadership at your company."

Transformational leadership characteristics

According to Bass, these are the hallmarks of a transformational leader that sets
them apart from other leadership styles. A transformational leader is someone who:

• Encourages the motivation and positive development of followers

• Exemplifies moral standards within the organization and encourages the same of
others
• Fosters an ethical work environment with clear values, priorities and standards.
• Builds company culture by encouraging employees to move from an attitude of self-
interest to a mindset where they are working for the common good
• Holds an emphasis on authenticity, cooperation and open communication
• Provides coaching and mentoring but allowing employees to make decisions and
take ownership of tasks

Sustaining Change

School-Based Management

https://www.teacherph.com/a-comprehensive-guide-to-school-based-management-
sbm/

A Comprehensive Guide to School-Based Management (SBM)

By Mark Anthony Llego / Teaching & Education / 1 Comment

ABOUT SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT (SBM)

School-based management (SBM) is a strategy to improve education by transferring

significant decision-making authority from state and district offices to individual
schools. SBM provides principals, teachers, students, and parents greater control
over the education process by giving them responsibility for decisions about the
budget, personnel, and the curriculum. Through the involvement of teachers,
parents, and other community members in these key decisions, SBM can create
more effective learning environments for children. Reference: Office of Research
Education/ConsumerGuide.

WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES?

• Allow competent individuals in the schools to make decisions that will improve
learning;
• Give the entire school community a voice in key decisions;

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

• Focus accountability for decisions;

• Lead to greater creativity in the design of programs;
• Redirect resources to support the goals developed in each school;
• Lead to realistic budgeting as parents and teachers become more aware of
the school’s financial status, spending limitations, and the cost of its
programs; and,
• Improve morale of teachers and nurture new leadership at all levels.
HOW DOES SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT (SBM) AFFECT THE ROLES
OF THE SCHOOL BOARD AND THE SUPERINTENDENT AND DISTRICT
OFFICE?

The school board continues to establish a clear and unifying vision and to set broad
policies for the district and the schools. SBM does not change the legal governance
system of schools, and school boards do not give up authority by sharing authority.
The board’s role changes little in a conversion to SBM.

The superintendent and his or her district office staff facilitate the decisions made at
the school level, and provide technical assistance when a school has difficulty
translating the district’s vision into high-quality programs. Developing student and
staff performance standards and evaluating the schools are also the responsibility of
the district staff.

The district office will generally continue to recruit potential employees, screen job
applicants, and maintain information on qualified applicants from which the schools
fill their vacancies. The district office may also specify curricular goals, objectives,
and expected outcomes while leaving it up to the schools to determine the methods
for producing the desired results. Some districts leave the choice of instructional
materials to the schools, whereas others may require schools to use common texts.

HOW ARE BUDGET DECISIONS MADE?

In most SBM systems, each school is given a “lump sum” that the school can spend
as it sees fit. As outlined by JoAnn Spear (1983), the district office determines the
total funds needed by the whole district, determines the districtwide costs (such as
the cost of central administration and transportation), and allocates the remaining
funds to the individual schools. The allocation to each school is determined by a
formula that takes into account the number and type of students at that school.

Each school determines how to spend the lump sum allocated by the district in such
areas as personnel, equipment, supplies, and maintenance. In some districts,
surplus funds can be carried over to the next year or be shifted to a program that
needs more funds; in this way, long-range planning and efficiency are encouraged.

HOW ARE DECISIONS MADE AT THE SCHOOL LEVEL?

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Most districts create school management councils at each school that include the
principal, representatives of parents and teachers, and, in some cases, other
citizens, support staff, and–at the secondary level–students. The council conducts a
needs assessment and develops a plan of action that includes statements of goals
and measurable objectives, consistent with school board policies.

In some districts, the management council makes most school-level decisions. In

other districts, the council advises the principal, who then makes the decisions. In
both cases, the principal has a large role in the decision-making process, either as
part of a team or as the final decisionmaker.

WHAT IS NECESSARY WHEN IMPLEMENTING SCHOOL-BASED

MANAGEMENT (SBM)?

From the beginning, the school board and superintendent must be supportive of
school-based management. They must trust the principals and councils to determine
how to implement the district’s goals at the individual schools.

It is important to have a written agreement that specifies the roles and

responsibilities of the school board, superintendent and district office, principal, and
SBM council. The agreement should explicitly state the standards against which
each school will be held accountable. James Guthrie (1986) states that each school
should produce an annual performance and planning report covering “how well the
school is meeting its goals, how it deploys its resources, and what plans it has for the
future.”

Training in such areas as decision-making, problem solving, and group dynamics is

necessary for all participating staff and community members, especially in the early
years of implementation. To meet the new challenges of the job, principals may need
additional training in leadership skills.

In summary:
• SBM must have the strong support of school staff.
• SBM is more successful if it is implemented gradually. It may take 5 years or
more to implement SBM.
• School and district staff must be given administrative training, but also must
learn how to adjust to new roles and channels of communication.
• Financial support must be provided to make training and time for regular staff
meetings available.
• Central office administrators must transfer authority to principals, and
principals in turn must share this authority with teachers and parents.
WHAT ARE THE LIABILITIES OF SBM?

Participitory decision-making sometimes creates frustration and is often slower than

more autocratic methods. The council members must be able to work together on
planning and budget matters. This leaves principals and teachers less time to devote

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

to other aspects of their jobs. Teachers and community members who participate in
the councils may need training in budget matters; some teachers may not be
interested in the budget process or want to devote time to it.

Members of the school community must also beware of expectations that are too
high. According to the AASA/NAESP/NASSP task force, districts that have had the
most success with SBM have focused their expectations on two benefits–greater
involvement in making decisions and making “better” decisions.

WHERE HAS SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT BEEN IMPLEMENTED?

Hundreds of school districts across the country have experimented with aspects of
SBM.

School-Based Management (SBM) System will focus efforts in strengthening

support systems of the DepED on School-Based Management through improved
educational planning and management. This has sub-components created to attain
this goal.

Objectives:
Strengthen the support systems of DepED, three Regional Offices, selected
Divisions and schools for School Based Management through improved educational
planning and management.
Development of a functional management support system for continuing school
improvement at regional, division and school levels.

School Based Management (SBM) or Component 1 of STRIVE is a response to

BESRA KRT 1 – enabling and empowering school stakeholders to manage its own
affairs for improved delivery of educational services in a sustainable manner. As
such, this component is focused on the strengthening of support systems including
governance, advisory and partnership mechanisms for SBM through practical
experience in application activities in the three regions. The application experience
will be further enhanced through a range of capability building activities.

SCHOOL-BASED MANAGEMENT (SBM) SUB-COMPONENTS:

Policy & Planning System

Under this sub-component, STRIVE aims to enhance/develop structures, processes
and tools associated with policy /planning systems at the school, division, and
regional levels

Participatory Mechanisms in Education Governance

This sub-component is dedicated to identifying existing participatory mechanisms in
education governance at the school, division and region

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Human Resource Development of Education Management

This sub-component focuses on developing and piloting the appropriate regional
organizational structure to ensure that the divisions actually support the
implementation of school-based management as mandated by the Education Act of
2001. In order to help the regions perform this function, the sub-component has
developed the technical assistance mechanism that will systematize the provision of
professional help and guidance by the region to the divisions, and by the divisions to
the schools.

Quality Assurance & Accountability System

This sub-component offers a mechanism for insuring quality in the critical systems,
processes, outputs, and outcomes of DepED at various management levels to bring
about improved learning outcomes, continuous school improvement and better
technical and management services. It is supported by the interlocking processes of
monitoring and evaluation that systematically provide educators timely information
useful for planning and for making decisions and adjustments.

Programs to Improve Access

The focus of this sub-component is to establish the appropriate mechanisms that will
increase the number of effective initiatives undertaken by the region/division/schools
to improve access. The approach is to determine and pilot appropriate support
options for basic education. It specifically aims to:

• Pilot test numbers of effective initiatives directly undertaken by the Target

Access Schools and Community Learning Centers to improve access.
• Develop and pilot test support systems/mechanisms at the division level to
render direct technical assistance support to the Target Access Schools and
Community Learning Centers.
• Develop and pilot test support systems/mechanisms at the regions to facilitate
policy compliance, effective programs delivery and ensure quality assurance
and accountabilities.
Unified Information System
The Regional UIS is the ICT-enabled support to the process and information
requirements of SBM, T&D and LRMDS. It aims to strengthen information
management at the target regions and divisions to enable data-driven decision-
making and provide a venue for connecting people to people and people to
knowledge they need to effectively respond and create new and relevant information.
Specifically, the system aims to (1) streamline and efficiently render the collection
and processing of education data from the schools and field offices, (2)
institutionalize Quality Assurance and M&E processes at every level of the education
management system, and (3) support information requirements of school-based
management, planning and policy formulation at all levels.

The UIS shall consist of integrated databases, automated processes and

technologies that are to be implemented on enhanced organizational structures and
improved workflow processes at the target divisions and regions.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Consistent with the overall strategy of building on existing DepED systems and
structures, the solution system aims to establish effective linkages with currently
functional systems.

ASSESSMENT of SBM PRACTICES: SCHOOLS INITIATED ASSESSMENT

FOR SELF- DIRECTED IMPROVEMENT

Why assess the School-Based Management (SBM) practices?

• Determine the level of SBM practices in school

• Provide basis on which to establish it plan of action
• Improve the SBM support systems through interventions that the school and
other admin levels of Deped
• Determine effectiveness of SBM practices in the delivery of basic education
services

Assessment of SBM Practices Manual

Guide key players in:

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

• assessing their SBM practices

• identifying their needs for technical support that ought to be given by the
support system
Matrix of Scale of Practice

THE WHAT of the ASSESSMENT TOOL

The instrument contains INDICATORS regarding the six (6) dimensions of SBM
Practices
• Each INDICATOR has REQUIRED EVIDENCES as proof of the level of SBM
practices
• Each SBM DIMENSION is to be responded to by a different group of school
stakeholders. (Thus, responses to be considered as group answer through
CONSENSUS )
TABLE on the NUMBER ADMINISTRATION of SBM ASSESSMENT
STAGE 1: School Head’s Orientation by the DO

STAGE 2: Responding to the Instrument by the School Stakeholders

Phase 1: Orientation of School – Stakeholders as Respondents

Phase 2: Actual Inventory of Evidences
Phase 3: Summarizing the Responses

STAGE 3: Focused Group Discussion (FGD)

• Factors of School Effectiveness Based on Research

8 Key Factors of School Effectiveness
http://edureach101.com/8-key-factors-of-school-effectiveness/

A recent study by EQAO confirms 8 key factors that can provide a foundation to
guide principals in their school-improvement efforts. It was taken from over 25 years.

1. Strong and Effective Principal Leadership

Puts children first by placing a strong belief in capabilities of students and teachers.
Leaders are highly visible, actively supervising instruction, protecting instructional
time and supportive work environment. They also monitor staff performance and
promote professional development in their schools.

2. Sustained focus on instruction and learning

Focus on academics, mainly literacy and numeracy.

3. Safe and positive school climate and culture

Shared goals, safety, and positive school climate.

4. High expectations for all students and staff

Student achievement first and constant discussions with parents.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

5. Effective use of student achievement data

Monitoring student progress and promoting differentiated instruction.

6. Teaching Practice
Differentiated instruction and collaboration.

7. Productive parent involvement

Creating and maintaining open door policy

8. Building staff skills

High quality staf that engage in professional learning communities.

WHAT FACTORS MAKE A SCHOOL EFFECTIVE?

BY MATTHEW LYNCH
DECEMBER 15, 2015
13

https://www.theedadvocate.org/what-factors-make-a-school-
effective/#:~:text=Additional%20factors%20that%20influence%20effective,used%2C
%20the%20higher%20their%20achievement.

Spread the love

Although diverse school models exist, a fundamental question remains—how are we
to know whether or not a school model is effective, and how can effectiveness be
judged? A number of research studies focus on characteristics of effective schools.
However, there is debate over which attributes should be considered when
describing successful schools.

According to some researchers, student performance should be the primary indicator

of a successful school. It makes sense, really, since the sole purpose of schools is
educating their students. Other researchers propose that students’ social
characteristics, such as personal growth should be included when determining
effective schools. Another issue with school effectiveness research is that findings
are predominantly based on research conducted in elementary schools or unique
school settings in the inner city. Consequently, it is suggested that these findings
cannot be generalized to all schools.

In truth, there is no one factor that can accurately determine the effectiveness of K-
12 schools. Instead, it is a multi-faceted conversation and one that evolves with each
generation of students. As suggested above, the context of schooling will impact
factors that contribute to effectiveness in specific schools. At the same time, there
are attributes and factors that contribute to effectiveness across schooling contexts.
By understanding an array of effectiveness attributes we are able to observe which
attributes exist at a particular school and which, if adopted might facilitate
effectiveness, given a particular school context.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Common elements of success

A 2008 study describes five common characteristics that make up an effective

school; these characteristics, and the theory behind them has also been described
as the five-factor theory.

• The first factor is quality leadership. In other words, students perform better
where the principal provides strong leadership. Effective leaders are visible,
able to successfully convey the school’s goals and visions, collaborate with
teachers to enhance their skills, and are involved in the discovery of and
solutions to problems.
• The second factor is having high expectations of students, as well as
teachers. High expectations of students have repeatedly been shown to have
a positive impact on students’ performance. More attention should be paid to
high expectations of teachers. In other words, teachers who are expected to
teach at high levels of effectiveness are able to reach the level of
expectations, particularly when teacher evaluations and teacher professional
development is geared toward improving instructional quality.
• The third characteristic of a successful school is the ongoing screening of
student performance and development. Schools should use assessment data
to compare their students with others from across the country. Effective use of
assessment data allows schools to identify problematic areas of learning at
the classroom and school levels, so that solutions can be generated as to how
to best address the problems.
• The fourth characteristic of a successful school is the existence of goals and
direction. Administration should actively construct goals and then effectively
communicate them to appropriate individuals (i.e., students, teachers,
community-at-large). School principals must also be open and willing to
incorporate innovation into goals for school processes and practices. It is
important to invite input from all stakeholders in the process of developing
school goals. Student performance has been shown to improve in schools
where all in the school community work toward goals that are communicated
and shared among all in the learning environment.
• The fifth and final factor of a successful school is the extent to which the
school is secure and organized. For maximum learning to occur, students
need to feel secure. Respect is a quality that is promoted and is a
fundamental aspect of a safe school. There are also a number of trained staff
and programs, such as social workers, who work with problem students
before situations get out of hand.

Other elements of student success

Apart from the five factors of a successful school already mentioned, the size of the
school seems to be a school effectiveness factor. Research has found that the
smaller the school, the better students perform, especially in the case of older
students. This is the rationale behind the concept of schools-within-schools.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Students in smaller learning environments feel more connected to their peers and
teachers, pass classes more often, and have a higher probability of going to college.

A number of school districts view preschool education as a factor that will influence
overall effectiveness across all schools located within the district. Evidence suggests
that children with preschool experiences fare better academically and socially as
they enter kindergarten and beyond. Experiences in literacy and numeracy among
early learners not only prepares preschoolers for a kindergarten curriculum that has
heightened expectations of prior knowledge, but also helps identify early learners
who will need additional support to ensure they are able to have positive learning
experiences later on.

Additional factors that influence effective schools include time to learn, teacher
quality, and school and parental trust. Research supports the commonsensical view
that the more time a student spends learning, and the more efficiently that time is
used, the higher their achievement. Schools that find creative ways to extend time
on learning will likely be more effective. Schools with high quality teachers also tend
to be more effective. Schools able to hire teachers from high quality teacher
education programs increase the possibility of being an effective school.

School effectiveness can also be influenced by the frequency, relevancy, and quality
of the teacher professional development offered by the school and/or school district.
Trust and parental participation are also features of a successful school. Trust
between all parties of the school community is vital for enhancing the school’s
effectiveness because it supports the prospect that parents and teachers believe in
the motives and actions of each other. Parental participation is also important
because it sends the message to students that the adults in their lives—both
teachers and parents—believe in the importance of education and are willing to
make time to support students’ educational experiences and efforts.

So there is no simple solution for labeling the effectiveness of a particular school –

but it should certainly go beyond assessments alone.

• Philippine Accreditation System for Basic Education

https://www.deped.gov.ph/2013/04/08/do-20-s-2013-the-philippine-accreditation-
system-for-basic-education-pasbe-supplemental-guidelines-to-deped-order-no-83-s-
2012-the-implementing-guidelines-of-the-revised-sbm-framework-asses/

THE PHILIPPINE ACCREDITATION SYSTEM FOR BASIC EDUCATION (PASBE)

SUPPLEMENTAL GUIDELINES TO DEPED ORDER NO. 83, S. 2012 (THE
IMPLEMENTING GUIDELINES OF THE REVISED SBM FRAMEWORK,
ASSESSMENT PROCESS AND TOOL)

1. The Philippine Accreditation System for Basic Education (PASBE) is an

accreditation process that looks into the operations of the public and private
elementary and secondary schools if they meet the quality standards as

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

established by stakeholders of basic education. Officially launched through

DepEd Order No. 64, s. 2012, the harmonized accreditation was relaunched
in DepEd Order No. 83, s. 2012 as an integral component of School-Based
Management (SBM) practice.
2. This DepEd Order which provides the supplemental guidelines to the DepEd
Order No. 83, s. 2012, further details the continuum in the SBM and PASBE
processes. In this DepEd Order, an accredited status in PASBE is equivalent
to Level III SBM practice. This reinforces the role of SBM and accreditation as
an integrated quality measure, where PASBE is the quality assurance
mechanism of the SBM practice.
3. All regions, divisions, and schools shall organize the SBM-PASBE
Coordinating Team as per Item No. 4 of DepEd Order No. 83, s. 2012, which
shall be chaired by the regional director (RD), schools division/city
superintendent (SDS) and the school head (SH), respectively.
4. All regions are encouraged to implement the integrated process starting
summer of School Year (SY) 2012-2013. In the first year of implementation,
the SBM-PASBE Coordinating Teams shall be given the task to orient the
schools on the revised process.
5. Continuous advocacy on the SBM guiding principles in the context of A Child-
and Community-centered Education Systems (ACCESs) is imperative during
the period of validation of the SBM practice and before the school and division
embark on accreditation.
6. For clarifications and concerns, all concerned may contact Ms. Elsie Esmer,
Head, Philippine Accreditation System for Basic Education (PASBE)
Secretariat at telephone no.: (02) 632-7586 and Ms. Maria Katrina L.
Gregorio, School-Based Management (SBM) Secretariat at telephone no.:
(02) 633-7216 or through email address: sbmpasbe@gmail.com.
7. Immediate dissemination of and strict compliance with this Order is directed.

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:

• https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ724868.pdf
• https://www.atiner.gr/journals/education/2014-1-X-Y-Kolodziejczyk.pdf
• https://www.slideshare.net/cancerian91/difference-between-educational-
leadership-and-managment-130722109
• https://www.slideshare.net/polchan/educational-leadership-the-importance-of-
leadership-and-management-to-education
• https://hrmars.com/papers_submitted/557/Exploring_Educational_Administrati
on_The_Relationship_between_Leadership_and_Management.pdf
• https://www.slideshare.net/guruonline/what-is-school-based-management

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Let’s Check

Activity1.Identification.
Directions: Below are four important traits of a manager. Identify what is described.
Write your answers on the space provided before each number.
1. ___________________________: Managers build a strategic vision and
break it down into a roadmap for their team to follow.
2. ___________________________: Managers are responsible for day-to-
day efforts while reviewing necessary resources, and anticipating needs to
make changes along the way.
3. ___________________________: Managers have the authority to
establish work rules, processes, standards, and operating procedures.
4. ___________________________: Managers are known to look after and
cater to the needs of the people they are responsible for: listening to them,
involving them in certain key decisions, and accommodating reasonable
requests for change to contribute to increased productivity.

The seven primary leadership styles are:

1. ___________________________: The phrase most illustrative of this style

is "Do as I say." Generally, this leader believes that he or she is the smartest
person at the table and knows more than others. They make all the decisions
with little input from team members.This command-and-control approach is
typical of leadership styles of the past, but it doesn't hold much water
with today's talent.

2. ___________________________: The phrase most indicative of this style

of leadership (also known as "visionary") is "Follow me." The mark of this
leadership style ia confident leaders who map the way and set expectations,
while engaging and energizing followers along the way.

3. ___________________________: "Do as I do!" is the phrase most

indicative of leaders who utilize this leadership style. This style describes a
very driven leader who sets the pace as in racing. Theyset the bar high and
push their team members to run hard and fast to the finish line.

4. ___________________________: These leaders are more likely to ask

"What do you think?" They share information with employees about anything
that affects their work responsibilities. They also seek employees'
opinions before approving a final decision.

5. ___________________________: When you having this leadership style,

you tend to have a "Consider this" approach. A leader who coaches views
people as a reservoir of talent to be developed. The leader who uses a coach
approach seeks to unlock people's potential.

6. ___________________________: A phrase often used to describe this type

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of leadership is "People come first." Of all the leadership styles, the approach
of this leadership styleis one where the leader gets up close and personal with
people. A leader practicing this style pays attention to and supports
the emotional needs of team members. The leader strives to open up a
pipeline that connects him or her to the team.

7. ___________________________: This leadership style is at the opposite

end of the autocratic style. Of all the leadership styles, this one involves the
least amount of oversight.

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Directions: Below are Roles for Teacher Leaders. Elaborate them further on the
spaces provided below.
1. Grade Level/Subject Area Leader
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. Vertical Leader
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Backup Leader
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. Mentor
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
5. Note-Taker/Recorder
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
6. Parliamentarian/Timekeeper
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
7. Presenter
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
8. Conference Attendee
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
9. Speaker/Writer
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
10. School Plan Chair
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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11. Faculty Representative

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
12. Host Teacher
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
13. Instructional Audit Leader
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
14. Search Committee Panelist
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
15. Community Leader
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
16. Student Activities Coordinator
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
17. Technology Leader
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
18. Web Page Curator
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
19. Supplies Coordinator
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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Let’s Analyze

Activity 1. Explain thoroughly your answers.

1. Why are leadership styles important?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

2. Define Servant Leadership.

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

3. How can one exercise transformational leadership?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

4. Why is School-Based Management important and therefore practiced?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

In a Nutshell

Activity 1. The study of Organizational Leadership and Sustaining Change is very

important for an individual to appreciate and value Educational Leadership and
Management. Based from the definition of the most essential terms in the study of
Organizational Leadership and Sustaining Change and the learning exercises that
you haved one, please feel free to write your arguments or lessons learned below. I
have indicated my arguments or lessons learned.

1. A teacher is also a leader and a manager.

2. There are many factors affecting the leadership and management
of a school head.

Your Turn

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3.

4.

5.

Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Big Picture D

Week 8-9: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to:
a. Demonstrate deep knowledge and comprehension on Selection and Use of
Instructional Materials, Assessment of Learning, and Classroom
Management.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Demonstrate deep knowledge and comprehension

on Selection and Use of Instructional Materials, Assessment of Learning, and
Classroom Management.
➢
Metalanguage

Please proceed immediately to the “Essential Knowledge” part since the first
lesson is also definition of essential terms.

Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the 8 th and 9th
weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge
that will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Thus, you are expected to utilize
other books, research articles and other resources that are available in the
university’s library e.g. ebrary, search.proquest.cometc.

Creating a Positive School Culture

• The Meaning of School Culture
https://www.educationalleaders.govt.nz/Culture/Understanding-school-
cultures/School-culture

Complex and important concept

School culture is one of the most complex and important concepts in education.
Schein (1985, p.6) considers the basic essence of an organisation’s culture to be:
the deeper level of basic assumptions and beliefs that are shared by members of an
organisation, that operate unconsciously, and that define in a basic ‘taken for
granted’ fashion an organisation’s view of itself and its environment.
These are the heart of school culture and what makes it so hard to grasp and
change.

How we view the world

Culture describes how things are and acts as a screen or lens through which the
world is viewed. In essence it defines reality for those within a social organisation,
gives them support and identity and creates a framework for occupational learning.

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Each school has a different reality or mindset of school life, often captured in the
simple phrase, “the way we do things around here” (Deal & Kennedy, 1983). It also
has its own mindset in relation to what occurs in its external environment.

Culture is, thus, “situationally unique” (Beare et al., 1989). A school’s culture is
shaped by its history, context and the people in it.
Cultural change
A school’s age can impact cultural change.
• In the early years of a new school, dominant values emanate from its
“founders” and the school makes is culture explicit.
• In midlife the most important aspects of the culture are embedded and
taken for granted, and the culture is increasingly implicit. Change becomes
more difficult because of less consciousness of the culture; it is harder to
articulate and understand.
• Maturity and/or stagnation and decline is reached if the school has
ceased growing and responding to its environment (Fink, 1999). This stage is
most problematic from the cultural change perspective.

Vary between primary and secondary

School cultures vary between primary and secondary schools (Cooper, 1988).

In primary schools, care and control influence their culture (Hargreaves et al., 1996),
such that when students leave primary school there is a feeling that have left a family
(Ruddock, 1996).
In contrast secondary school culture is influenced not only by larger size and
department structures, but by the very fundamental nature of teachers’ academic
orientation (Hargreaves et al., 1996) – and the fragmented individualism
(Hargreaves, 1982) that students experience in moving from one subject and teacher
to another.

Influenced by the school community

Locally, a school’s community, including the students’ parents, may have their own
conceptions of what a “real school” (Metz, 1991) is: “a real school is what I attended
when I was a child”. Political and economic forces or changes in national policies can
also influence what is valued at school.

Thrupp (1997) argues that the social mix of the school plays a major role in how it
functions, largely because of the cumulative effects of how students relate to each
other as a group. Essentially, students who attend the school flavour it in a particular
way, through their own student culture.

Changes in society
Changes in society pose challenges to a school’s culture. Changes might relate to
learning, the student population, organisational management, rapid technological
developments or other societal changes. Such changes often demand rapid
responses from a school.

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Yet while culture changes as participants change, it can also be a stabilising force,
particularly for those who have been part of the culture for a longer period. It can
therefore appear problematic for those in search of quick fix changes because it
often seems as though it is an unmoveable force.

While culture presents, therefore, the paradox of both being static and dynamic
(Rossman et al., 1988), in reality it is constantly evolving (Hopkins et al., 1994) and
being reconstructed (Angus, 1996).

• Culture as a Social Construct

Culture and Society

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/culture-and-society/

Culture and Biology

Culture relates to nature (our biology and genetics) and nurture (our environment
and surroundings that also shape our identities).

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Examine the ways culture and biology interact to form societies, norms, rituals and
other representations of culture

KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
“Culture” encompasses objects and symbols, the meaning given to those objects
and symbols, and the norms, values, and beliefs that pervade social life.
Values reflect an individual’s or society ‘s sense of right and wrong or what “ought” to
be.
Humans also have biological drives—hunger, thirst, need for sleep—whose
unfulfillment can result in death.
Because of our biology and genetics, we have a particular form and we have certain
abilities. These set essential limits on the variety of activities that humans can
express culture, but there is still enormous diversity in this expression.
Culture refers to the way we understand ourselves as individuals and as members of
society, including stories, religion, media, rituals, and even language itself.
Social Darwinism was the belief that the closer a cultural group was to the normative
Western European standards of behavior and appearance, the more evolved they
were.

Culture is the non-biological or social aspects of human life.

Culture refers to the way we understand ourselves as individuals and as members of
society, including stories, religion, media, rituals, and even language itself.
Social Darwinism hinged on the belief that the closer cultural groups were to the
normative Western European standards of behavior and appearance, the more
evolved they were.

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Key Terms
Social Darwinism: a theory that the laws of evolution by natural selection also apply
to social structures.
culture: The beliefs, values, behavior, and material objects that constitute a people’s
way of life.
Culture and Biology
Human beings are biological creatures. We are composed of blood and bones and
flesh. At the most basic level, our genes express themselves in physical
characteristics, affecting bodily aspects such as skin tone and eye color. Yet, human
beings are much more than our biology, and this is evident particularly in the way
humans generate, and live within, complex cultures.

Defining Culture
Culture is a term used by social scientists, like anthropologists and sociologists, to
encompass all the facets of human experience that extend beyond our physical fact.
Culture refers to the way we understand ourselves both as individuals and as
members of society, and includes stories, religion, media, rituals, and even language
itself.

It is critical to understand that the term culture does not describe a singular, fixed
entity. Instead, it is a useful heuristic, or way of thinking, that can be very productive
in understanding behavior. As a student of the social sciences, you should think of
the word culture as a conceptual tool rather than as a uniform, static definition.
Culture necessarily changes, and is changed by, a variety of interactions, with
individuals, media, and technology, just to name a few.

The History of Culture as a Concept

Culture is primarily an anthropological term. The field of anthropology emerged
around the same time as Social Darwinism, in the late 19th and early 20th century.
Social Darwinism was the belief that the closer a cultural group was to the normative,
Western, European standards of behavior and appearance, the more evolved that
group was. As a theory of the world, it was essentially a racist concept that persists
in certain forms up to this day. If you have ever heard someone reference people of
African descent as being from, or close to, the jungle, or the wilderness, you’ve
encountered a type of coded language that is a modern incarnation of Social
Darwinist thought.

During the late 19th and early 20th century time period, the positivist school also
emerged in sociological thought. One of the key figures in this school, Cesare
Lombroso, studied the physical characteristics of prisoners, because he believed
that

he could find a biological basis for crime. Lombroso coined the term atavism to
suggest that some individuals were throwbacks to a more bestial point in
evolutionary history. Lombroso used this concept to claim that certain individuals
were more weak-willed, and more prone to criminal activity, than their supposedly
more evolved counterparts.

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In accordance with the hegemonic beliefs of the time, anthropologists first theorized
culture as something that evolves in the same way biological organisms evolve. Just
like biological evolution, cultural evolution was thought to be an adaptive system that
produced unique results depending on location and historical moment. However,
unlike biological evolution, culture can be intentionally taught and thus spread from
one group of people to another.

Initially, anthropologists believed that culture was a product of biological evolution,

and that cultural evolution depended exclusively on physical conditions. Today’s
anthropologists no longer believe it is this simple. Neither culture nor biology is solely
responsible for the other. They interact in very complex ways, which biological
anthropologists will be studying for years to come.

image
Guildford Cathedral relief (UK): People began domesticating cattle many years
before they developed the genes for lactose tolerance.

Culture and Society

Culture is what differentiates one group or society from the next; different societies
have different cultures.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Differentiate between the various meanings of culture within society

KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Different societies have different cultures; a culture represents the beliefs and
practices of a group, while society represents the people who share those beliefs
and practices.
Material culture refers to the objects or belongings of a group of people, such as
automobiles, stores, and the physical structures where people worship. Nonmaterial
culture, in contrast, consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society.
In 18th and 19th century Europe, the term “culture” was equated with civilization and
considered a unique aspect of Western society. Remnants of that colonial definition
of culture can be seen today in the idea of ” high culture “.
During the Romantic Era, culture became equated with nationalism and gave rise to
the idea of multiple national cultures.
Today, social scientists understand culture as a society’s norms, values, and beliefs;
as well as its objects and symbols, and the meaning given to those objects and
symbols.

Key Terms civilization: An organized culture encompassing many communities, often

on the scale of a nation or a people; a stage or system of social, political or technical
development. High culture: The artistic entertainment and material artifacts
associated with a society’s aristocracy or most learned members, usually requiring
significant education to be appreciated or highly skilled labor to be produced.
popular culture: The prevailing vernacular culture in any given society, including art,
cooking, clothing, entertainment, films, mass media, music, sports, and style

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Nationalism: The idea of supporting one’s country and culture; patriotism.

Culture encompasses human elements beyond biology: for example, our norms and
values, the stories we tell, learned or acquired behaviors, religious beliefs, art and
fashion, and so on. Culture is what differentiates one group or society from the next.

Different societies have different cultures; however it is important not to confuse the
idea of culture with society. A culture represents the beliefs and practices of a group,
while society represents the people who share those beliefs and practices. Neither
society nor culture could exist without the other.

Defining Culture
Almost every human behavior, from shopping to marriage to expressions of feelings,
is learned. Behavior based on learned customs is not necessarily a bad thing – being
familiar with unwritten rules helps people feel secure and confident that their
behaviors will not be challenged or disrupted. However even the simplest actions –
such as commuting to work, ordering food from a restaurant, and greeting someone
on the street – evidence a great deal of cultural propriety.

Material culture refers to the objects or belongings of a group of people (such as

automobiles, stores, and the physical structures where people worship). Nonmaterial
culture, in contrast, consists of the ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of a society. Material
and nonmaterial aspects of culture are linked, and physical objects often symbolize
cultural ideas. A metro pass is a material object, but it represents a form of
nonmaterial culture (namely capitalism, and the acceptance of paying for
transportation). Clothing, hairstyles, and jewelry are part of material culture, but the
appropriateness of wearing certain clothing for specific events reflects nonmaterial
culture. A school building belongs to material culture, but the teaching methods and
educational standards are part of education’s nonmaterial culture.

These material and nonmaterial aspects of culture can vary subtly from region to
region. As people travel farther afield, moving from different regions to entirely
different parts of the world, certain material and nonmaterial aspects of culture
become dramatically unfamiliar. As we interact with cultures other than our own, we
become more aware of our own culture – which might otherwise be invisible to us –
and to the differences and commonalities between our culture and others.

The History of “Culture”

Some people think of culture in the singular, in the way that it was thought of in
Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries: as something achieved through
evolution and progress. This concept of culture reflected inequalities within European
societies and their colonies around the world; in short, it equates culture with
civilization and contrasts both with nature or non-civilization. According to this
understanding of culture, some countries are more “civilized” than others, and some
people are therefore more “cultured” than others.

When people talk about culture in the sense of civilization or refinement, they are
really talking about “high culture,” which is different from the sociological concept of

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culture. High culture refers to elite goods and activities, such as haute cuisine, high
fashion or couture, museum-caliber art, and classical music. In common parlance,
people may refer to others as being “cultured” if they know about and take part in
these activities. Someone who uses culture in this sense might argue that classical
music is more refined than music by working-class people, such as jazz or the
indigenous music traditions of aboriginal peoples. Popular (or “pop”) culture, by
contrast, is more mainstream and influenced by mass media and the common
opinion. Popular culture tends to change as tastes and opinions change over time,
whereas high culture generally stays the same throughout the years. For example,
Mozart is considered high culture, whereas Britney Spears is considered pop culture;
Mozart is likely to still be popular in 100 years, but Britney Spears will likely be
forgotten by all but a few.

Aboriginal culture: Early colonial definitions of culture equated culture and civilization
and characterized aboriginal people as uncivilized and uncultured.

This definition of culture only recognizes a single standard of refinement to which all
groups are held accountable. Thus, people who differ from those who believe
themselves to be “cultured” in this sense are not usually understood as having a
different culture; they are understood as being uncultured.

Although we still see remnants of this idea of high culture today, it has largely fallen
out of practice. Its decline began during the Romantic Era, when scholars in
Germany – especially those concerned with nationalism – developed the more
inclusive notion of culture as a distinct worldview. Although more inclusive, this
approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between so-called “civilized” and
“primitive” cultures. By the late 19th century, anthropologists changed the concept of
culture to include a wider variety of societies, ultimately resulting in the concept of
culture adopted by social scientists today: objects and symbols, the meaning given
to those objects and symbols, and the norms, values, and beliefs that pervade social
life.

This new perspective has also removed the evaluative element of the concept of
culture; it distinguishes among different cultures, but does not rank them. For
instance, the high culture of elites is now contrasted with popular or pop culture. In
this sense,

high culture no longer refers to the idea of being “cultured,” as all people have
culture. High culture simply refers to the objects, symbols, norms, values, and beliefs
of a particular group of people; popular culture does the same.

Cultural Universals
A cultural universal is an element, pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all
human cultures worldwide.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Discuss cultural universals in terms of the various elements of culture, such as
norms and beliefs

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KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Cultural universals are elements, patterns, traits, or institutions that are common to
all human cultures worldwide.
There is a tension in cultural anthropology and cultural sociology between the claim
that culture is a universal and that it is also particular. The idea of cultural universals
runs contrary in some ways to cultural relativism which was, in part, a response to
Western ethnocentrism.
Ethnocentrism may take obvious forms. For example, the belief that one people’s
culture is the most beautiful and true. Franz Boas understood “culture” to include not
only certain tastes in food, art, and music, or beliefs about religion but instead
assumed a much broader notion of culture.
Among the cultural universals listed by Donald Brown (1991) are abstract speech,
figurative speech and metaphors, antonyms and synonyms, and units of time.
Among the cultural universals listed by Brown, some were investigated by Franz
Boas. For example, Boas saw language as a means of categorizing experiences.
Thus, although people may perceive visible radiation similarly, people who speak
different languages slice up the continuum in different ways.
Since Franz Boas, two debates have dominated cultural anthropology.
Key Terms
culture: The beliefs, values, behavior, and material objects that constitute a people’s
way of life.
particular: A specific case; an individual thing as opposed to a whole class.
universal: Common to all society; worldwide.
The sociology of culture concerns culture—usually understood as the ensemble of
symbolic codes used by a society—as it is manifested in society. The elements of
culture include (1) symbols (anything that carries particular meaning recognized by
people who share the same culture); (2) language (system of symbols that allows
people to communicate with one another); (3) values (culturally-defined standards
that serve as broad guidelines for social living; (4) beliefs (specific statements that
people hold to be true); and (5) norms (rules and expectations by which a society
guides the behavior of its members). While these elements of culture may be seen in
various contexts over time and across geography, a cultural universal is an element,
pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all human cultures worldwide. Taken
together, the whole body of cultural universals is known as the human condition.
Among the cultural universals listed by Donald Brown (1991) are abstract speech,
figurative speech and metaphors, antonyms and synonyms, and units of time.

First-Cousin Marriage Laws in the U.S.: In states marked dark blue, first-cousin
marriage is legal. Light blue signifies that it is legal but has restrictions or exceptions.
Pink signifies that it is banned with exceptions; red signifies that it is banned via
statute, and dark red signifies that it is a criminal offense.

The concept of a cultural universal has long been discussed in the social sciences.
Cultural universals are elements, patterns, traits, or institutions that are common to
all human cultures worldwide. There is a tension in cultural anthropology and cultural
sociology between the claim that culture is a universal (the fact that all human

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societies have culture), and that it is also particular (culture takes a tremendous
variety of forms around the world). The idea of cultural universals—that specific
aspects of culture are common to all human cultures—runs contrary to cultural
relativism. Cultural relativism was, in part, a response to Western ethnocentrism.
Ethnocentrism may take obvious forms, in which one consciously believes that one
people’s arts are the most beautiful, values the most virtuous, and beliefs the most
truthful. Franz Boas argued that one’s culture may mediate and thus limit one’s
perceptions in less obvious ways. He understood “culture” to include not only certain
tastes in food, art, and music, or beliefs about religion but instead assumed a much
broader notion of culture.

Among the cultural universals listed by Donald Brown, some of these were
investigated by Franz Boas. For example, Boas called attention to the idea that
language is a means of categorizing experiences, hypothesizing that the existence of
different languages suggests that people categorize, and thus experience, language
differently. Therefore, although people may perceive visible radiation the same way,
in terms of a continuum of color, people who speak different languages slice up this
continuum into discrete colors in different ways.

Culture Shock
Culture shock is the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an
unfamiliar way of life in a new country.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Discuss culture shock in terms of its four phases – honeymoon, negotiation,
adjustment and mastery

KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Culture shock is the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an
unfamiliar way of life due to immigration or a visit to a new country.
Culture shock can be described as consisting of at least one of four distinct phases:
honeymoon, negotiation, adjustment, and mastery.

During the honeymoon phase, the differences between the old and new culture are
seen in a romantic light.
After some time (usually around three months, depending on the individual),
differences between the old and new culture become apparent and may create
anxiety. This is the mark of the negotiation phase.
In the adjustment phase, one grows accustomed to the new culture and develops
routines.
Lastly, in the mastery stage, assignees are able to participate fully and comfortably
in the host culture.
In the Adjustment phase, one grows accustomed to the new culture and develops
routines.
One knows what to expect in most situations and the host country no longer feels all
that new.

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Lastly, in the Mastery stage, assignees are able to participate fully and comfortably
in the host culture.
Key Terms

biculturalism: The state or quality of being bicultural.

Culture shock is the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an
unfamiliar way of life due to immigration or a visit to a new country, or to a move
between social environments. One of the most common causes of culture shock
involves individuals in a foreign country. There is no true way to entirely prevent
culture shock, as individuals in any society are personally affected by cultural
contrasts differently.

Culture shock can be described as consisting of at least one of four distinct phases:
honeymoon, negotiation, adjustment, and mastery. During the honeymoon phase,
the differences between the old and new culture are seen in a romantic light. During
the first few weeks, most people are fascinated by the new culture. They associate
with nationals who speak their language, and who are polite to the foreigners. This
period is full of observations and new discoveries. Like most honeymoon periods,
this stage eventually ends.

Culture Shock: Enthusiastic welcome offered to the first Indian student to arrive in
Dresden, East Germany (1951).

After some time (usually around three months, depending on the individual),
differences between the old and new culture become apparent and may create
anxiety. This is the mark of the negotiation phase. Excitement may eventually give
way to unpleasant feelings of frustration and anger as one continues to experience
unfavorable events that may be perceived as strange and offensive to one’s cultural
attitude. Still, the most important change in the period is communication. People
adjusting to a new culture and meet people with whom they are not familiar every
day.

Again, after some time, one grows accustomed to the new culture and develops
routines, marking the adjustment phase. One knows what to expect in most
situations and the host country no longer feels all that new. One becomes concerned
with basic living again and things become more normal. One starts to develop
problem-solving skills for dealing with the culture and begins to accept the culture’s
ways with a positive attitude. The culture begins to make sense and negative
reactions and responses to the culture are reduced.

In the mastery stage, assignees are able to participate fully and comfortably in the
host culture. Mastery does not mean total conversion. People often keep many traits
from their earlier culture, such as accents and languages. It is often referred to as
the biculturalism stage.

Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

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Ethnocentrism, in contrast to cultural relativism, is the tendency to look at the world

primarily from the perspective of one’s own culture.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Examine the concepts of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism in relation to your own
and other cultures in society

KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Ethnocentrism often entails the belief that one’s own race or ethnic group is the most
important or that some or all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other
groups.
Within this ideology, individuals will judge other groups in relation to their own
particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language, behavior,
customs, and religion.
Cultural relativism is the belief that the concepts and values of a culture cannot be
fully translated into, or fully understood in, other languages; that a specific cultural
artifact (e.g., a ritual) has to be understood in terms of the larger symbolic system of
which it is a part.
Cultural relativism is the principle that an individual person’s beliefs and activities
should be understood by others in terms of that individual’s own culture.
Key Terms
ethnocentrism: The tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of
one’s own culture.
cultural relativism: Cultural relativism is a principle that was established as axiomatic
in anthropological research by Franz Boas in the first few decades of the twentieth
century, and later popularized by his students. Boas first articulated the idea in 1887:
“…civilization is not something absolute, but… is relative, and… our ideas and
conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes. “
Ethnocentrism, a term coined by William Graham Sumner, is the tendency to look at
the world primarily from the perspective of your own ethnic culture and the belief that
that is

in fact the “right” way to look at the world. This leads to making incorrect
assumptions about others’ behavior based on your own norms, values, and beliefs.
For instance, reluctance or aversion to trying another culture’s cuisine is
ethnocentric. Social scientists strive to treat cultural differences as neither inferior nor
superior. That way, they can understand their research topics within the appropriate
cultural context and examine their own biases and assumptions at the same time.

This approach is known as “cultural relativism.” Cultural relativism is the principle

that an individual person’s beliefs and activities should be understood by others in
terms of that individual’s own culture. A key component of cultural relativism is the
concept that nobody, not even researchers, comes from a neutral position. The way
to deal with our own assumptions is not to pretend that they don’t exist but rather to
acknowledge them, and then use the awareness that we are not neutral to inform our
conclusions.

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An example of cultural relativism might include slang words from specific languages
(and even from particular dialects within a language). For instance, the word
“tranquilo” in Spanish translates directly to “calm” in English. However, it can be used
in many more ways than just as an adjective (e.g., the seas are calm). Tranquilo can
be a command or suggestion encouraging another to calm down. It can also be used
to ease tensions in an argument (e.g., everyone relax) or to indicate a degree of self-
composure (e.g., I’m calm). There is not a clear English translation of the word, and
in order to fully comprehend its many possible uses, a cultural relativist would argue
that it would be necessary to fully immerse oneself in cultures where the word is
used.

Cultural context: Depending on your cultural background, this may or may not look
delicious.

Material Culture
In the social sciences, material culture is a term that refers to the relationship
between artifacts and social relations.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Give examples of material culture and how it can help sociologist understand a
particular society

KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Studying a culture ‘s relationship to materiality is a lens through which social and
cultural attitudes can be discussed. People’s relationship to and perception of
objects are socially and culturally dependent.
A view of culture as a symbolic system with adaptive functions, varying from place to
place, led anthropologists to conceive of different cultures as having distinct patterns
of enduring conventional sets of meaning.

Anthropologists distinguish between material culture and symbolic culture, not only
because each reflects different kinds of human activity, but also because they
constitute different kinds of data and require different methodologies to study.
This view of culture, which came to dominate anthropology between World War I and
World War II, implied that each culture was bounded and had to be understood as a
whole, on its own terms.
The result is a belief in cultural relativism, which suggests that there are no ‘better’ or
‘worse’ cultures, just different cultures.
Key Terms
material culture: In the social sciences, material culture is a term, developed in the
late 19th and early 20th century, that refers to the relationship between artifacts and
social relations.
Symbolic culture: Symbolic culture is a concept used by archaeologists, social
anthropologists and sociologists to designate the cultural realm constructed and
inhabited uniquely by Homo sapiens.

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In the social sciences, material culture refers to the relationship between artifacts
and social relations. Material culture consists in physical objects that humans make.
These objects inevitably reflect the historical, geographic, and social conditions of
their origin. For instance, the clothes that you are wearing might tell researchers of
the future about the fashions of today.

Clothes as Material Culture: Fashion is part of material culture.

People’s relationship to and perception of objects are socially and culturally

dependent. Accordingly, social and cultural attitudes can be discussed through the
lens of a culture’s relationship to materiality.

Material culture is also a term used by historians, sometimes termed “material

history,” which refers to the study of ancient objects and artifacts in order to
understand how a particular culture was organized and functioned over time.

This view of culture as a symbolic system with adaptive functions, varying from place
to place, led anthropologists to view different cultures as having distinct patterns of
enduring conventional sets of meaning. Anthropologists thus distinguish between
material culture and symbolic culture, not only because each reflects different kinds
of human activity, but also because they constitute different kinds of data and require
different methodologies to study.

This view of culture, which came to dominate anthropology between World War I and
World War II, implied that each culture was bounded and had to be understood as a
whole, on its own terms. The result is a belief in cultural relativism, which suggests
that there are no ‘better’ or ‘worse’ cultures, just different cultures.

Periodicals as Material Culture: Media, such as magazines, are part of material

culture.

Computers as Material Culture: Computers are an increasingly common part of

everyday life for most people. They constitute an increasingly significant part of our
material culture.

Nonmaterial Culture
Non-material culture includes the behaviors, ideas, norms, values, and beliefs that
contribute to a society’s overall culture.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Analyze the different ways norms, values and beliefs interact to form non-material
culture

KEY TAKEAWAYS

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Key Points
In contrast to material culture, non-material culture does not include physical objects
or artifacts.
It includes things that have no existence in the physical world but exist entirely in the
symbolic realm.
Examples are concepts such as good and evil, mythical inventions such as gods and
underworlds, and social constructs such as promises and football games.
The concept of symbolic culture draws from semiotics and emphasizes the way in
which distinctively human culture is mediated through signs and concepts.
The symbolic aspect of distinctively human culture has been emphasized in
anthropology by Emile Durkheim, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Clifford Geertz, and many
others.
Semiotics emphasises the way in which distinctively human culture is mediated
through signs and concepts.
Key Terms
social construct: Social constructs are generally understood to be the by-products of
countless human choices rather than laws resulting from divine will or nature.
Culture as a general concept consists of both material and non-material culture.
Material culture is a term developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, that
refers to the relationship between artifacts and social relations. In contrast, non-
material culture does not include physical objects or artifacts. Examples include any
ideas, beliefs, values, or norms that shape a society.

When sociologists talk about norms, they are talking about what’s considered
normal, appropriate, or ordinary for a particular group of people. Social norms are
group-held beliefs about how members should behave in a given context.
Sociologists describe norms as laws that govern society’s behaviors. Values are
related to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract than norms.
Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should
be judged as good or evil. Flying

the national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it exhibits patriotism, which is a value.
Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors at a funeral. In
certain cultures they reflect the values of respect and support of friends and family.
Different cultures honor different values. Finally, beliefs are the way people think the
universe operates. Beliefs can be religious or secular, and they can refer to any
aspect of life. For instance, many people in the U.S. believe that hard work is the key
to success.

Members take part in a culture even if each member’s personal values do not
entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in the culture. This
reflects an individual’s ability to synthesize and extract aspects valuable to them from
the multiple subcultures they belong to.

Norms, values, and beliefs are all deeply interconnected. Together, they provide a
way to understand culture.

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• School Climate and School Culture

SCHOOL CLIMATE & CULTURE

https://aesimpact.org/school-climate-and-culture/
While school climate and culture have been defined in a number of ways, and at
times are used interchangeably, they are two distinct terms which overlap and
influence one another. Think of school climate as the attitude and school culture as
the personality. One drives and determines the other.
School Climate
School climate is the feel of the school (the schools’ attitude), the behaviors and
points of view exhibited and experienced by students, teachers and other
stakeholders.
• Freiberg and Stein (1999) describe school climate as “the heart and soul of
the school,” the feeling that either encourages teachers and students to engage, love
the school, and to want to be a part of it, or to reject the school and disengage from
it. It is the outcome of the school’s norms and values, the way in which people at the
school relate to and interact with one another, and the way systems and policies
manifest.
• According to the National School Climate Center, “school climate includes
major spheres of school life such as safety, relationships, teaching and learning, and
the environment as well as larger organizational patterns (e.g. from fragmented to
shared; healthy or unhealthy).” These dimensions not only shape how students feel
about being in school, but “these larger group trends shape learning and student
development” (National School Climate Center, 2013).

School Culture
School culture is the way thing are done in the school (the personality of a school),
the underlying norms and values that shape patterns of behavior, attitudes and
expectations between stakeholders in the school.

• Deal and Peterson (1998) define school culture as “norms, values, beliefs,
traditions, and rituals built up over time.”
• A school’s culture is always at work, either helping or hindering learning. It
influences every decision and action in a school, from the leadership style of the
principal to the way teachers choose curriculum materials and interact with students.

What Is School Climate?

https://www.naesp.org/sites/default/files/resources/2/Principal/2008/M-Ap56.pdf

School climate is a term that has been used for many decades. Its early use denoted
the ethos, or spirit, of an organization. More recently, school climate is thought to
represent the attitude of an organization. The collective mood, or morale, of a group
of people has become a topic of concern, especially in our new age of accountability.
It seems that a happy teacher is considered a better teacher, and this attitude
influences the quality of instruction. If happy people truly perform better, then leaders
must create conditions in which happiness thrives. Unfortunately, some leaders do

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not research the most effective strategies for creating a happy school climate,
instead relying on extrinsic rewards. Bringing doughnuts to the faculty lounge on
Fridays may help a few teachers wake up quicker, but this act will not affect the
morale of the building.

Culture Always Wins Whenever a group of people spend a significant amount of time
together, they develop a common set of expectations. These expectations evolve
into unwritten rules to which group members conform in order to remain in good
standing with their colleagues. Groups develop a common culture in order to pass on
information to the next generation. That information, however, represents a set of
beliefs that have been passed down by imperfect humans with personal preferences.
In schools, new teachers arrive with their own ideas about how to do their jobs.
Through their schooling, they will have been immersed in theories of best practices
and cutting-edge methodologies. If the culture of their first job does not embrace
these new ideas, they will soon learn that to fit in they will need to assimilate.
Because new teachers want to fit in and to feel like experienced teachers, they are
vulnerable to the school’s culture and all the unwritten rules that have been passed
on through the decades. An organization’s culture dictates its collective personality.
Continuing Many school leaders believe that organizational culture and
organizational climate are the same thing. The distinction that I will describe is not an
exercise in semantics. Although these two terms have similar characteristics, they
express two separate concepts. Once educators understand the difference, they will
develop the capacity to be more precise in their diagnoses and treatments of the
two. 58 Principal n March/April 2008 www.naesp.org this analogy, if culture is the
personality of the organization, then climate represents that organization’s attitude. It
is much easier to change an organization’s attitude (climate) than it is to change its
personality (culture). Comparing Climate with Culture The relationship between
culture and climate can be observed through our perceptions of the days of the
week. Typically in U.S. schools, Mondays are perceived as miserable and Fridays
are thought of as fun. This viewpoint reflects the business model’s values and, thus,
we learn that we are not supposed to want to come to school on Mondays. Teachers
and students often talk about the weekend or the next holiday or vacation, often
counting down the days. To come in on Monday morning, happy about being there
and not looking forward to the weekend would challenge the existing climate. As a
result, we can expect the climate to be less positive on Mondays than it is on
Fridays. Placing a higher value on weekends is a particularly American
phenomenon. There are many societies, or cultures, that do not place value on the
day of the week. Cultures create the negative stigma of Monday mornings and we
teach this preference to each generation—it usually takes hold around the fourth or
fifth grade for students. When the climate is negative, as is the case on most
Monday mornings, it is the culture that dictates how members of the group are
supposed to feel. The culture tells us that we’re supposed to feel miserable on
Mondays. Table 1 provides some examples of the differences between climate and
culture and how culture influences climate.

• The Role of School Culture in Learning

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https://online.malone.edu/articles/importance-of-school-culture/

What makes a great school? High educational standards and strong test scores
might be common responses to that question, but these elements alone are not the
overall arbiters of achievement. More often than not, school culture plays an
overwhelming role. School culture is the beliefs, perceptions, attitudes, and written
and unwritten rules that influence every aspect of a school. The importance of school
culture goes deeper than rules and attitudes, however, touching on aspects as
varied as diversity, student wellbeing, and even the order within classrooms and
common areas. Being such a far-reaching concept, it falls upon every member of a
school’s staff to help promote an enriching school culture. From the National
Educational Association:

The whole village concept for improving schools stresses the importance of all
school employees working together to help students succeed – everyone from
principals, custodians and bus drivers to teachers, nurses, administrators, security
and food service workers.

Perhaps most critical in driving school culture, though, is the leadership provided by
a school’s principal and administrators. Through the policies they set and behaviors
they exhibit, these school leaders send both direct and indirect messages that touch
every corner of the institutions they oversee.

Why School Culture is Important

While it might be tempting to dismiss the notion of school culture as too nebulous,
particularly when test scores and student-teacher ratios are prioritized as signs of
achievement, the truth is that improved school culture contributes to greater school
success. Broadly speaking, when school culture is strong, teachers and students
have a greater incentive to strive for their maximum potential. This is because their
satisfaction, morale, and fulfillment all grow as school culture blossoms.

Strong school culture breeds dedicated teachers. With the encouragement provided
by a healthy school, teachers are more likely to prioritize their professional
development and aptitude by improving their skills, expanding their base of
knowledge, and connecting with their students. Motivated teachers are more apt to
tailor their approaches to students’ individualized learning needs (where possible),
better prepared to guide their students toward excellence, and more willing to praise
their students for a job well-done.

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In turn, the positive relationship between students and teachers is likely to grow.
When students know that teachers and staff care, that they will celebrate their
achievements, provide constructive criticism when they fall short of a goal, and work
tirelessly to promote the best interests of the student population, students will have a

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desire to show up and do their best. Students in a strong school culture understand
that there is pressure to succeed, but also acknowledge the pressure is positive and
know that the school is there to support them in rising to any academic challenge.
The list of benefits that a strong school culture can provide continues:

• In a healthy environment, the professional relationships between a school’s

staff can become more congenial and productive.
• With collaborative input from all parties on major school decisions, a wider
range of views becomes represented.
• Opportunities are more evenly distributed among the student population,
increasing the likelihood that disadvantaged students have a chance to
succeed.

Most importantly, though, the positive attitudes and behaviors exhibited by school
leaders and administrators become infectious, filtering down to staff and students
alike and improving the wellbeing of all.

Developing Positive School Culture

A positive school culture is preferable to a negative one. Fostering one means
focusing on the connections between school staff and students, along with the
beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of school administrators. In an article on school
leadership, Kyle Wagner, a former educator and founder of Transform Educational
Consulting, laid out five pivotal strategies for building effective school culture, which
are:

1. Planning a bridge program for new students and staff. Administrators should
start by introducing a school’s newcomers to the institution’s ethos and
expectations as soon as possible. This allows them to make an easy
transition and fit in with the school culture.
2. Making school-wide goals visible. By making the school’s mission and goals
publicly accessible (as opposed to tucked away in a back office), the entire
school can understand and share in a similar purpose and work toward it
collaboratively.
3. Keeping a loyal opposition. Through inviting constructive criticism, multiple
viewpoints are expressed, and school leaders can address deficiencies in
their proposed policies.
4. Establishing collaborative networks. Seeking the aid of outside experts can
help provide a neutral point of view on a school’s challenges and introduce
objective solutions for improving school culture. The viewpoint of a trusted
third-party can sometimes offer a perspective no faction within the school
could have conceived.
5. Holding school-wide rallies and assemblies. Daily gatherings of a school’s
staff and student body help further instill the idea that the school is a unit
working toward shared goals, and it offers an opportunity to build positivity
through celebrating achievements and laying out expectations.

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Of course, these aren’t the only methods administrators can use to help improve
their school culture. Additional sources, such as School Leaders Now’s 8 Ways
Principals Can Build Positive School Culture Now offers substantive advice on what
administrators can do to start shifting their school’s sense of community in the right
direction.

The importance of school culture

https://www.educationworld.in/the-importance-of-school-culture/

Tons of research in the education field points to an important fact – no sustainable

improvement in student results and gaps in achievement can be filled until the school
leaders, teachers work on strong norms of behavior. School culture has been
defined in many ways but we are focusing here on how the adults – the school
leaders – behave in a school setting. What practices they follow, how they interact
with each other, what values inform their behavior, how do the leaders model their
behavior – these become the main guiding force in the schools capacity to learn,
improve, design its long term vision and mission and impact the various stakeholders
from the students to the parents.
Some of the ways this can be demonstrated in schools is by:

1. Creating an environment that fosters education for one and all – by making extra
efforts to reach out to the slow learners and disadvantaged students.
2. By appreciating and acknowledging the hard work that is put in by teachers and
support staff.
3. Constantly looking for opportunities to enhance the teaching capabilities of the
teachers.
4. Creating a language of support and care around the school.
5. Providing the teachers a space where they can fearlessly talk about their
challenges and difficulties (Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high
– to imbue the school with these lines of Rabindranath Tagore)
6. Backing the teaching practices with cutting edge research and data. Aligning the
teaching process to what is working in the education sector

How do all the above mentioned translate into behaviors that need to be
implemented? First and the foremost way is to create strong bonds among the
school community between the teachers and the leaders. The leader needs to be
trustworthy and should drive the agenda not from an ego perspective but value
perspective. There should be value given to other points of view and language of
respect and care should be used. He/she should demonstrate by practice the value
of right conduct. The school leadership should subscribe to magazines, journals that
focus on latest research in the field of education. The leader needs to be genuinely
interested in the well being of his team and makes the effort to be seen interacting
with all without prejudice. He gives due appreciation and recognition to a job well
done. The leader participates in professional development courses with the teachers
thus demonstrating regard for constant learning. In following the human values of

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love, respect, understanding, trust, kindness and right conduct the leaders can
create a culture that will create a model environment where all the education
stakeholders will not just survive but they will thrive.

11 Proven ways to build a positive school culture

https://www.prodigygame.com/main-en/blog/school-culture

1. Create meaningful parent involvement

Generating clear, open communication with the parents of your students can help you
avoid misunderstandings and remove feelings of mistrust or hostility.To involve parents
in your school culture, give them a platform for feedback on classroom activities or
school programs. Ask them about their hopes or concerns regarding their children’s
education. Go beyond parent-teacher meetings and organize workshops where
teachers and parents can discuss homework, study skills, and tests.Involving parents in
school activities in a meaningful way also helps foster positive feelings between the
school and the parents. You can ask parents to be on event committees or to
participate in school fundraisers.Developing educational programs for parents can also
help involve them in their children’s schooling, and thus build a more positive
atmosphere in your school.For example, Hollibrook Elementary in Spring Branch,
Texas, developed a "Parent University" to get parents more actively involved in the
school -- helping build trust and rapport between the school and the families of the
students.
2. Celebrate personal achievement and good behavior
This means more than the occasional "good job."Complimenting kids helps them to feel
that they are cared for individually. Both you and your staff play a huge part in this
aspect of your school culture.One way to generate more positive reinforcement from
your staff is to set goals for the number of compliments each member has to give
during the day or week. Encourage them to give specific compliments that highlight
what each individual student has done well. [caption id="attachment_2758"
align="aligncenter" width="491"]An example of a ceremony recognizing students for
outstanding achievements -- in this case, Waresboro Elementary recognized 17
students for excellence in "scholarship, responsibility, leadership, and service."
Image source:Waresboro Elementary School[/caption]Celebrating the achievements
of your students can be done on a larger scale as well.For example, Joyce Elementary
School in Detroit started holding an honor ceremony for students. Here, they presented
medallions for students and praised specific achievements. This event includes not
only school members, but hundreds from the community.
3. Establish school norms that build values
Your school and classroom rules should be clear to all students, and should be well-
regulated.However, this doesn’t mean that you need to establish rules for every
possible situation.Instead, create school norms that focus on building positive values in
your class. This helps kids to learn, not just what they should and shouldn’t do,
but why they should or shouldn’t do it.For example, instead of creating specific rules
about chewing gum, use of water bottles, or electronic devices in the classroom, you
could create a classroom rule that states: “Be respectful of the people around you.”To

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help students apply these norms, there should be consistency across the entire school
building, inside and out.
4. Set consistent discipline
When rules are not followed, discipline must be administered. However, broadening the
range of discipline methods can help encourage a positive school culture.Instead of
constantly putting out fires, trying a more proactive approach to discipline. Giving a
student detention after bad behavior teaches him that he did something wrong. But
giving him a task that helps correct the wrong teaches him what he should’ve done
instead.[caption id="attachment_2138" align="alignnone" width="6250"]20 classroom
management strategies and techniques. Click to expand![/caption]For example,
imagine one student started a fight. His discipline could include having to write a letter
of apology to the student he hurt, and then to take a shift as “hallway monitor”.Having
students work to correct their own wrongs helps encourage them to take responsibility
for their actions. Getting your teachers to internalize the subtle and tactful arts
of classroom management consistently is critical for a school culture of mutual respect
and adherence to rules -- both by teachers and students. Also, it’s essential that all
discipline is presented consistently across the school. When all students are treated
equally and bad behavior is disciplined in the same way in different classrooms, this
helps removes feelings of mistrust among students.

5. Model the behaviors you want to see in your school

You have a list of qualities and values that you want to see in your teachers and
students.But how well do you present those same aspects of your school culture?All
changes have to start from the top. That means when you interact with teachers and
students, you need to be an example of the behavior that you want to see in your
school.
6. Engage students in ways that benefit them
When in school, your students are learning more than just secular instruction. They’re
also developing their social skills, and learning how to become successful
adults.Schools that help students develop essential social skills are preparing them on
an even deeper level for their future after graduation.One way to engage students and
develop these types of skills is through social-emotional learning (SEL). Throughout the
day, encourage teachers to include activities that help students develop qualities such
as empathy, reliability, respect, concern, and a sense of humor.In the research brief
Social Emotional Learning in Elementary School, researchers found that SEL programs
helped students make more ethical decisions, maintain positive relationships, set and
achieve goals at school and at home, and manage their emotions. These programs
promoted achievements at school, and reduced substance abuse and emotional
distress.

7. Create rituals and traditions that are fun for students and teachers

The school day — and school year — should be punctuated with time for fun. This
helps students engage with each other in positive events and builds morale in
school.For example, one school created a weekly event called ‘Fabulous Friday’, which
opened students up to a variety of fun activities. Why not create your own version of
Fabulous Friday?[caption id="attachment_2203" align="aligncenter"

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width="600"]Using technology in the classroom -- as a reward or simply to

supplement learning -- is a cost-effective way to introduce positive rituals for
students on the level of the individual classroom.[/caption]For example, you can
create special rituals and traditions for the first day of school, or for the first day of a
new month.Creating appropriate times to have fun and laugh breaks up the day and
gives students a chance to relax in between learning. This helps them become more
refreshed when returning to the classroom.
8. Encourage innovation in the classroom
Innovation in the classroom starts with you — the school leader.When talking with
teachers, encourage them to try new methods of teaching. You can even set up regular
meetings to discuss new research on teaching methods or new teaching tech, and how
these can be implemented in your school.These meetings will help the whole teaching
staff to brainstorm and implement new ideas, bringing teachers into the process of
building your school culture.For example, why not try game-based learning?[caption
id="attachment_501" align="aligncenter" width="444"]Students playing Prodigy — a
free, game-based math platform — on their tablets[/caption]Particularly popular for
improving results in topics like math, video game based learning has been shown to
heighten the level of interest, concentration, and enjoyment of educational materials
among students.And teachers tend to agree: in one study by the Joan Ganz Cooney
Center, almost 80% of K-8 classroom teachers surveyed agreed that digital games
have “improved student mastery of curricular content”.Plus, it’s fun!
9. Professional development for teachers
Students are not the only people in your school who should be learning. Helping your
teachers to develop their skills will encourage a positive school culture by giving them
the ability to improve their craft.For example, the Mooresville Intermediate School in
North Carolina pairs each new teacher with a mentor at the beginning of their career at
the school. This helps teachers to be fully aware of school policies and rules, and gives
them specific instruction in how the school uses tech in the classroom.Supporting new
teachers in this way can help promote a consistent atmosphere across your
school.Also, it’s good to make sure that you as the school leader are aware of what
your teachers think and feel in their work. Set up regular times to ask for feedback,
hear out concerns, and get suggestions for improvement.

10. Maintain the physical environment of your school

Surprisingly enough, the physical surroundings of students and teachers has a huge
impact on the culture of your school.The HEAD Project (Holistic Evidence and Design)
took evidence from over 3,700 students in 27 diverse schools. They found that the
physical space where students are learning can account for a 16% variation in the
learning process over a school year.What aspects of a classroom have the most
impact?[caption id="attachment_1560" align="aligncenter" width="450"]The novelty,
stimulation, and freedom of movement students enjoy in a flexible seating classroom
setting positively impacts behavior, according to educational researcher Sheryl
Feinstein’s book From the Brain to the Classroom.[/caption]It was found that half of the

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learning impact came from light, temperature, and air quality. The other half of learning
impact came from factors such as individualization of the environment and color of the
room. For example, the ideal classroom was found to have light-colored walls with one
accent wall of a brighter color.Adopting a policy that allows for flexible seating in
classrooms is one step school leaders are taking more frequently.Adjusting these
seemingly insignificant factors isn’t difficult, and can result in an increase in student
engagement and improvement in learning.

11. Keep tabs on your school’s culture, and make adjustments when
necessary

Unfortunately, creating a positive school culture isn’t just a matter of following a

checklist. As a school leader, you need to stay informed of what’s going on in your
school, and understand the attitudes and atmosphere that permeate the hallways and
classrooms.As we mentioned above, starting the process of improving your school
culture involves analyzing the current situation of your school. This analyzation process
should become a regular part of your schedule.Set aside time every few months to
analyze your school culture. Keep on the watch for the specific factors that indicate a
positive school culture, and keep using the steps above to reinforce those aspects.
Also, be aware of any negative factors that have started to seep in, and take decisive
action to remove those.Above all, take time to listen to feedback from both teachers
and students in order to understand the experience that they are having in your school.

Shared Norms: Teacher and Student Norms

The Science Behind Classroom Norming

Blogger Todd Finley explores the value of Classroom Norming to help
learners.
By Todd Finley(2014)
https://www.edutopia.org/blog/establishing-classroom-norms-todd-finley

Celebrated teachers like Jamil Odom, Ron Clark, and Rebecca

Mieliwocki create transcendent classroom cultures year after year. It’s not
magic, it’s science.

Our modern understanding of social norming occurred in 1936, when

Muzafer Sherif studied the autokinetic effect, a phenomenon that occurs
when people observe a stable light inside a dark space. After time passes,
everyone "sees" the light move. Sherif, on a hunch, asked con federates to
enter the room and offer a contradictory perception. The participants,
without realizing they had been tricked, revised their original judgment to
align with the confederates' stated perception. Later, even when participants
re-entered the room alone, they continued to believe that the confederates'
perceptions were correct.

The mechanism for norming is group talk. The result is conformity...either

the good kind where hippies rally under Steve Jobs and invent a Macintosh

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computer or the version that begins with goose-stepping and ends in death
camps. Such potency, researchers Patricia and Richard Schmuck assert,
makes norming one of the most important influences on academic
achievement.

WHAT ARE CLASSROOM NORMS?

In contrast to rules, which are (usually) teacher generated and work best
when introduced on the first day, norms are "an agreement among members
of a classroom or school about how they will treat one another," according
to Gary Borich, Professor of Educational Psychology at The Universit y of
Texas at Austin. There are three types of norms: those that pertain to safety
and health (no shoving), moral norms (help peers), and discretionary norms
(clean your desk before leaving for the day).

NORMING AND STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT

Bruce Tuckman's research on teams revealed that group development
happens in five stages, regardless of the culture, language, or purpose of
the group: forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning. Teachers
need to allow the first two stages to occur (2 -3 weeks) before facilitating the
classroom norming process. Here are brief descript ions of those stages:
1. Forming - Members are anxious about being accepted, so they behave
cautiously.
2. Storming - Dominant members emerge amidst some confrontations.
Clarification about roles and the group purpose is sought.
3. Norming - Members grow more cohesive and interdependent;
communication, trust and Esprit de corps improves.
4. Performing - Productivity and autonomy are strong as members problem
solve to complete group objectives.
5. Adjourning - The team disbands. Mourning sometimes occurs.
To help students advance successfully through the first stage, establish
clear goals. During storming, stay positive during tense moments and be
ready to promptly address conflicts. Describe the team development process
and reassure students that things will become easier when the later stages
are reached. Also rehearse routines until they're automatic.

HOW TO FACILITATE CLASSROOM NORMING

When introducing a class to the norming process, state that the goal is to
develop a class culture that promotes academic achievement. To address
potential impatience, I explain that our class is like a supertanker. "It won’t
turn quickly based on one person's needs, but we will arrive at the intended
academic destination." In addition, mention that the class will revisit norms
later in the semester and make course corrections.
Next, ask students to complete a problem/norm T-chart in small groups.
Before learners begin this task, talk them through the first entry (see italics,
below) to model the process.

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After 10-15 minutes, disseminate a list of potential problem areas and ask if
they have already been addressed in each group's T -chart. If not, direct
students to keep developing more norms that will handle these issues.
POTENTIAL PROBLEM AREAS
What (if any) norms are needed to address these areas?
1. Student-to-student interactions
2. The physical space and/or personal property
3. Sensitive topics
4. Transitions
5. When the instructor leaves/is absent from the room
6. Communication
7. Using the pencil sharpener, drinking fountain, and/or restroom
8. When tasks are finished early
9. Smart phones
10. Confusion or frustration
11. Intolerance
12. When needed materials are missing
After students finish developing norms in teams, write down everyone's
contributions on the board. I always add my favorite norm to the list: enter
class with the academic swagger of Matthew McConaughey, ready to take
care of business. If there are disagreements, ask, "Does the norm promote
academic achievement?" Finally, have students vote on which ones to adopt
and post the agreed upon norms in the classroom.

TWO EXERCISES THAT SUPPORT THE NORMING PROCESS

Exercise #1: What You Should Know about Us?

Purpose: Help learners accommodate classmates' needs.

Before norming day, have students take the Kiersey Temperment Sorter, a
personality assessment, and ask them to form groups with peers who have
similar scores. Ask the groups to a) identify what their teammates have in
common and b) decide what outside groups should know about them. You’ll
need to ask the extroverts to talk quietly and the introverts to simply talk.
Then ask the groups to report on their discussions.

Exercise #2: What Have You Heard?

Purpose: To reign in the random diffusion of perceptions and crystalize

more productive norms.

During the first class, direct students to list what others have said about
your teaching or class. Collect and sort the comments into categories. Then
address the most common perceptions. Which ones ar e correct? Which
beliefs should be dispelled?

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Does the norming process take time? Yes, but when students share
important values, beliefs, and goals, they accomplish more. Don’t trust me.
Trust the science.

What are your favorite classroom norms or norming protocols?

School Policies and Their Functions

• Importance of Policies

Importance of Policies in School Education Ecosystem

• Published on March 25, 2018
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/importance-policies-school-education-ecosystem-
sami-ulla-m/

Policy is generally an intent, a set of rules and principles, adopted for ease of
governance within an organisation. It is fundamentally important for organisations to
have implementable policies, as it forms a linking pin between the school
management, teachers, students, parents, and the rule of law. An organisation
without policy is an organisation without control.

If there are no formal policies, then organisation staff at any level would have no
guidance on how to make right consistent decisions. Imagine, a parent approaches a
teacher, and requests to view her child’s answer script. If the school has no proper
policy on Assessments, the choice on whether to show the answer paper might
depend upon which teacher she spoke to, or whether the teacher she speaks to is
having a bad day. In short, an absence of policy leads to inconsistency of decision
making.

Not everyone understands why policies exist – some people view them as being
bureaucratic and overbearing. In reality, as the school management cannot be
everywhere all the time to ensure staff carry out their tasks correctly and responsibly,
policies provide useful and necessary assistance. Rules therefore help to decrease
the amount of direct supervision by the management, and at the same time increase
the efficiency of work processes.

Besides, policies are also important because they help a school establish model
operating procedures and create standards of quality for learning and safety, as well
as expectations and accountability. Without these, institutions would lack the
structure and function necessary to provide the educational needs of students.
Eventually, policies are key for the success of a school, and provides many other
privileges provided they are written well and kept up to date.

Internal Controls

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Organisational policies should serve as an important form of internal control. Policy

form as a control mechanism that will effectively limit the behaviour of teaching and
non-teaching staff. Instructions could be that two teachers must be involved in any
assessment process, one to correct the answer script, and another to audit the
sheet. Policy should always be enforced through some kind of scrutinising
mechanism, or it will be a weak internal control. School management can make life
easier by creating proper internal controls that are enforceable.

Minimise Costs:

Management always feel the need to minimise costs. This can take the form of
examining the real amount of resources required for what the School actually needs,
such as finding the cheapest suppliers without sacrificing quality. It can also be about
limiting the financial losses that can cripple school operations, such as shortages,
wastages, errors and other kinds of losses. When policies address potential sources
of risk and require employees to know them, it creates awareness of the need for
risk management. It is best to ensure that employees comply with company policies
intended to minimise risk.

Maintain Compliance

School policies must enable the organisation to maintain a degree of accountability

in the eyes of internal and external stakeholders. School has an obligation towards
the law of the land. Compliance is to follow these established defined statutory
procedures and practices. Educational policies are rules that are intended to help
schools teach students efficiently, fairly and safely as per the regulatory norms, and
the Board to which the Institution is affiliated. These terms determine how students
are taught, what they are taught, how schools manage students and its personnel.

Build a Learning Culture

Academics being the major service of a school, it is mandatory to create a learning

culture by encouraging the staff to continuously add to their knowledge. This
includes determining which capability each staff should acquire and creating a
process for updating it throughout the year. For example, a policy to have a staff
competency matrix and training need analysis for all staff must be completed before
becoming eligible for the appraisal. Initially each staff learning should include a
checklist of tasks, such as required training and development, work samples and
formal learning instructions.

Safe Learning Environments

Students, teachers and staff members deserve to feel physically and psychologically
secure in their environment. Policies influence how safe individuals are in school. In
order to create this environment, guidelines need to be developed and reinstated
that establish safety standards for the physical environment and mental state of
students and staff. Disciplined rules have an effect on the safety of students and staff
at school level, therefore, procedures should extend beyond the classroom,

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frequency of fire drills, anti-bullying, and how staff should respond during a medical
emergency.

Setting Goals and Establishing Productivity

Students and teachers are the major customers of all the policies in a school.
Management should establish standard rules to guide acceptable behaviour, and
help create a conducive learning environment. All of these are necessary to help the
institution run smoothly to ensure that students receive a quality education. In order
for an institution to encourage higher learning, plans must be in place that establish
goals as set forth by the school management. This is important for relating education
to the community and making it responsible to the larger world. Accountability
through the use of goal-oriented policies ensures productivity – thus save time,
prevent confusion and unify the school.

Suspension and Expulsion

Although the law strictly disapproves it, the school should be very careful in
determining when a student should be suspended or expelled, because it can impact
a child's future. Although it is common to expel students for excessive violations of
school rules, this is not always a good option for dealing with behaviour problems.
When a child is expelled, he may lose his desire to continue attending traditional
institution and quit. Suspension policies can inadvertently discourage students from
attending school, leading to a lifetime of low-paying jobs or dependency of others.
For this reason, it is important to have policies that incorporate other solutions before
resorting to suspension and expulsion.

Equality

Equality in the schools is again determined by it’s policies. School must have
guidelines requiring acts of discrimination to be reported to their administrators and
to be remedied promptly. There are also rules in place to make sure that children
with disabilities, or slow-learners, receive the same access to an education as other
students. This ensures that everyone gets the opportunity to contribute to society
and thrive economically.

Teacher Engagement

Another important thing is that policies on teacher training and engagement should
focus more on the professional continuum of teachers. Teacher engagement is the
key element for teacher retention, including teacher interventions, and their
continuous professional development all over their career – they are a whole and
they are interconnected. A proper workplace policy also aims to guide teaching and
non-teaching staff in how to perform in the school for various prohibited issues in –
harassment, internet use, health and safety, and social media are just a few.

Stakeholder involvement

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Last but not the least, collaboration between all the stakeholders should be much
larger. It is extremely important that everyone is involved in the policy-making, that
each stakeholder has his/her role, and should be able to take that role into the
process. Schools should have well-documented and comprehensive policies and
standard-operating-procedures for all the internal and external stake holders.

Having well-developed policies and rules can empower the School to:

• help teachers and students know what is expected of them with respect to
standards of behaviour and performance.
• set guidelines for decision-making in routine situations so that teachers and
managers do not need to continually ask senior management what to do.
• help to adopt a consistent and clear response across the school to continually
refer to situations involving any interactions between peers, students and
parents.
• allow to demonstrate good faith that employees will be treated fairly and
equally.
• allow to have an accepted method of dealing with complaints and
misunderstandings in place to help avoid favouritism.
• set a framework for delegation of decision-making.
• give a means of communicating information to all stakeholders.
• offer protection from breaches of legislations, compliances, etc.

Subsequent to the policies being established, it is important to convey decisions that

are made on a school level to the relevant stakeholders, students, teachers and
other staff. Because it is necessary that they know which decisions have been taken,
why they have been taken and what the whole rationale behind this decision was,
the management should really focus on the strict adherence to them, as it only stays
valuable as long as they are properly implemented and monitored.

Enhancing Student Achievement

by Charlotte Danielson
http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/102109/chapters/Policies-and-
Practices-Affecting-Students.aspxChapter 6. Policies and Practices
Affecting Students

The policies and practices affecting students are those aspects of a school's
operation that organize students' experiences within the institution. For younger
students, these policies and practices also structure the parents' relationship with the
school. In considering the school's policies and practices affecting students,
educators should ask themselves such questions as “What is the school policy with
respect to homework, or to absences?” “What happens when a student is sent to the
principal's office?” “How are students treated in the lunchroom?”
The decisions that a school makes regarding established policies and practices
affect students enormously. Teachers' instructional decisions influence students'
feelings about (and success with) the curriculum, but the policies and practices in
both classrooms and in the entire school provide the context for teacher-student
interactions around instruction.

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Relationship to the Framework

Decisions regarding policies and practices that affect students should draw from
earlier discussions regarding what we want, believe, and know, and should respect
the following key concepts.
A Safe and Positive Environment
Both the physical and psychological school environments must be safe for all
students. Broken plumbing and falling ceilings, for example, must be fixed in a timely
manner. Such problems don't only pose a physical danger; when gone untended,
they send a powerful message to students that their well-being is not important.
Policies and practices must show respect for students, who should feel safe at
school and feel that it is theirs. Consistency and predictability are a part of safety;
rules and procedures must be fairly and consistently applied, so that they are not
regarded as capricious.
A Culture of Hard Work
Students derive enormous satisfaction from tackling difficult tasks and succeeding on
their own. If educators want students to experience the pride of success through
hard work, they will establish practices that reward hard work rather than natural
endowment or luck. In addition, homework and grading policies shouldn't handi-cap
students who don't “get it” on the first attempt; such students should be given a
second chance to succeed, and a third.
A Success Orientation
The goal of school policies and practices should be student mastery of the
curriculum and development of their potential. There is no room in a school truly
committed to student learning for policies that are punitive, turn students away, or
undermine their confidence. If some students believe that they are forever relegated
to a “low group”—that nothing they do will ever let them become leaders in student
government, because they are somehow not regarded as part of the school's
“elite”—they will turn their back on the benefits of school. If students regard
challenging courses or membership in certain clubs as the province of only a select
few, most will harbor no ambitions for such opportunities.
A Culture of Respect and Responsiveness to Clients
In many schools, particularly high schools, students feel that they are the least
important people in the building: they are kept waiting by teachers or the principal,
they are summoned to the office for mysterious reasons, and they feel that no one
ever believes their side of the story. Taken together, the policies and practices in
these schools do not produce an environment in which students feel respected as
human beings and valued as full participants.
Student Leadership and Decision Making
Opportunities for student leadership can help define the culture of a school. These
must not be restricted to an elite—there must be broad opportunities for students to
develop leadership skills, such as by helping establish the homework guidelines,
serving as lab assistants in science, or lending a hand with younger students.
Decision making relates more to how policies and procedures are derived than to
what they are. Students of all ages value the opportunity to shape the rules by which
they live. When they help create the rules, students are more likely to understand the
rationale behind them and will comply with them more willingly. In addition, the
inclusion of student voices in the decision-making process provides educators with
access to a valuable perspective. Rules and procedures are therefore likely to be

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stronger if students help create them than they would be if mandated by teachers
and administrators alone.
Minimal Competition
Despite knowing the corrosive effects of competition, many educators continue,
largely because of tradition, to create policies and practices that institutionalize
competitiveness into the fabric of the school. Students should only compete against
themselves in the classroom (e.g., by trying to “top” a previous essay).
A Culture for Learning
Learning is an active process, in which students must be engaged as genuine
participants. And student learning is not limited to the curriculum: students learn from
homework and discipline policies as well. Consequently, aspects of a school's
policies that have an effect on student learning should be designed
with active learning in mind: for example, if educators want students to assume
responsibility for their behavior, discipline policies should reflect a view of students
as active decision makers.
A school's culture for learning is the implicit sense among students regarding what is
valued in the school, and whether it is important to be a successful learner. In this
context, I use the term “culture” in the anthropological sense, meaning the norms
and values that prevail in a school setting. What is valued? What traits are honored?
What are the relative values of athletic skill, academic success, and artistic talent?
Many schools, and high schools especially, suffer from a student culture in which it is
not “cool” to be smart, work hard, or earn high grades. Educators should bear the
following issues in mind when considering their schools' cultures:
• School cultures are slow to change. Some students, particularly those who have
experienced little school success, build their reputations as class clowns. They
project the image that school is dumb, and that only nerds play the game. Even
when faculty makes a concerted effort to change this student culture and support a
success orientation, the students themselves may be resistant to change. As a
result, high-school teachers, particularly in required courses, may inherit students
who have had a long history of failure and who are not prepared to risk their self-
esteem and reputation with friends for the elusive goal of school success. A shift in
school culture will take time.
• Different spheres of student excellence merit recognition. Most high schools
proudly display their athletic trophies, and student athletes are publicly recognized
through school assemblies and the student newspaper. Likewise, students with
leads in the school play may be acknowledged. But what about a gifted poet? Or the
manager of the props for the school play? Or the author of an elegant solution to a
mathematics problem? There are many areas of excellent student performance, and
a school culture that recognizes only its celebrities can undermine the confidence of
students whose talents lie else where.
• A school culture that supports student learning should be promoted both
within each classroom and in the school as a whole. This culture should be
promoted in classrooms—where student creativity and commitment should be
recognized on a daily basis—as well as throughout the school (e.g., through displays
of student work, honor rolls, recognition assemblies, or weekly lunches with the
principal).

Categories of Policies and Practices

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Schools have multiple policies and practices that affect students. Some of these
have been deliberately set in place, and others have evolved with time. Educators
are well advised to re-examine the accepted ways of doing things at their schools.
These practices will be familiar to both students and faculty, and if they contribute to
a school's focus on learning, they should be retained. Practices that do not support
student learning should be revised to ensure that they do, difficult though it may be
to disrupt the status quo.
The major policies and practices affecting students are described below.
Attendance Policies
Most schools establish their attendance policies on the assumption that the students
can't learn unless they are in school. The goal of such policies is to ensure that
students attend school as much as possible. Of course, no school wants to
encourage students who are sick to attend school, lest they infect others.
Unfortunately, students will occasionally be sick without even knowing it, thereby
infecting other students before being sent home. (Many elementary teachers have
had the experience of chicken pox working its way through their class for most of an
entire school year.)
In general, attendance policies should do the following:
• Maximize time in school. Attendance and tardiness policies should be grounded in
the expectation that school is not optional and that attendance is important.
However, staff members must allow for illness and recognize mitigating
circumstances. Schools should therefore probably not set an absolute limit to
absences, but might require statements from parents or doctors explaining why the
child has missed school.
• Be flexible. Attendance and tardiness policies must allow for individual
circumstances and for situations outside of a student's control, such as the need to
care for younger siblings.
• Offer opportunities for teaching. Students of all ages can benefit from learning
how to improve attendance and punctuality. In most cases, this opportunity for
teaching can be achieved in the classroom setting: students can share strategies for
preparing their school materials in advance of when they must walk out the door, or
for ensuring that they make the bus. However, some students—particularly older
students who face challenges at home—may need individual coaching. A counselor
or trusted teacher can be of real assistance in these cases.
Discipline Policies
Discipline policies are the rules regarding student conduct, both within classrooms
and in the school as a whole. These include rules about running in the halls,
disrespectful language, willful disregard of teacher requests, and, for older students,
public displays of affection. Discipline policies might also include student conduct on
the bus and playground, or in the cafeteria.
In a sincere attempt to enhance the quality of their school environment, educators in
some schools have instituted harsh zero-tolerance policies for students. In some
cases, such as weapons possession, a zero-tolerance approach is certainly justified.
However, it is important that educators not confuse being tough with being
businesslike.
Educators must appreciate the relationship between instruction and student conduct.
When students are engaged in meaningful work and experience learning success,
they are not much inclined to disrupt a class. But if students are bored, or if they

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believe that they are about to be embarrassed or humiliated, they may actually prefer
being sent to the office to staying in class. A solution, then, for some student
infractions may be to make learning experiences more engaging, so that students
can be challenged as well as successful.
Successful standards of conduct will reflect certain characteristics:
• Respectful and appropriate. Discipline policies should reflect a school's belief that
everyone in the school community—both adults and students—must be treated with
respect (e.g., no bullying or impolite language). Consequences for student infractions
should fit the situation, and should not be punitive; students should not be
suspended for trivial infractions.
• Public. Standards of student conduct should be well publicized and known to
everyone: students, teachers, and parents. They need to be, and to be perceived to
be, reasonable and transparent; any appearance of arbitrariness will undermine their
credibility.
• Consistent. Standards of student conduct should be consistent across a school,
rather than dependent on the whim of each teacher. Individual teachers may have
their own expectations, of course, but the same general rules should apply across an
entire school.
Homework Policies
Teachers assign homework to students mainly to extend learning time. Students are
in school for six hours or so each day; if they complete assignments at home, they
can be actively engaged in learning for considerably longer than that.
A school's approach to homework depends on the age of the students. Although it is
unreasonable to expect young children to spend long hours doing assignments, a
well-conceived homework policy helps students assume more responsibility for their
own learning and allows students to continue learning beyond the school day.
As educators determine their school's approach to homework, the following
guidelines may be helpful:
• Homework is important. If assigned, homework must be completed; it should not
be optional, but rather integral to the instructional program. A school's homework
policy should convey the importance the school attaches to homework and
emphasize student commitment and responsibility for completing it.
• Student must be able to complete assignments independently. As a general
rule, students should be able to complete assignments without adult assistance at
home. The reason for this is simple equity. Some parents are able to substantially
assist their children by virtue of their own education: they can explain how to factor
polynomials, for example, or provide feedback on writing. But because other parents
are not able to offer this type of help, only some students will have the benefit of
what amounts to a private tutor at home. It is essential that success in school not
depend on the availability of parental assistance.
• Assignments should be appropriate to completion at home. Some assignments
are inappropriate for homework—such as those that represent new learning or
learning that requires frequent explanations or intervention by a teacher. More
suitable homework assignments are those that ask students to practice previously
learned skills, write essays, or memorize vocabulary. Practice increases fluency and
facility, and repetition can enhance student mastery of a concept.
• Links between home and school should be pursued. Some assignments can
integrate the home into the learning experience. After studying the Great

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Depression, for example, 11th grade history students might be asked to interview
older relatives and neighbors regarding their experiences during the Depression and
its aftermath. Or 3rd graders, after having learned to make bar graphs, can collect
data regarding the different types of furniture in their homes and display the
information in a bar chart; the next day, the classroom walls will be covered with
charts of chairs, tables, beds, and televisions from which patterns may be observed
and hypotheses generated.
• Educators should help students deal with emergencies. When unforeseen
events occur, students should not be unduly penalized. Some students, however,
exhibit a pattern of suspicious “emergencies”—dogs, after all, can eat only so much
paper. Teachers may need to help such students to develop a “plan B” that they can
implement when emergencies arise.
• Teachers should distinguish between completion and effort. Students
sometimes get stuck in the course of doing their homework because they do not
understand something critical. This may be due to poor instruction, lack of clarity
about the assignment, or day dreaming on the part of the student during an
explanation. But the result is that the home work is not complete. A reasonable and
respectful policy will take these factors into account. In addition, teachers should ask
students to document what they did before abandoning their homework: what
approaches they tried, for example, or the names of students they phoned for help.
Such a policy sends the message that perseverance and resourcefulness are
important, so students should not give up at the first sign of trouble.
• Teachers should coordinate major assignments. Students are quick to notice
when major assignments from two different courses are due on the same day, and
they are not completely open to their teachers' suggestions that a little advance
planning would mitigate the conflict. If a school wants students to give energy to the
work they do outside of school, it makes sense for teachers in different departments
to share their schedules for major assignments with one another. Students should
certainly be expected to complete small daily assignments in many subjects, but
major assignments should be coordinated.
• Teachers should help parents help their children. A school's staff should support
a richer intellectual environment at home for students, independent of homework, by
encouraging parental involvement. Educators should enlighten parents who don't
recognize the educational value of regularly reading aloud to younger children, or of
asking them to set the table or sort the laundry. Older children can be asked to read
bus schedules or road maps on car trips, or to determine which brand of soap is the
best bargain at the supermarket—skills that require higher-order thinking. And
children of all ages benefit from conversation or keeping a journal. Educators should
help parents to appreciate the value of these activities, so that they will encourage
their children to take part in them.
Grading Policies
Of all the policies and practices affecting students, the school's approach to grading
has the greatest potential to affect students' futures, both within the school and
beyond it. Furthermore, a school's grading policy will often have a lot of “baggage”
associated with it, as it is an aspect of school life about which everyone—teachers,
students, and parents—feels strongly.
Almost no one believes that conventional approaches to grading are beneficial.
There is no consensus as to what grades mean; some teachers appear to believe

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

that their grade distributions reflect their own teaching abilities or the complexity of
the content more than they do student achievement; others maintain that their harsh
grading policy reflects their own high standards. Teachers also tend to disagree on
the quality of student work: given the same student essay, some teachers would
award it an A while others would give it a C. Teachers, that is, tend to apply their
own standards of quality to student work that are rarely communicated to either
students or other teachers. Furthermore, many citizens, educators, and admissions
directors in institutions of higher education think that the distribution of grades should
follow the bell curve, believing that too many high grades is evidence of grade
inflation.
Any discussion of grading policies must begin with their purposes, which include the
following:
• Motivating students. Educators can use grades to motivate students to work hard,
study, and learn the content of a course, especially in high school.
• Communicating with students. Grades can help let students know what learning is
important, as well as how well they are doing, in general.
• Communicating with parents. Grades can help let parents know how well their
children are progressing in school. Most parents are not interested in the details of
their children's progress; they are primarily looking for reassurance that their children
are “on track.”
• Communicating with other teahers. In some schools, teachers use grades to let
one another know how well students are performing. When students move from one
school to another—from middle school to high school, for example—grades can be
used to communicate between the two faculties.
• Communicating with the outside world. Admissions directors at colleges,
universities, and technical schools, as well as company personnel directors, look to
school transcripts for clues about students. Educational institutions want to know
whether students are sufficiently prepared for the rigors of higher education, whereas
employers tend to care about factors such as punctuality, interpersonal skills, and
initiative.
The following recommendations are based on the assumptions threaded throughout
this book. Grading is a complex topic on which it is difficult to achieve consensus.
The recommendations I offer here will, I hope, serve as a basis for structured
conversation on the subject.
Reflective of Student Learning in the Curriculum
A grade for English on a report card should reflect how well the student
has mastered the content of the English course; if teachers want to comment on
participation, effort, or behavior in class, they may do so on the report card, but not
as part of a grade. Students' effort, homework, behavior, and attendance are all
important aspects of their work in school, and should be part of any comprehensive
report to parents. However, when these are incorporated into the grading system,
the grades become muddled and therefore meaningless.
In addition, an individual student's grades should be allocated independently of any
other student. If all students master the curriculum at a high level, they should all
receive As or Bs.
Consistency Within a School
An A from Ms. Jones should mean the same as an A from Mr. Smith; grades should
not reflect each teacher's idiosyncratic notions of what constitutes quality.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Consistency within a school (or even a district), combined with the need for grades to
reflect student learning in the curriculum, suggests that teachers have decided
together what the curriculum is and how to assess it. It implies, in other words, the
use of consistent assessments at the end of courses or semesters. (This issue is
further addressed in Chapter 10: Assessment.)
Multiple Measures of Student Learning
Within the context of a consistent approach to curriculum and assessment, individual
teachers need to consider many different indicators of student mastery of the
curriculum when assigning grades. An end-of-course exam for Algebra I that is used
consistently throughout the mathematics department may be a valuable benchmark
of student work, but it should not be the only factor used to determine student grades
in the course; teachers should consider quizzes, projects, and oral presentations as
well. Learning, and the demonstration of that learning, is what's important—not
student performance on a single high-stakes test.
Grade Inflation
Many observers have noted that grades “just aren't what they used to be.”
Commentators have bemoaned the fact that, even in the most selective schools and
colleges, it is common for a majority of students to receive As or Bs, thus rendering
the grades effectively meaningless. Some argue that the professors who hand out
such grades are under pressure from students to “doctor the books” and boost their
chances at graduate school admission or good jobs. These complaints are worthy of
serious attention when
• Grades reflect only the idiosyncratic judgments of individual teachers,
• Students have no way to improve their performance,
• Grades are handed out as rewards for compliance in class, or
• Grades have little connection to student performance.
If, however, grades actually reflect student understanding of the curriculum, then
large numbers of high grades should be applauded rather than criticized, as this
means simply that many students are mastering important concepts.
Complaints about grade inflation make sense only in the context of general
confusion about the fundamental meaning of grades. If more students are earning
higher grades, and if high grades represent high levels of achievement, then
everyone should be cheering. On the other hand, if more and more students are
getting A's but nobody knows what the grades actually mean, then the concerned
voices have an important message.

Summary
The nature of students' experience in school is influenced not only by the quality of
instruction, but also by the school's policies and practices. Students of all ages
approach school with a positive spirit, and they expect to find success and fulfillment
there, so the policies and practices affecting them must be clear, fair, and likely to
contribute to student learning. Such policies can be firm, but they should also be just,
and should respect student interests and motivations. Policies and practices
affecting students are powerful levers that help set the tone and direct behavior in a
school. The adults involved must ensure that the policies they put in place reinforce
their goals for students, reflect their beliefs about students and their learning, and are
supported by research findings.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Rubric for Policies and Practices Affecting Students

Poor Basic Exemplary

A Culture The school has no Some of the school's School practices
for culture for learning, or practices reinforce the reinforce the culture
Learning a negative culture. culture for learning; for learning; students
Students appear students have have internalized this
satisfied to “just get partially internalized culture and make a
by.” this culture and some serious commitment
of them make a to excellence.
commitment to
excellence.
Attendance Attendance and Attendance and Attendance and
Policies tardiness policies are tardiness policies are tardiness policies are
rigid and punitive; no focused on focused on
attention is paid to maximizing maximizing
student learning or attendance, but are attendance and
flexibility for individual only partially flexible student learning, and
situations. Students for individual are flexible and
have had no situations. Students responsive to
opportunity to have had some individual situations.
contribute to the opportunity to Students have
development of the contribute to the contributed to the
policies. development of the development of the
policies. policies.
Discipline Standards of student Standards of student Standards of student
Policies conduct are arbitrary, conduct and the conduct are based
and consequences for consequences for on mutual respect,
student infractions are student infractions are and consequences
punitive and harsh. fairly reasonable. for student infractions
Discipline policies are Discipline policies are are reasonable.
not well publicized publicly known and Discipline policies
and students have students have had are publicly known
had no opportunity to some opportunity to and students have
contribute to their contribute to their contributed to their
development. development. development.
Homework Homework policies Homework policies Homework policies
Policies and practices are rigid and practices are and practices are
and not designed to moderately flexible flexible and designed
promote student and attempt to to promote student
learning. promote student learning.
Consequences of learning. Consequences for
incomplete homework Consequences for incomplete
are punitive. Students incomplete homework homework are firm
have had no are fairly reasonable. but respectful.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

opportunity to Students have had Students have

contribute to the some opportunity to contributed to the
development of the contribute to the development of the
policies. development of the policies.
policies.
Grading Student grades are Teachers decide Student grades
Policies awarded according to grades according to a reflect mastery of the
the bell curve; factors combination of factors curriculum, and do
other than mastery of that are poorly not reflect the
the curriculum, such articulated and not standing of students
as cooperation, are well understood by relative to other
used to inflate poor students and parents. students. Factors
grades; or grades are Grades reflect not such as effort,
awarded to students only mastery of the amount of progress,
based on the curriculum, but also and level of
teachers' individual effort, amount of participation and
preferences and progress, and level of cooperation are
favoritism towards participation and addressed separately
students. cooperation. on report cards.

10 Essential Policies for Your Student Handbook

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For Educators
• Teaching
o Issues In Education
o An Introduction to Teaching
o Tips & Strategies
o Policies & Discipline
o Community Involvement
o School Administration
o Technology in the Classroom
o Teaching Adult Learners
• Becoming A Teacher
• Assessments & Tests
• Elementary Education
• Secondary Education
• Special Education
• Homeschooling

282
 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

By
Derrick Meador
Updated July 03, 2019

Every school has a student handbook. A handbook is a living, breathing tool that
should be updated and changed every year. As a school principal, it is essential that
you keep your student handbook up-to-date. It is also important to realize that every
school is different. They have different needs and their students have different
issues. A policy that will work in one district, may not be as effective in another
district. There are ten essential policies that every student handbook should include.

01
of 10
Attendance Policy

Attendance does matter. Missing a lot of class can create huge holes that could lead
to academic failure. The average school year in the United State is 170 days. A
student who misses an average of 10 days a year beginning in pre-Kindergarten
through twelfth grade will miss 140 days of school. That adds up to almost an entire
school year that they have missed. Looking at it in that perspective, attendance
becomes increasingly important and without a solid attendance policy, it is virtually
impossible to deal with. Tardies are equally important because a student who comes
in late time after time is essentially playing catch up every day they are late.

02
of 10
Bullying Policy

Never in the history of education has it been as important as it is today to have an

effective bullying policy. Students across the globe are affected by bullying every
single day. The number of bullying incidents only continue to increase each year. We
hear about students dropping out of school or taking their lives because
of bullying all too often. Schools have to make bullying prevention and bullying
education a top priority. This starts with a strong bullying policy. If you haven't got an
anti-bullying policy or it hasn't been updated in several years it is time to address it.

03
of 10
Cell Phone Policy

Cell phones are a hot topic among school administrators. Over the last 10 years,
they have increasingly caused more and more problems. With that said, they can
also be a valuable educational tool and in a catastrophic situation, they can save
lives. It is essential that schools evaluate their cell phone policy and figure out what
will work best for their setting.

04
of 10

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Dress Code Policy

Unless your school requires your students to wear uniforms, then a dress code is
essential. Students continue to push the envelope when it comes to how they dress.
There are so many distractions that a student can cause by how they dress. Like
many of these policies, they need to be updated yearly and the community the
school is located can influence what is appropriate and what is inappropriate. Last
year a student came to school wearing bright lime green contact lenses. It was
a major distraction for the other students and so we had to ask him to remove them.
It wasn't something that we had dealt with before, but we adjusted and added to our
handbook for this year.

05
of 10
Fighting Policy

There is no denying that not every student will get along with every other student.
Conflict does happen, but it should never get physical. Too many negative things can
occur when students engage in a physical fight. Not to mention that the school could
be held liable if a student is injured severely during a fight. Big consequences are the
key to stopping fights from occurring on campus. Most students do not want to be
suspended from school for a long period of time and they especially do not want to
deal with the police. Having a policy in your student handbook that deals with
fighting with tough consequences will help deter many fights from occurring.

06
of 10
Respect Policy

I am a firm believer that when students respect teachers and teachers respect
students that it can only benefit learning. Students today as a whole aren't as
respectful adults as what they used to be. They simply aren't taught to be respectful
at home. Character education is increasingly becoming the school's responsibility.
Having a policy in place that education and demands mutual respect between both
the students and the faculty/staff can have a profound effect on your school building.
It is amazing how much more pleasant it can be and how discipline issues can be
minimized through such a simple thing of respecting one another.

07
of 10
Student Code of Conduct

Every student handbook needs a student code of conduct. The student code of
conduct will be a simple list of all the expectations that the school has for its
students. This policy should be at the front of your handbook. The student code of
conduct does not need to go into a lot of depth but instead needs to be an outline of
the things you feel are most important to maximize a student's learning potential.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

08
of 10
Student Discipline

Students need to have a list of all the possible consequences if they make a poor
choice. This list will also assist you in trying to figure out how to deal with a particular
situation. Being fair is very important as you make discipline decisions, but there are
many factors that go into that situation. If your students are educated on the possible
consequences and have access to those in their handbook, they cannot tell you that
they didn't know or that it isn't fair.

09
of 10
Student Search and Seizure Policy

There are times when you will have to search a student or a student's locker,
backpack, etc. Every administrator needs to know proper search and seizure
procedures because an improper or inappropriate search can result in legal action.
Students too should be made aware of their rights. Having a search and seizure
policy can limit any misunderstanding about a student's rights when it comes to
searching them or their possessions.

10
of 10
Substitute Policy

In my opinion, there is no job in education more daunting than that of a substitute

teacher. A substitute often does not know students very well and students take
advantage of them every opportunity they get. Administrators often deal with many
issues when substitutes are used. With that said, substitute teachers are necessary.
Having a policy in your handbook to discourage poor student behavior will help.
Educating your substitute teachers on your policies and expectations will also cut
down in discipline incidents.

• Effective Policy Formulation and Implementation in a School Community

Partnership

Roles and Competencies of School Heads

• Competencies for School Heads: The NCBSSH

http://school-principal.blogspot.com/2011/05/national-competency-based-standards-
for.html

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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

National Competency-Based Standards for School Heads (NCBS- SH)

Many teachers could be thinking and wondering why they are only the subject of a
national competency standards while their immediate superiors, the school heads
are not. But its not actually the case for like the teachers who are considered as the
heart of the school system, school heads too will be under a national competency
standards as stated in DepEd Order No. 32, s. 2010,

Guiding Principles in the Framing of the NCBS –SH

The following are the principles which guided the framing of the NCBS-SH.
• Function - based. The competencies are based on school head functions as
stated in RA 9155, related laws and DepEd policies.
• Responsive. Competencies are applicable in any range of context: big or
small school, city or rural school, culturally divergent groups.
• Impartial. These are applicable to any school head regardless of position item,
gender, age, experience and other personal circumstances.
• Coherent. These are clear and logical.
• Valid. All performance indicators are research-and experience-based.

CORE PRINCIPLE
School heads are competent, committed and accountable in providing access to
quality and relevant education for all all through transformational leadership and high
degree of professionalism.

DOMAINS AND COMPETENCY STRANDS

Domain 1. School Leadership

1.A. Developing and Communicating Vision, Mission, Goals, and Objectives

(VMGO)
• Expresses ownership and personal responses to the identified issues.
• Involves internal and external stakeholders in formulating and achieving
school vision, mission, goals and objectives.
• Expresses ownership and personal responses to the identified issues.
• Aligns goals and objectives with the school vision and mission to identified
issues.
• Gives personal response consistent with the school's vision.
• Communicates the school VMGO clearly.
• Explains the school vision to the general public.
• Revisits and ensures that school activities are aligned with the school VMGO.
1.B. Data-Based Strategic Planning
• Establishes BEIS/SIS and baseline data of all performance indicators/
involves all internal and external stakeholders in developing SIP/AlP.
• Utilizes data, e.g, BEIS/SIS,SBM assessment, TSNA, and' strategic planning
in the development of SIP/AlP.
• Aligns the SlP/AIP with national, regional and local education policies and
thrusts.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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• Communicates effectively SIP/AlP to internal and external stakeholders.

1.C. Problem Solving
• Resolves problems at the school level.
• Assists teachers and students to understand problems and identify possible
solutions.
• Analyzes causes of problems critically and objectively.
• Addresses the causes of the problem rather than the symptoms.
1.D. Building High Performance Teams
• Explores several approaches in handling problems.
• Demonstrate a proactive approach to problem solving.
• Involves stakeholders in meetings and deliberations for decision making.
• Sets high expectations and challenging goals.
• Provides opportunities for growth for growth and development of members as
team players.
• Defines roles and functions of each committee.
• Monitors and evaluates accomplishment of different committees/teams.
• Gives feedback on the team's performance using performance - based
assessment tool.
• Establishes a system for rewards and benefits for teachers and staff.
1.E. Coordinating With Others
• Collaborates with concerned staff on the planning and implementation of
programs and projects.
• Ensures proper allocation and utilization of resources (time, fiscal, human,
IMS, etc.)
• Provides feedback and updates to stakeholders on the status of progress and
completion of programs and projects.
• Mobilizes teachers/staff in sustaining a project.
1.F. Leading and Managing Change
• Maintains an open, positive and encouraging attitude toward change.
• Assists teachers in identifying strengths and growth areas through monitoring
and observation.
• Introduces innovations in the school program to achieve higher learning
outcomes.
• Monitors and evaluates the implementation of change programs included in
SIP/AlP.
• Observes and applies multi-tasking in giving assignments.
• Advocates and executes plans for changes including culture' change in the
workplace
• Empowers teachers and personnel to identify, initiate and manage changes.

Domain 2. Instructional Leadership

2.A. Assessment for Learning

• Manages the processes and procedures in monitoring student achievement
• Ensures utilization of a range of assessment processes to assess student
performance
• Assesses the effectiveness of curricular/co-curricular programs and / or
instructional strategies.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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• Utilizes assessment results to improve learning.

• Creates & manages a school process to ensure student progress is conveyed
to students and parents/guardians, regularly.
2.B.. Developing Programs and or Adopting Existing Programs
• Develops/adapts a research based school program.
• Assists in implementing an existing, coherent and responsive school-wide
curriculum
• Addresses d~ciencies and sustains successes of current programs in
collaboration with teachers, and learners
• Develops a culture of functional literacy.
2. C. Implementing Programs for Instructional Improvement
• Manages the introduction of curriculum initiatives in line with DepEd policies
(e.g. BEC, Madrasah)
• Works with teachers in curriculum review.
• Enriches curricular offerings based on local needs.
• Manages curriculum innovation and enrichment with the use of technology.
• Organizes teams to champion instructional innovation programs toward
curricular responsiveness
2.D. Instructional Supervision
• Prepares and implements an instructional supervisory plan
• Conducts Instructional Supervision using appropriate strategy
• Evaluates lesson plans as well as classroom and learning management
• Provides in a collegial manner timely, accurate and specific feedback to
teachers' regarding their performance.
• Provides expert technical assistance and instructional support to teachers.

Domain 3. Creating a Student Centered Learning Climate

3. A. Setting high social and academic expectations

• Benchmarks school performance.
• Establishes and models high social and academic expectations for all
• Creates an engaging learning environment.
• Participates in the management of learner behavior within the school and
other school related activities done outside the school.
• Supports learners desire to pursue further learning
• Recognizes high performing learners and teachers and supportive parents
and other stakeholders
3.B. Creating school environments focused on the needs of the learner
• Creates and sustains a safe, orderly, nurturing and healthy, environment.
• Provides environment that promotes use of technology among learners and
teachers.

Domain 4. HR Management and Professional Development

4.A. Creating a Professional Learning Community

• Builds a community of learners among teachers
• Assesses and analyzes the needs and interests of teachers and other school
personnel,

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• Ensures that the School Plan for Professional Development(SPPD) emerges

from the Individual Professional Plan for 'Development (IPPD) and other identified
needs of school personnel included in the SIP/AIP.
• Includes the SPPD in the SIP/AlP.
• Mentors and coaches employees and facilitates the induction of new ones
• Recognizes potential of staff and provides opportunities for professional
development
• Ensures that the objectives of the school development plan are supported
with resources for training and development programs.
• Prepares, implements, and monitors school-based INSET for all teaching staff
based on IPPD’s
• Monitors and evaluates school-based INSETs.
4.B. Recruitment and Hiring
• Utilizes the basic qualification standards and adheres to pertinent policies in
recruiting and hiring teachers/ staff
• Creates and trains School Selection and Promotion Committee and trains its
members.
• Recommends better ways and means to improve recruitment, hiring and
performance appraisal of teachers.
4.C. Managing Performance of Teachers and Staff
• Assigns teachers and other personnel to their area of Competence.
• Assists teachers and staff in setting and resetting performance goals.
• Monitors and evaluates performance of teaching and nonteaching personnel
vis-a-vis targets.
• Delegates specific tasks to help manage the performance of teaching and
non-teaching personnel.
• Coaches deputized staff as needed on managing performance.
• Creates a functional school-based performance appraisal committee.
• Assists and monitors the development of IPPD of each teacher.

Domain 5. Parents Involvement and Community Partnership

5.A. Parental Involvement

• Establishes school and family partnerships that promote student peak
performance.
• Organizes programs that involve parents and other school stakeholders to
promote learning.
• Conducts dialogues, fora, training of teachers, learners and' parents on the
welfare and improves performance of learners.
5.B. External Community Partnership
• Promotes the image of the school through school summit, State of the School
Address (SOSA), cultural shows, learners' project exhibits, fairs, etc.
• Conducts dialogues and meetings with multi-stakeholders in crafting
programs and projects.
• Participates actively in community affairs.
• Establishes sustainable linkages / partnership with other sectors, agencies
and NGOs through MOA/ MOU or using Adopt-a-School Program policies.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Domain 6. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION

6.A. Managing School Operations

• Manages the implementation, monitoring and review of the SIP/AlP and other
action plans.
• Establishes and maintains specific programs to meet needs of identified target
groups.
• Takes the lead in the design of a school physical plant facilities improvement
plan in consultation with an expert.
• Allocates/prioritizes funds for improvement and maintenance of school
physical facilities and equipments.
• Oversees school operations and care and use of school facilities according to
set guidelines.
• Institutionalizes best practices in managing and monitoring school operations
thereby creating a safe, secure and clean learning environment.
• Assigns/ hires appropriate support personnel to manage school operations.
6.B. Fiscal Management
• Prepares a financial management plan.
• Develops a-school budget which is consistent with SIP/AIP.
• Generates and mobilizes financial resources.
• Manages school resources in accordance with DepEd policies and accounting
and auditing rules and regulations and other pertinent guidelines.
• Accepts donations, gifts, bequests and grants in accordance with RA 9155.
• Manages a process for the registration, maintenance and replacement of
school assets and dispositions of non-reusable properties.
• Organizes a procurement committee and ensures that the official procurement
process is followed.
• Utilizes funds for approved school programs and projects as reflected in
SIP/AlP.
• Monitors utilization, recording and reporting of funds
• Accounts for school fund.
• Prepares financial reports and submits / communicates the same to higher
education authorities and other education partners.
6.C. Use of Technology in the Management of Operations
• Applies Information Technology (IT) plans for online communication
• Uses IT to facilitate the operationalization of the school management system
(e.g. school information system, student tracking system, personnel information
system)
• Uses IT to access Teacher Support Materials (TSM), Learning support
Materials (LSM) and assessment tools in accordance with the guidelines.
• Shares with other school heads the school's experience in the use of new
technology.

DOMAIN 7. Personal and Professional Attributes and Interpersonal Effectiveness

7.A. Professionalism
• Manifests genuine enthusiasm and pride in the nobility of the teaching
profession.

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

• Observes and demonstrates desirable personal and professional (RA 6713 &
Code of Ethics RA 7836) behaviors like respect, honesty, dedication, patriotism and
genuine concern for others at all times.
• Maintains harmonious relations with superiors, colleagues, subordinates,
learners, parents and other stakeholders.
• Makes appointments, promotions and transfers on the bases of merit and
needs in the interest of the service.
• Maintains good reputation with respect to financial, matters such as the
settlement of his/her debts, loans and other financial affairs.
• Develops programs and projects for continuing personal and professional
development including moral recovery and values formation among teaching and
non-teaching personnel.
7.B. Communication
• Communicates effectively to staff and other stakeholders in both oral and
written forms.
• Listens to stakeholders' needs and concerns and responds appropriately in
consideration of the political, social, legal and cultural context.
7.C. Interpersonal Sensitivity
• Interacts appropriately with a variety of audiences.
• Demonstrates ability to empathize with others.
7.D. Fairness, Honesty and Integrity
• Observes Award System and a system of assistance for teachers staff to
sustain integrity, honesty and fairness in all school practices.
• Demonstrates integrity, honesty and fairness all his/her dealings and
transactions.
• Makes individuals accountable for their actions.
With these standards, teachers would no longer envy their school heads as to the
volume of work and responsibility they are expected to perform.

This national competency standards too will ensure the continuing flow of dedicated
and passionate applicants to the school heads position and not those wishy washy
type whos primary and common agenda is to have higher pay, prestige, and easy
work as formerly perceived by many of a school head position.

(This material is based on the attachment to a Division Memorandum No. 141, s.

2010 dated June 1, 2010 of the City Schools Division of Marikina as stumbled upon
by The Learning Captain through google search. Take note that, the presentation is
identical with NCBTS and so it is expected that the process of rating is the same.)

• Competency Framework for Southeast Asian School Heads, 2014 Edition

Competency Framework for Southeast Asian School Heads

https://www.seameo-innotech.org/seameo-innotech-develops-the-competency-
framework-for-southeast-asian-school-heads/

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

In 2003, the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Center

for Educational Innovation and Technology (SEAMEO INNOTECH) developed the
Competency Framework for Southeast Asian School Heads. The competency
framework was envisioned to provide a common foundation for defining what skills
and attributes are needed of school heads in order to effectively carry out their roles,
and lead their schools to excellence and success. Since then, the framework had
been used as basis for INNOTECH’s program offerings for school heads in the
region.

Ten years after, SEAMEO INNOTECH undertook the challenge of reviewing and
updating the competency framework to make sure that it remains responsive to the
changing contexts and needs of school heads as well as the communities they
serve. Accordingly, a consultative and participatory process that spanned nine
months (October 2012 and February to September 2013) and covered 9 countries
(Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand,
and Vietnam) was undertaken. The process took into account views and responses
of agood number and mix of school heads and stakeholders composed of ministry of
education officials, teachers, students, parents, and education experts from all over
the region. The result is the Competency Framework for Southeast Asian School
Heads (2014 Edition) comprised of five competency domains, 16 general
competencies, 42 enabling competencies, and 170 indicators. The five general
competencies were ranked by the participants in terms of their importance,
frequency of performance, and amount of training school heads would need the most
as follows:

(1) Strategic Thinking and Innovation

(2) Managerial Leadership
(3) Instructional Leadership
(4) Personal Excellence
(5) Stakeholder Engagement.

The competency framework is intended to be a basis for the development of

SEAMEO INNOTECH’s capacity-building initiatives for Southeast Asian school
heads. It doesnot replace, but rather complements, existing regional and national
standards.

Ministry of education officials may find the framework an important and useful
benchmark. School heads may find it useful in keeping themselves informed of the
competencies that they need in order to successfully perform their role as school
heads in Southeast Asia.

Here’s the link to the Competency Framework for Southeast Asian School Heads
(2014)

In 2015, SEAMEO INNOTECH developed a learning guide which will facilitate the
use of the competency framework for the professional growth and development of
high-performing school heads in Southeast Asia. Training personnel from the
ministries of education may also find it useful in developing capacity- building

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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

programs for their school heads. To expand its reach and maximize its usability, the
learning guide was translated in other Southeast Asian languages. The guide can be
downloaded for free in English, Burmese, Thai Kadai, Vietnamese, Thai, and Khmer.

• Domains and Competencies for School Heads in Southeast Asia

o Instructional Leadership
Instructional Leadership Skills: Definition and Examples
March 13, 2020
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/instructional-leadership

If you're interested in pursuing an educational career, such as becoming a principal,

it's important to understand what skills you'll need to succeed in the position.
Instructional leadership skills help principals provide support and resources to
teachers to enable them to deliver more effective lessons. It's valuable to know that
while instructional leadership involves many routine tasks like budgeting, scheduling
and going to meetings, the bulk of an instructional leader's job is to connect with
those they're responsible for mentoring and collaborate with them for the overall
benefit of a school and its students.

In this article, we explain everything you need to know about being a great
instructional leader to help you expand your skills.

What are instructional leadership skills?

Instructional leadership skills are the traits possessed by effective educational
leaders to inspire action and optimism. These leaders set an example for others by
treating people fairly and making an impression with their honesty and integrity.
Effective leaders are supportive of those around them and provide inspiration to
achieve individual and collective goals. They use their excellent communication skills
to gather feedback, ask for ideas and make informed decisions regarding the
processes of the educational institutions they run.

Instructional leadership is most commonly associated with school principals who

manage curriculums, budgeting and scheduling and are responsible for the success
of each student in their schools. These individuals often strive to empower teachers
to become leaders themselves, distributing the weight of the school's responsibilities
more equitably and providing a model of teamwork for students to look up to. This
method of leadership in education became popular in the '80s and '90s and
continues to evolve based on societal and educational needs.

Related: Learning Styles for Career Development

Examples of instructional leadership skills

Instructional leadership skills and effective teaching are directly related to the
success of the students in a classroom setting. An instructional leader advocates for
effective teaching by providing clarity and support for teachers as well as procuring
the necessary resources to maximize teaching effectiveness. Some specific skills
related to instructional leadership include:

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

• Communication skills
• Effective planning
• Trustworthiness
• Competence
• Team building and collaboration
• Optimism
• Interaction with parents

Communication skills
Verbal and written communication skills are essential to leadership success. An
instructional leader must be able to effectively communicate their intentions
regarding students' education. This may involve emails and other written
communication, or it could mean holding meetings with teachers to set goals and
assess lesson plans.

Effective planning
An instructional leader's ability to research and provide necessary resources
improves learning and allows teachers to be more effective at their jobs. For
example, a principal may adopt new technology for teaching tools and for overseeing
staff initiatives, and this process requires planning. Instructional leaders must be able
to maintain a balance between procedure and adaptability in order to support
creativity and innovative teaching in their schools.

Trustworthiness
A positive and fair leader easily earns the trust of their staff, allowing the staff to look
to the leader in good times as well as challenging times. A good instructional leader
is able to remain calm and fair during a discussion where people present opposing
ideas, weighing the merits and drawbacks of each while gathering feedback from
other members of staff who would be affected by any changes in plans. An
instructional leader's balanced judgment leads their teachers to trust and respect
them, and this trust helps build a united educational community.

Competence
Teachers rely on instructional leaders for information associated with instructional
methods, current trends in education and other pertinent news related to effective
teaching. Additionally, principals are expected to be a visible representation of
positivity and transparency in the institution, leading by example and focusing on
important learning objectives to promote innovations in teaching.

Related: 10 Common Leadership Styles

Team building and collaboration

As the role ultimately responsible for the success of a school, an instructional leader
must be adept at uniting the staff and students to further the creation of new ideas
and teaching methods. They must be able to create a dependable team that works
together to create a more effective and positive learning environment.

Optimism

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Telefax: (084)655-9591

Staff and students often adopt the disposition of their leader, so an instructional
leader must maintain a positive attitude regardless of their current situation. The
more upbeat and excited a leader is, the more this attitude spreads to teachers and
students, creating an overall environment of positivity. This is also true when
providing encouragement, rewarding a good job and focusing on the success and
happiness of teachers, students and the institution as a whole.

Interaction with parents

Instructional leaders recognize the importance of a parent's role in the success of
their child and the cumulative effect on the success of the school. Principals are able
to identify family members as a critical resource for important events such as
fundraisers and extracurricular activities. To get parents excited about participating in
these events, principals sometimes choose to host workshops or meetings so that
parents can become familiar with each other as well as with teachers and school
policies. It also provides them with opportunities to offer their input and ideas to
improve the learning environment for their children.

How to improve instructional leadership skills

Consider following these tips to help improve your instructional leadership skills:

1. Conduct formal observations at regular intervals. Increase the frequency

of formal classroom observations you conduct each year, aiming for at least
three per teacher. Create a schedule to help you complete them effectively
and efficiently.
2. Provide helpful feedback. Upon completing a scheduled classroom
observation, take the time to provide at least one suggestion for improvement
balanced with praise for something the teacher did successfully. Give clear
examples and suggest techniques they can implement. Showing your staff that
there is no perfect evaluation can help keep them motivated to create
inspirational lessons.
3. Establish realistic expectations. Developing a consistent and transparent
set of expectations can provide teachers with a guide to help them
continuously create effective lesson plans. After you establish your
expectations, maintain communication with the teachers to ensure they
understand what to do and how to improve, if necessary.
4. Keep learning. Continuing to learn about teaching techniques can make you a
stronger mentor for your staff. Attend conferences focused on topics that relate
to your staff's concerns or your role as a leader. As you come across research
that is relevant to your own facility, take note, adapt it and apply it to your next
round of observational suggestions.
5. Be a role model. Make it known to your teachers that you are willing to do
everything that you ask of them. This can mean helping to integrate new
technology into a classroom or working with a teacher to create better tests.
You might consider teaching a class of your own or substituting for an absent
teacher to better understand what your teachers go through on a daily basis.
Not only does this make you more relatable, but it also allows you to approach
challenges with a more well-rounded mindset.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Related: Setting Goals to Improve Your Career

Instructional leadership in the workplace

Here are some tips to strengthen instructional leadership in the workplace:

• Have a clear vision for your school. Set specific goals for your institution,
and make sure they're clearly explained to your faculty and that they reflect a
common set of values that all staff can agree on. Also, collaborate with your
faculty to communicate the school's goals with the students, asking for
feedback in ways to make the students feel the most comfortable.
• Recognize individual strengths. Recognize the different ways students
learn, and try to pay attention to how teachers are teaching. If they're teaching
in a way that reaches some students but not others, work with the teachers to
ensure the best learning experience for every student. This is your opportunity
to recognize students' diversity.
• Maintain communication with teachers. Make a concentrated effort to ask
questions regarding teachers' lesson plans, assessment methods, teaching
methods and more. Asking questions like this helps teachers grow and
advance their skills, which ultimately benefits the students' learning
experiences. You can also ask the teachers questions that help stimulate their
creativity in teaching, such as how they determine the success of a lesson,
how they present new challenges at different learning levels and what they
might consider changing the next time they teach a lesson.
• Encourage continued learning. Leading a learning community involves
encouraging teachers to pursue additional educational opportunities to
strengthen the effectiveness of their teaching methods. You can also hold
regular meetings to share newly discovered knowledge with them and request
their insights on how the school can use new or updated information to
enhance the educational experience of students.

How to highlight instructional leadership skills

In order to obtain a position as a school principal or another similar role, you need to
highlight the instructional leadership skills you've accumulated in a way that shows
their relationship to the job you're applying for. Choosing which skills to highlight can
be easier when you read through the job description and pick out a few that are
relevant to your own experiences. This can give the employer an idea of the value
you could bring to their school or company. The following tips can help you highlight
your best skills to impress hiring managers:

On your resume
As mentioned above, read the job posting carefully, and take note of the skills and
requirements listed so that you can include them in your resume. Match them with
your own instructional leadership skills, and explain how they are relevant to what
the employer expects. For example, if the employer lists leadership skills in the job
posting, you can include that skill in the skills section of your resume and then
explain how you ran your last school effectively in the work experience section.

In your cover letter

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

In your cover letter, describe your past accomplishments using your instructional
leadership skills, making it clear how these skills contributed to those successes. If
possible, use an example that closely relates to the employer's business in order to
show them how you can help improve the success rates of their organization's future
efforts.

During an interview
When interviewers ask about your specific instructional leadership skills, use them to
quantify your accomplishments. For example, if you're asked about your ability to
collaborate, you could provide examples in which you worked with your team to
increase test scores by a certain percentage, or an example of a time you
collaborated with faculty and parents to raise funds for the school. You can also
describe the progression of your skills as you've moved through your career and
gained practical experience.

o Administrative Leadership

Administrative Leadership: What Is It? Why Is It Important? And How

Does It Connect to CLASS?
02 May 2016 by Mary-Margaret Gardiner
LEADERSHIP AND POLICY
Over the past few months, the McCormick Center has been discussing the concept
of whole leadership. While I encourage you to read through the whole series, one
article in the series stuck out to me in particular, Administrative Leadership: What Is
It? Why Is It Important? by Teri Talan.
This article was really interesting to me—especially when I dusted off my old center
director hat and thought about how much CLASS would have benefited me when I
managed a large hospital-based center, or multiple sites for a private, for-profit
center. I started thinking about how CLASS could relate to administrative leadership,
and the parallels formed in my mind.
Many of us find ourselves in a leadership position with little preparation or
experience that can build and sustain a program. I was a teacher and found myself
promoted to the director position, and when I got there I had a lot to learn! How could
CLASS have helped me all those years ago? The tool would have given me a way to
provide real feedback to my staff-feedback that was relevant, realistic, and
measurable. It reminds me of the importance of an emotionally supportive
relationship, organized structure, and thoughtful and intentional conversations with
my staff—to truly build their practice.
Additionally, I could have used the data from observations to see where my staff was
the strongest during the day and planned my staffing patterns—and other supports—
around this information. Would things go smoother if I had an extra staff person help
with meals and routines so the teachers had less stress and more opportunity to
interact positively? Would providing some resources around open-ended play build
my staff’s regard for the children’s perspective?
I could have used CLASS data to show my funders that using the power of CLASS
actually can change the outcomes for children, while helping teachers find ways to

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
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Telefax: (084)655-9591

enhance their interactions and find the joy in teaching again. That investment in high
quality care can benefit us all!
Both types of leadership, operational and strategic, really do fit together, and they
also speak to the CLASS construct and the data-driven opportunities for growth
I’d be really interested in hearing your thoughts on Teri’s insightful post below!

Administrative Leadership: What Is It? Why Is It Important?

by Teri Talan
APRIL 4, 2016
http://info.teachstone.com/blog/administrative-leadership-what-is-it-why-is-it-
important-and-how-does-it-connect-to-class

READ MORE FROM THE WHOLE LEADERSHIP BLOG SERIES

Reading over the series of blog posts and comments on Whole Leadership, I am
struck by the level of engagement the discussion has evoked. Clearly,
deconstructing program leadership and exploring leadership essentials are topics
that resonate. However, I am taking the discussion in a new direction—a
consideration of administrative leadership. My hope is that this aspect or domain of
Whole Leadership can be equally thought-provoking.
My colleague, Mike Abel offered this description of administrative leadership in
an earlier post:
Administrative leadership is about orchestrating tasks (and often includes
mobilizing people) to develop and sustain an early childhood organization.
Successful administrative leaders are able to establish systems that protect and
sustain essential operational functions to meet the needs of children and families.
There are at least two important aspects of administrative leadership—operational
leadership and strategic leadership. Operational leadership is accomplished through
activities like hiring and supporting staff, overseeing budgets, and maintaining a
positive workplace climate. Strategic leadership involves guiding the direction of an
early childhood organization with the future in mind. Strategic leaders clarify
purpose, inspire individuals to pursue a shared vision, and ensure that goals and
outcomes are attained.
I really like this description for a couple of reasons. First, it makes it clear that
orchestrating the work of teaching and learning, mobilizing staff to achieve child and
program outcomes, and establishing systems to effectively run a healthy, thriving
organization are indeed leadership functions. In our field of early care and education,
these responsibilities are typically characterized as management functions and are
less valued than leadership functions. Instead of thinking of this important work as
management (and therefore less important than leadership), let’s claim it for what
it really is—administrative leadership.
Second, the above description of administrative leadership includes both operational
and strategic leadership dimensions. One of the responders to an earlier post asked
about advocacy and where it fits in the Whole Leadership framework. I believe that
advocacy is a part of strategic leadership. In my experience, effective
administrative leaders engage in advocacy because they are future oriented;
they want to have influence on external conditions that impact their programs, not
just react to them.

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Finally, I believe that pedagogical and administrative leadership are like the
double strands that form the DNA helix. They are in a constant relationship to
each other, separate but connected. The most qualified teachers cannot be effective
in their work with children and families if their work environments (including
supervisor support, opportunities for professional growth, decision making,
collegiality, rewards and recognition, role clarity, task orientation, innovativeness,
and physical environment) do not adequately support them. Administrative
leadership is important because without it, pedagogical leadership cannot be
sustained and children and families will be poorly-served.
Let us know your thoughts on administrative leadership. Do you agree that this
is the right term? Is there a critical connection that needs further exploration between
administrative leadership and instructional or pedagogical leadership? I am hoping
you are provoked!

Types of Leadership in School Administration

KATHERINE BRADLEY
https://classroom.synonym.com/types-educational-leadership-theories-8169633.html

The school administrator is the linchpin for success in the educational environment.
It is difficult to determine which leadership style or combination of styles is most
effective in education. Leadership styles and leadership theories vary, intersect and
overlap. The manifestation of a particular leadership style and its effectiveness is
often determined by the leadership qualities of the leader, the type of organization,
and/or the goal of the organization. Transactional leadership, transformational
leadership, shared leadership, classical leadership and many others have been
studied and defined to develop a better understanding of effective leadership. (See
Reference 4.)

1Administrative Leadership

Administrative leadership is a leadership style that focuses on accountability,

bureaucracy management, and enforcing rules, procedural regulations and
administrative chores. (See Reference 1.) In this age of accountability, it is easy to
understand how an administrator might rely heavily on this leadership style. School
administrators are held accountable for the academic and behavioral climate of the
school and the impact that those concepts have on the performance of the school as
a whole.

2Instructional Leadership

Instructional leadership is manifested by a principal whose actions are directed at the

ultimate goals of student growth, high expectations and academic excellence. This
type of leadership is focused on curriculum development and alignment, monitoring
and evaluating teachers and the allocation of resources for optimal instruction. (See

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Reference 2.) The success of this type of leadership is measured solely on the
instructional growth and health of the school.

3Shared Leadership

Shared leadership is an informal leadership style that is based on the embodiment of

ownership, learning and sharing and is sometimes aligned in theory with
"democratic" leadership. (See Reference 3.) The success of this type of leadership
hinges on the ability of the leader to establish a cohesiveness among human
resources personnel and to get them to accept being a part of the leadership ring.
The underlying theory is that the collaborative leadership that uses all available
human resources, engages shared perspectives and solutions, and is more
comprehensive is therefore more effective.

4Classical Leadership

In contrast to shared leadership, classical leadership is more formal and is

hierarchical in design. There exists a distinct division between leaders and followers.
(See Reference 3.) These leaders lead and expect others to follow. They are goal-
oriented, concern themselves with high productivity and focus on engaging those in
their charge to the organizational goal. (See Reference 4.)

https://classroom.synonym.com/types-educational-leadership-theories-8169633.html

Administrative Leadership
Administrative leadership is a leadership style that focuses on accountability,
bureaucracy management, and enforcing rules, procedural regulations and
administrative chores. (See Reference 1.) In this age of accountability, it is easy to
understand how an administrator might rely heavily on this leadership style. School
administrators are held accountable for the academic and behavioral climate of the
school and the impact that those concepts have on the performance of the school as
a whole.

Instructional Leadership
Instructional leadership is manifested by a principal whose actions are directed at the
ultimate goals of student growth, high expectations and academic excellence. This
type of leadership is focused on curriculum development and alignment, monitoring
and evaluating teachers and the allocation of resources for optimal instruction. (See
Reference 2.) The success of this type of leadership is measured solely on the
instructional growth and health of the school.

Shared Leadership
Shared leadership is an informal leadership style that is based on the embodiment of
ownership, learning and sharing and is sometimes aligned in theory with
"democratic" leadership. (See Reference 3.) The success of this type of leadership
hinges on the ability of the leader to establish a cohesiveness among human

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Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

resources personnel and to get them to accept being a part of the leadership ring.
The underlying theory is that the collaborative leadership that uses all available
human resources, engages shared perspectives and solutions, and is more
comprehensive is therefore more effective.

Classical Leadership
In contrast to shared leadership, classical leadership is more formal and is
hierarchical in design. There exists a distinct division between leaders and followers.
(See Reference 3.) These leaders lead and expect others to follow. They are goal-
oriented, concern themselves with high productivity and focus on engaging those in
their charge to the organizational goal. (See Reference 4.)

Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:

• https://www.slideshare.net/zarmeendurrani/culture-as-social-construction-
75738136
• http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/59222/1/Franks_Social-construction-evolution-
cultural-universals_2014.pdf
• https://k12engagement.unl.edu/strategy-
briefs/School%20Climate%20&%20Culture%202-6-16_1.pdf
• https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1236099.pdf
• https://www.slideshare.net/SandyJohnstone/shared-
norms#:~:text=Level%202The%20teacher%20maintains%20a,are%20r
eferenced%20to%20school%20values.&text=Level%204%20The%20te
acher%20refers,with%20them%20for%20reinforcing%20protocols.
• https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/wp-
content/uploads/pdf_case_studies/ics_norms.pdf
• https://www.slideshare.net/DepEdNEAP/deped-national-
competencybased-standards-for-school-heads-50954270
• https://prezi.com/vt6qpjydconp/competency-framework-for-southeast-
asian-school-heads/
• https://www.seameo.org/SEAMEOWeb2/images/stories/Publications/Ce
nters_pub/2012TeachingCompetencyStandards/TeachingCompetencyS
td.pdf
• https://www.naesp.org/sites/default/files/J-F_p34.pdf
• https://msu.edu/~chenhaom/inter/uschina/pdf/leadership_research_brief
.pdf
• https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-school-community-definition-
members.html
• https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/33425669.pdf

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Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Let’s Check
Activity1.Elaborate the following ways to develop a positive school culture.

1. Planning a bridge program for new students and staff.

_________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________
2. Making school-wide goals visible.
_________________________________________________________
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3. Keeping a loyal opposition.
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4. Establishing collaborative networks.
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5. Holding school-wide rallies and assemblies.
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Let’s Analyze

Activity 1. Getting acquainted with the essential terms in the study of Positive
School Culture, School Policies and Their Functions, and Roles and Competencies
of School Heads is not enough, what also matters is you should also be able to
explain its inter-relationships. Now, I will require you to explain thoroughly your
answers.

1. How do the changes in society pose challenges to a school’s culture?

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______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
2. Why is Culture considered as a Social Construct?
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______________________________________________________________

3. What is the Role of School Culture in Learning?

______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________

4. How importantare Policies in School Education Ecosystem?

______________________________________________________________
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In a Nutshell
Activity 1. The study of the Positive School Culture, School Policies and Their
Functions, and Roles and Competencies is indeed essential for every individual to
value since they are the emerging arts in our century. Based from the definition of
the most essential terms in the study Positive School Culture, School Policies and
Their Functions, and Roles and Competencies and the learning exercises that you
have done, please feel free to write your arguments or lessons learned below. I
have indicated my arguments or lessons learned.

1. School culture and policies are very essential to instructional learning.

2. School heads should not only be brilliant but also competent and competitive.

Your Turn
3.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

4.

5.

Q&A List

Do you have any question for clarification?

Questions/Issues Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

Course Schedule
Please be mindful of the schedules below to avoid future problems in complying with
your requirements

Activity Date Where to submit

Big Picture A: ULOa Let’s Check
August 20, 2020 CF’s email
and Analyze Activities
Big Picture A: ULOa In a Nutshell August 22, 2020 CF’s email
Big Picture A: ULOa Q and A List August 24, 2020 via Zoom app
First Examination September 4,
Quipper LMS
2020
Big Picture B: ULOa Let’s Check September 8,
CF’s email
and Analyze Activities 2020
Big Picture B: ULOa In a Nutshell September 12,
CF’s email
2020
Big Picture B: ULOa Q and A List September 16,
via Zoom app
2020
Second Examination September 18,
Quipper LMS
2020
Big Picture C: ULOa Let’s Check September 22,
2020 CF’s email
and Analyze Activities
Big Picture C: ULOa In a Nutshell September 25,
2020 CF’s email
Big Picture C: ULOa Q and A List September 28,
via Zoom app
2020
Third Examination October 2, 2020 Quipper LMS
Big Picture D: ULOa Let’s Check
October 8, 2020 CF’s email
and Analyze Activities
Big Picture D: ULOa In a Nutshell October 9, 2020 CF’s email
Big Picture D: ULOa Q and A List October 13, 2020 via Zoom app
October 15-16,
Final Examination Quipper LMS
2020

Please note that this schedule may change from time to time. It is advisable that you
always keep in contact with your teacher for updates and always check your LMS or
Group Chat rooms.

Online Code of Conduct

• All teachers/Course Coordinators and students are expected to abide by an

honor code of conduct, and thus everyone and all are exhorted to exercise self-
management and self-regulation.
• Faculty members are guided by utmost professional conduct as learning
facilitators in holding DED conduct. Any breach and violation shall be dealt with
properly under existing guidelines, specifically on social media conduct (OPM
21.15) and personnel discipline (OPM 21.11).

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

• All students are likewise guided by professional conduct as learners in attending

DED courses. Any breach and violation shall be dealt with properly under existing
guidelines, specifically in Section 7 (Student Discipline) in the Student Handbook.
• Professional conduct refers to the embodiment and exercise of the University’s
Core Values, specifically in the adherence to intellectual honesty and integrity;
academic excellence by giving due diligence in virtual class participation in all
lectures and activities, as well as fidelity in doing and submitting performance
tasks and assignments; personal discipline in complying with all deadlines; and
observance of data privacy.
• Plagiarism is a serious intellectual crime and shall be dealt with accordingly. The
University shall institute monitoring mechanisms online to detect and penalize
plagiarism.
• All borrowed materials uploaded by the teachers/Course Coordinators shall be
properly acknowledged and cited; the teachers/Course Coordinators shall be
professionally and personally responsible for all the materials uploaded in the
online classes or published in SIM/SDL manuals.
• Teachers/Course Coordinators shall devote time to handle DED courses and
shall honestly exercise due assessment of student performance.
• Teachers/Course Coordinators shall never engage in quarrels with students
online. While contentions intellectual discussions are allowed, the
teachers/Course Coordinators shall take the higher ground in facilitating and
moderating these discussions. Foul, lewd, vulgar and discriminatory languages
are absolutely prohibited.
• Students shall independently and honestly take examinations and do
assignments, unless collaboration is clearly required or permitted. Students shall
not resort to dishonesty to improve the result of their assessments (e.g.
examinations, assignments).
• Students shall not allow anyone else to access their personal LMS account.
Students shall not post or share their answers, assignment or examinations to
others to further academic fraudulence online.
• By handling DED courses, teachers/Course Coordinators agree and abide by all
the provisions of the Online Code of Conduct, as well as all the requirements and
protocols in handling online courses.
• By enrolling in DED courses, students agree and abide by all the provisions of
the Online Code of Conduct, as well as all the requirements and protocols in
handling online courses.

Monitoring of OBD and DED

• The Deans, Asst. Deans, Discipline Chairs and Program Heads shall be
responsible in monitoring the conduct of their respective DED classes through the
LMS. The LMS monitoring protocols shall be followed, i.e. monitoring of the
conduct of Teacher Activities (Views and Posts) with generated utilization graphs
and data. Individual faculty PDF utilization reports shall be generated and
consolidated by program and by department.
• The Academic Affairs and Academic Planning & Services shall monitor the
conduct of LMS sessions. The Academic Vice Presidents and the Deans shall

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 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION
BEED Program
Mabini Street, Tagum City
Davao del Norte
Telefax: (084)655-9591

collaborate to conduct virtual CETA by randomly joining LMS classes to check

and review online the status and interaction of the faculty and the students.
• For DED, the Deans and Program Heads shall come up with monitoring
instruments, taking into consideration how the programs go about the conduct of
DED classes. Consolidated reports shall be submitted to Academic Affairs for
endorsement to the Chief Operating Officer.

Course prepared

LADY LOU C. PIDO, MALT

Course Faculty/Facilitator

Course reviewed by:

MONALISA O. CHAGAS, EdD

BSED Program Head

Approved by:

GINA FE G. ISRAEL, EdD

Dean of College

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