M echanics offracture

VOLUME 1

Methods of analysis and solutions of crack problems

M echanics offracture
edited by GEORGE C. SIR

VOLUME 1

Methods of analysis and solutions of crack problems

Mechanics of fracture 1

Methods of analysis and

solutions of crack problems
R~cent developments in fracture mechanics
Theory and methods of solving crack problems

Edited by

G. C. SIR
Professor of Mechanics and
Director of the Institute of
Fracture and Solid M echanics

Lehigh University
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

© 1973 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Noordhoff International Publishing, Leyden, The Netherlands in 1973

Ali rights reserved. N o part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission
of the copyright owner.

ISBN 978-90-481-8246-6 ISBN 978-94-017-2260-5 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-2260-5

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 72-76784

 Contents

Introduction to aseries on mechanics of fracture IX

Editor's preface XIV
Contributing authors XIX

Introductory chapter
A special theory of crack propagation G. C. Sih XXI

Chapter 1

Solutions of plane crack problems by mapplng techniques

O. L. Bowie

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Complex variable formulation 2
1.3 Crack problems and conformal mapping 13
1.4 Method of polynomial approximation 20
1.5 An unconventional application of mapping to edge cracks and
notches in semi-infinite regions 26
1.6 The modified mapping-collocation (MMC) method 29
1.7 Several applications of the MMC method 38
1.8 Summary 46
1.9 Appendix 48

Chapter 2

Method of Laurent se ries expansion for internal crack

problems M. I sida

2.1 Introduction 56
2.2 Longitudinal shear 57
VI Contents

2.3 Plane problems 70

2.4 Plate bending 96
2.5 Applicability of the method 99
2.6 Appendix I: Coefficients of the free crack relations 101
2.7 Appendix II: Comparison of the present results with c10sed
form solutions 108
2.8 Appendix III: Stress-intensity factor for tension of infinite strip
with eccentric internal crack 109
2.9 Appendix IV: Other numerical results of F().) 111

Chapter 3

Asymptotic approximations to crack problems

J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

3.1 Introduction 131

3.2 Basic plane problems 133
3.3 Basic anti-plane problems 146
3.4 Basic space problems 148
3.5 Strip problems 152
3.6 Crack configurations in a plane or half-space 162
3.7 Cylindrical bars 170

Chapter 4

Alternating method applied to edge and surface crack

problems R. J. Hartranft and G. C. Sih
4.1 Introduction 179
4.2 Edge crack problem 182
4.3 Surface crack problem 200
4.4 Future applications: semi-elliptical crack 227
4.5 Appendix 229
Contents VII

Chapter 5

Field singularities and related integral expressIons

H. F. Bueckner
5.1 Introduction 239
5.2 Analysis by field continuation 242
5.3 Fundamental fields and weight functions 257
5.4 Integral equations for various configurations 271
5.5 Special fields in three dimensions 285
5.6 Appendix I: Some lemmas on Taylor and Laurent expansions 303
5.7 Appendix 11: Weight functions and stress-intensity factors 306

Chapter 6

Integral transform methods I. N. Sneddon

6.1 Introduction 315

6.2 The Griffith crack problem as a mixed boundary value problem 315
6.3 Griffith cracks with more complicated geometries 319
6.4 External cracks 341
6.5 Star-shaped and criciform shaped cracks 343
6.6 Circular cracks 350
6.7 Cracks in stress fields with body forces 363
6.8 Cracks under shear· 366

Chapter 7

Numerical solution of singular integral equations

F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook
7.1 Introduction 368
7.2 Singular integral equations of the first kind 372
7.3 Solution by Gaussian integration formulas 375
7.4 Solution by Jacobi polynomials 382
7.5 Examples 384
7.6 Singular integral equations of the second kind 398
7.7 Solutions by Jacobi polynomials 400
VIII Contents

7.8 Examples 402

7.9 Singular integral equations with generalized Cauchy kerneis 414
7.10 Solution by Gauss-Jacobi Integration formulas 418
7.11 Example 420

Chapter 8

Application ofthe finite element method to the ca1culation

of stress intensity factors P. D. Hilton and G. C. Sih

8.1 Introduction 426

8.2 Some aspects of the finite element method 426
8.3 Basic equations of linear fracture mechanics 431
8.4 Conventional finite element method applied to crack problems 433
8.5 Finite element method with embedded singularity 437
8.6 Finite element procedures for infinite regions 452
8.7 Convergence and accuracy of the embedded singularity finite
element approach 455
8.8 An alternative finite element approach to crack problems 456
8.9 Elastic-plastic crack analysis 460
8.10 Appendix: Elastic stress intensity factor solutions 477

Chapter 9

Finite element methods for elastic bodies containing

cracks W. K. Wilson

9.1 Introduction 484

9.2 Analysis with conventional finite elements 487
9.3 Estimates based on near tip solution 488
9.4 Energy method 494
9.5 Extension of method 497
9.6 Special elements with embedded crack tips 498
9.7 Special elements with nodal point at crack tip 506
9.8 Comparison of some elements 510
9.9 Appendix: Stiffness matrix oftriangular crack tip (SST) element 513
 Introduction to aseries on mechanics
offracture

The main objective of this se ries is to present a unified view of the many
different branches offracture mechanics with emphasis placed on the applica-
ti on of the theory to engineering problems. With the large quantity of
accumulated research results and the stilllarger quantity being generated,
it has be co me necessary to develop a coherent presentation of these research
findings. Each volume will concentrate on a subject of fundamental nature
and contain several chapters written by experts in their own areas of special-
ization. In this way the research materials on timely subjects are carefully
synthesized and made available to the newcomers and practitioners of
fracture mechanics in a relatively short period of time.
The subject matter in this series will cover the experimental and theoretical,
the static and dynamic, and the microscopic and macroscopic. Attempts
will be made to integrate the atomistic and continuum approaches as well as
to bridge the gap between laboratory measurements and structural design.
, It is generally agreed that the vast amount of fracture data collected on
metals, polymers, composites, etc., still remains as laboratory information.
The rational procedure for incorporating them in the design of structures
such as bridges and aircraft remains to be worked out. Because of the
interdisciplinary nature of this field which inc1udes chemists, physicists,
metallurgists, mechanical engineers, civil engineers, and others, misconcep-
tions of the basic idea and inconsistencies in the applications of the theory
cannot be avoided. Conference proceedings and journal publications are
not the best vehic1es for settling these ~ifferences since the opinions of the
individual contributors are often diversified and many readers are not made
aware of the discredited speculations. In this series, I intend to present a
refreshed outlook on the theory of fracture mechanics. To accomplish this
ambitious goal, I will need a great deal ofhelp as well as understanding from
my colleagues.
I will now attempt to show the desirability of a careful review of the present-
day version of fracture mechanics. There is no doubt that the theoretical
foundation of the fracture theory based on continuum mechanics should be
credited to A. A. Griffith. In his second paper (1924), Griffith raised a
x 1ntroduction to aseries

question concerning his calculation (1921) of the change in strain energy

~W of an elastic plate due to the presence of a crack. He claimed that the
1921 version of
n(J2 a 2 v
~W = 9 (1921) (1)
E
is in error since according to his own words
... the expression used for the stresses gave values at injinity dijj"ering from
the postulated unijorm stress at infinity by an amount which, though infinites-
imal, yet made a finite contribution to the energy when integrated round the
infinite boundary. This dijjiculty has been overcome by slightly modijying
the express ions jor the stresses so as to make this contribution to the energy
vanish.
Griffith modified his original result to
2 2
~W = n(J~ a , (1924) (2)

where E is the Y oung's modulus, (J 9 the uniform stress and a the half crack
length. No mathematical details were given by Griffith. While the difference
between equations (1) and (2) lies only in the Poisson's ratio v, it has far
reaching physical implications. This discrepancy has caused a great deal of
confusion in the earlier and recent publications on the Griffith theory. A
detailed explanation of this apparent discrepancy can be found in the work
of Sih and Liebowitz (1967) where it is shown that the correct version is
given by equation (2). From an energy analysis the stress corresponding
to an unstable crack is found to be

. (J = (2Eyg)t (3)
9 na

in which Ig is the energy required to create additional crack surface.

Some twenty-five years later, the validity of the Griffith equation (3) was
questioned by Irwin (1948) and Orowan (1952) when applied to materials
that deform plastically near the crack tips. In a later paper, Orowan (1955)
reported that his X-ray photographic measurements of apparently brittle
fractures of low carbon steels had detected a thin layer of material at the
surface that contains significant plastic deformation. A quantity Ip called
"plastic work" was introduced and estimated to be on the order of 10 3 times
Introduction to aseries XI

greater than the Griffith surface energy Yg' It was suggested that since Ip ~ Yg'
the Griffith equation can be extended to include plasticity by stating that

'" _
V
9
- { 2E(Yna
9
+'y P )}J -
'"
(2E)-1--1,_
_
na
'12
I
P •
(4)

Surprisingly enough, the meaning of this revision has never been carefully
studied. First of all, it should be remembered that the Griffith energy principle
is based on the global potential energy in the system reaching a maximum
for unstable equilibrium. Hence, the quantities a, (Y 9 and I gare measured
on the macroscale. The arbitrary insertion of Yp into the Griffith equation
becomes questionable should it be interpretated as a microquantity. More-
over, the association of Ip with continuum plasticity, if any, is also not clear.
Briefly, it can be said that Yp in equation (4) should not be confused with
Yc which is associated with the theoretical cleavage strength of the material.
The open literature result

Ye " ' P
- - (5)
19 ao
which predicts the correct order of magnitude with p/a o ~ 10 3 or 104 was
derived by using an incorrect approach. In equation (5), P is the macroscopic
crack tip radius and a o the microscopic equilibrium spacing between
atomic planes. I have used a linear stress-displacement relationship for the
atomic model and found that

(6)

where eo is the elastic modulus of the atomistic stress-strain curve. The

Griffith stress at fracture becomes

(7)

The quantity

(8)

is simply a scale shifting factor.

In the first volume of this open series on the "Mechanics of Fracture", a
more general theory of fracture mechanics is presented. The new discipline
XII Introduction to aseries

intro duces the concept of the field strength of the crack tip strain-energy-
density, marking a fundamental departure from the classical and current
trends. The theory is a significant advance in that it can resolve all mixed
mode crack extension problems for the first time in history. Unlike the
Griffith-Irwin theory which accounts through k or G only for the amplitude
of the local stresses, the fundamental parameter in the new theory, the
"strain-energy-density" factor, S, is also directionally sensitive. The difference
between k (or G) and S is analogous to the difference between a scalar and
vector quantity. Loosely speaking, the stress-intensity factors k 1 and k 2 in
a two-dimensional problem are both represented in the magnitude of S.
Hence, the stress-intensity factors still play an important role in the fracture
process.
This first volume is devoted to the evaluation of stress-intensity factors
using analytical and numerical methods presented by some of the out-
standing people in the field. The methods include conformal mapping,
collocation, Laurent series, asymptotic expansion, integral transforms,
alternating procedure and finite elements. Collections of stress-intensity
factor solutions are given, many of which are presented for the first time.
This comprehensive survey of the methods of analysis and solutions of
crack problems should be most useful to research and practicing engineers.
Fundamental misconceptions and inconsistencies are scattered through-
out the literature on fracture mechanics, and the practitioner must always
be on guard against unquestioning acceptance ofthem. Additional examples
of these miscues can be found in the Preface of the first volume.

References
Griffith, A A, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Sero A, Vol. A221, p. 163 (1921).
Griffith, A A, Proceedings ofthe 1st International Congressfor Applied Mechanics, Delft (1924)
p.55.
lrwin, G. R., Fracturing of Metals, ASM, Cleveland, Ohio, (1948).
Orowan, E., Proceedings ofthe Symposium on Fatigue and Fracture ofMetals, Wiley, NewYork,
(1952) p. 139.
Orowan, E., Energy Criterion of Fracture. Welding Research Supplement, (1955) p. 157.
Sih, G. C. and Liebowitz, H., Intern. J. Solids and Structures, (1967) Vol. 3, p. 1.
Sih, G. C. (forthcoming). A N ew Out look on Fracture M echanics.
 Editor' s preface

It is weH known that the traditional failure criteria cannot adequately

explain failures which occur at a nominal stress level considerably lower than
the ultimate strength of the material. The current procedure for predicting
the safe loads or safe useful life of a structural member has been evolved
around the discipline oflinear fracture mechanics. This approach introduces
the concept of a crack extension force which can be used to rank materials
in some order of fracture resistance. The idea is to determine the largest
crack that a material will tolerate without failure. Laboratory methods for
characterizing the fracture toughness of many engineering materials are
now available. While these test data are useful for providing some rough
guidance in the choice of materials, it is not clear how they could be used in
the design of a structure. The understanding of the relationship between
laboratory tests and fracture design of structures is, to say the least, deficient.
Fracture mechanics is presently at astandstill until the basic problems of
scaling from laboratory models to fuH size structures and mixed mode crack
propagation are resolved. The answers to these questions require some basic
understanding ofthe theory and will not be found by testing more specimens.
The current theory of fracture is inadequate for many reasons. First of aH
it can only treat idealized problems where the applied load must be directed
normal to the crack plane. In this case, values of the Mode I critical stress-
intensity factors, k 1 c or crack extension force, GI co can be used to predict
the applied loads that cause failure or, conversely, to find the allowable
crack size that will not cause premature failure. However, in a structural
member the crack is seldom in a plane normal to the principal stress. As a
rule, the crack follows a curved path. For a two-dimensional problem, the
influence of Mode II crack propagation is not always negligible. Complica-
tions arise he re because the crack does not spread in a self-similar manner
and the classical treatment of the strain-energy release rate concept breaks
down. Mode III crack propagation has also been mistreated in the literature.
In this first volume of an open series on the "Mechanics of Fracture",
I shall only touch on the subject of mixed mode crack extension. The problem
offracture design will be treated in the future. To define the fracture toughness
XIV Editor's preface

of a material under mixed mode conditions, I find that the direction of crack
propagation must first be determined. To accomplish this, it was necessary
to cast away the classical concept of Griffith-Irwin which turns out to be
a special ca se of a more general theory based on the intensity of the strain-
energy-density field reaching a critical value at inqipient fracture. This
theory is still being developed and marks a fundamental departure from
classical. and current trends. I offer this simplified version as a first step
toward predicting the criticalloads of a cracked member under combined
loading. The discrepancy on load predictions between the mixed mode
theory and that of Griffith and Irwin can be very significant depending on
the relative position of the crack to the applied load.
In dealing with the crack instability problem for a structure, it is essential
to consider a slight perturbation of the load from the ideal condition of
having it placed perfectly normal to the crack plane. This is analogous to the
introduction of a small eccentricity in column studies. An instability
phenomenon is always associated with imperfections that exist in the
system. Thus, the mixed mode crack extension problem cannot be dismissed
as being academic. It is real and must be accounted for in structural design.
The material parameter in this new theory is referred to as the "strain-energy-
density factor", S, which is a function ofthe stress-intensity factors k 1 and k 2
as given by
S = a 11 ki +2a 12 k 1 k 2 + a22k~
where a i } depend on the elastic properties of the material. The critical value
Ser is an intrinsic material property. As can be seen, the stress-intensity
factors k 1 and k 2 still play an important role in the fracture process. Hence,
the correct determination of these factors is a necessary step toward the
safe design of a structure.
The purpose of this volume is to present a comprehensive presentation of
the methods of analysis and solutions to crack problems with emphasis
placed on finding the stress-intensity factors from which the strain-energy
density factor can be obtained. This is the only area in fracture mechanics
that is relatively free from misconceptions and inconsistencies. All the
chapters are written by outstanding people who have al ready made many
important contributions in the past. Their views and experience are most
valuable. It should be emphasized that the accuracy of any crack problem
solution can be achieved only through the sound reasoning of the analyst
who has a clear understanding ofthe physical problem. Brute force techniques
Editor's preface xv

are not the answer. In solving crack problems, the stress singularities that
prevail at the crack tips must be treated with respect. When handled properly,
all methods such as integral transforms, collocation, conformal mapping,
finite elements, etc. should lead to the same answer. One of the least under-
stood problems at the present is the analysis of surface flaws where the crack
front intersects with a free boundary. The published results on this dass of
problems are unsatisfactory, both numerically and conceptually.
I shall briefly comment on the contents of this book without referring to
each chapter and the individual author. The conformal mapping technique
in the complex variable formulation is a powerful tool for solving crack
problems where the geometries do not conform to coordinate systems.
Problems such as cracks emanating from straight boundaries and holes can
be easily handled by this method provided that the problem is two-dimen-
sional. Another version of the complex variable technique is to expand the
Goursat functions in series form. F or a direct evaluation of the stress-
intensity factor, it suffices to determine a finite number of the coefficients in
the series. The computations are tedious but the method solves some most
difficult boundary value problems involving cracks oriented at different
positions in stiffened or unstiffened plates and cracks near inclusions. One
of the most ingenious concepts that has been employed in all branches of
applied mathematics is the asymptotic expansion. F or some reason, the
researchers in fracture mechanics have not been able to take advantage of
this concept to its fuHest extent, particularly in obtaining approximate but
effective solutions to crack problems. The idea behind this approach is to
evade the difficult problem of obtaining a complete solution. By knowing
the asymptotic solutions for both ends of the range of the parameter, the
solution for intermediate values of the parameter are found by interpolation
to complete the picture.
The method of integral transforms has also played a key role in solving
many linear fracture mechanics crack problems. The "Fourier" and "MeHin"
are two commonly employed transforms depending upon the geometry
under consideration. The problem involves the specification oftractions and
displacements along single or multiple boundaries. A cardinal rule for solving
mixed boundary-value problems is first to determine the nature of the stress
singularity correctly and then to isolate it from any numerical calculations.
The resulting integral equations usually co me under the names of Cauchy,
Fredholm, etc. This procedure has been used to solve many interesting
crack problems in the area of layered composites where the crack-tip stress
XVI Editor's preface

singularities are not necessarily of the inverse square root type. One of the
salient features of this method is that it can be applied in a straightforward
mann er for solving the dass of linear partial differential equations that
arise in plate and shell theories. Adeparture from the conventional approach
can be made by introducing the concept of fundamental singularities and
fundamental fields. The stress-intensity factors can be given by integral
representations involving a weight function and for a given crack geometry
the result covers the loading condition in an arbitrary fashion. This is
similar to using the concentrated load solution of a particular crack problem
as the Green's function and expressing the stress-intensity factors in integral
form that applies to arbitrary tractions on the crack surface. In many cases,
these weight functions can be identified as solutions to homogeneous linear
and singular integral equations. Axially symmetric crack problems can also
be treated.
When the problem becomes three-dimensional most of the conventional
methods can no longer be applied directly and only a handful of effective
solutions are available. The common trend is to use numerical procedures.
Among the popular ones are finite element, boundary collocation, successive
superposition, etc. Generally speaking, if the three-dimensional crack is
completely embedded in the solid and the stress singularity is known
analytically everywhere around the crack border, any one of the afore-
mentioned methods is satisfactory. Should the crack front intersect with a
free boundary, serious problems can arise for a number of reasons. First of
all, the specification of the stress state near the point where the crack pene-
trates through the surface is no longer obvious. Hence, the accuracy of any
numerical solution becomes questionable. It should be cautioned that the
errors committed ne ar a free surface are not necessarily confined locally but
they can affect the interipr solution as weIl. Numerical methods can only
estimate the average stress in a finite region and by definition they cannot
describe local phenomena. For instance, the method of finite elements as
originally designed for solving large scale structures is not effective unless
special elements are placed near the crack tip region. For a surface flaw, the
problem can never be resolved by resorting to a larger number of smaller
elements near the surface. The answer lies in the inadequacy of the continuum
mechanics model to explain a surface phenomenon rather than the in-
accuracies of the numerical procedure. It becomes necessary to introduce
the concept of a surface boundary layer wh ich has never been advocated in
solid mechanics. It is within this layer estimated to be approximately
Editor' s preface XVII

equal to the crack tip radius that the continuum definition of stress becomes
inadequate. The physically meaningful quantity on asolid boundary is
surface tension and not stress. Stress-intensity factors simply cannot be
properly defined on a free surface. In other words, the Griffith-Irwin
concept of k (or G) is basically not adequate for treating the surface flaw prob-
lem. As I mentioned earlier, the classical theory is strict1y limited to simple
loading conditions and crack geometries.
F or many years, my colleagues and I at Lehigh have pondered the surface
flaw problem. Numerous analytical and numerical methods were tried
before the procedure of successive superposition referred to as the alternating
method in this book was adopted. Such an approach controlled the accuracy
of numerical results through analytical separation of the singularities.
Careful analysis of opposing contributions to the singularities enabled the
numerical instability to be minimized. Considerable judgement using known
qualitative characteristics ofthe solution was required to balance the numer-
ical and analytical components of the approach. The stress-intensity factor
solution was obtained for a semi-circular surface crack opened by uniform
pressure. The k-factor starts out with a finite value at the utmost interior
point of the crack border and increases first slowly and then more sharply
as the free boundary is approached. After the peak, it drops very rapidly
toward zero stopping short at a boundary layer distance from the free
surface. This trend of the stress-intensity factor solution is believed to be
correct.
Because of space and time limitations, many other useful methods such
as the Riemann-Hilbert formulation, eigenfunction expansions, etc. are not
included in this volume. The most important accomplishment of this work
may not necessarily be the comprehensive coverage of the basic methods of
analyzing crack problems, but the primary attention should be focused on
the ingenuity and imagination of the individual authors who have a full
command of the physical nature as weIl as a mathematical understanding
ofthe problem. To the authors I am deeply indebted for their contributions
which have made this volume possible.

Lehigh University G. C. SIH

Bethlehem, Pa.
February 1972
 Contributing authors

1. P. BENTHEM
Laboratorium voor Technische Mechanica, Technische Hogeschool, Delft,
Holland

o. L. BowlE
Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center, Watertown, Massachu-
setts

H. F. BUECKNER
Turbine Engineering, General Electric Company, Schenectady, N ew Y ork
Adjunct Professor of Mechanics, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,
N.Y.

T.S.COOK
Department ofMechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania

F.ERDOGAN
Department ofMechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania

G. D. GUPTA
Department ofMechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania

R. J. HARTRANFT
Department ofMechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania

P. D. HILTON
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Lehigh U niversity,
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
xx Contributing authors

M.IsIDA
National Aerospace Laboratory, Tokyo, Japan

W. T. KOITER
Laboratorium voor Technische Mechanica, Technische Hogeschool, DeIft,
Holland

G. C. Sm
Department ofMechanical Engineering and Mechanics, Lehigh University,
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania

1. N. SNEDDON
Department of Mathematics, University of Glasgow, Scotland

W. K. WILSON
Research and Development Center, Westinghouse EIectric Company,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
 G. C. Sih*

11J,troductory chapter:
A special theory of crack propagation

1. Historical re marks

The Griffith concept [1, 2J of imperfection instability in a solid was the first
step toward predicting the fracture strength of solids. The basic idea behind
his theory is that a crack will begin to propagate ~f the elastic energy released
by its growth is greater than the energy required to create the fractured
surfaces. As a model, Griffith considered the problem of a crack of length 2a
in a plate under tension (J as in Figure 1a He then found that the critical
stress (J er required for crack growth is

(1)

where E is the Young's modulus and y the specific surface energy. Since the
quantity (2Eyjn)-t contains only material constants, the factor (Jera-t should
be an intrinsic material parameter. Twice the specific surface energy y is
equal to the critical elastic energy release rate G 1e , i.e., G 1e =2y. The ex-
periments Griffith performed on glass show that the values of (J era-t were
indeed the same over a wide range of crack lengths.
The concept of crack energy release leads to serious drawbacks in carrying
out the mathematical details for cracks in a combined stress field. The energy
release concept assurnes the direction of crack propagation to be known an
apriori. Hence, the Griffith theory can only treat problems with the crack
lying in a plane normal to the applied stress as in Figure 1a.A simple question,
such as what will be the direction of crack propagation if the crack was

* Professor of Mechanics and Director of the Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics,
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa. 18015, USA.
XXII Introductory chapter

inc1ined at an angle ß to the loading axis, has not yet been answered satis-
factorily. In such a case, equation (1) is obviously no longer valid. Moreover,
areversal of loading (Figure 1b) will produce crack propagation along a
different path. A realistic theory of fracture mechanics should be able to
explain the fracture phenomena for both types of loading on the inc1ined
crack in Figures 1a and 1b.
Irwin [3J in applying the Griffith's concept to solve fracture problems
recognized the importance of the intensity of the local stress field. He
proposed three modes of crack extension which are identified by their
respective stress-intensity factors k 1 , k 2 and k 3 • The Mode I intensity factor
k 1 is in fact related to the Griffith energy release rate GI as

er (tension) (j. (compressionl

~"/'O
~.-
/"
~J

""~ " X
l?'"
,,/

7;0
/
~ ...
...x
~"
'J' ':~
20 20

(j(tension) erkompression)
(a) Crack growth (b) No crack growth
Figure 1. A central crack in a plate.

G1 = rr;~ (generalized plane stress) . (2)

Similar relations for G 2 = rrk~/ E and G 3 = kV2p with p being the shear
modulus of elasticity were formally computed by assuming that the crack
extends in a plane collinear with the original crack as in Mode I. In fact, the
physical meaning of Mode Ir and Mode HI crack extension was never ques-
tioned and only a few attempts [4, 5J have been made to study the direction
ofMode II and ModeJII crack propagation. To the author's best knowledge,
experimental values of G 2c and G 3c were never recorded and hence the present
day understanding of crack propagation is restricted to Mode I problems.
G. C. Sih XXIII

The crack model of Barenblatt [6J should also be mentioned. In his

theory, Barenblatt chooses to rerilOve the r- t stress singularity by consider-
ing a cohesive zone along a line ahead of the crack. The criterion of fracture
is based on the concept of a critical modulus of cohesion. Subsequently,
Dugdale [7J used a mathematical1y similar but physically different model
to study the crack tip plastic zone sizes in thin sheets. A generalization of
some of these physical concepts was later made by Rice [8J through the
application of a path independent integral which is identical in form to a
component of the energy momentum tensor introduced by Eshelby [9J to
characterize generalized forces on dislocations in elastic fields. The above
crack models which put more emphasis on the physical aspects of the mate-
rial, are all inherently restricted to cracks that extend along the line of load
symmetry. Although this limitation is not essential to the experimental
studies of fracture toughness, it presents a major set-back to the prediction
of applied stress for crack initiation in structural members. In the design of
bridges and aircraft, the stress-state around the crack tip is in most cases of
the mixed type where the assumption ofMode I fracture would be unrealistic.

H. The strain-energy-density concept

In aseries of recent papers, Sih [1 O-12J has proposed a theory of fracture

based on the field strength of the local strain-energy-density which marks a
fundamental departure from the classical and current concepts. The theory
requires no calculation on the energy release rate and thus possesses the
inherent advantage of being able to treat all mixed mode crack extension
problems for the first time. U nlike the conventional theory of G and k which
measures only the amplitude ofthe local stresses, the fundamental parameter
in the new theory, the "strain-energy-density" factor S, is also direction
sensitive. The difference between k (or G) and S is analogous to the difference
between a seal ar and vector.
Referring to Figures 2a and 2b, the Griffith-Irwin theory can be viewed
as a seal ar theory in that it specifies only the critical value of a scalar G lc
(or klJ at incipient fracture. The direction of crack propagation is always
preassumed to be normal to the load. Moreover, the crack front must be
straight such that G or k does not vary along the leading edge of the crack.
In addition, a seal ar theory cannot yield the correct material parameter if
two or more stress-intensity factors are present along the crack border. The
S-factor in the Sih theory behaves like a director. It senses the direction of
XXIV Introduetory ehapter

least resistance by attaining a stationary value with respect to the angle fJ as

indicated in Figure 2b. As it will be shown, the stationary value of Smin can
be used as an intrinsie material parameter whose value at the point of crack

Symmetrie load General loading

\
x

GI (or k 1 )
(a) Scalar theory (b) Director theory

Figure 2. Comparison of scalar and director theory.

insta bility S er is independent of the crack geometry and loading. In the general
context, the Griffith-Irwin theory is the special case when e=o and the
director S coincides with the x-axis.

Special form of loeal energy density. Consider the three-dimensional case

of a crack in a combined stress field and focus attention on a coordinate
system (x, y, z) in Figure 2 with the x-axis normal to the crack, the y-axis
perpendicular to the crack plane and the z-axis tangent to the crack border.
While the origin 0 traces the crack periphery, the functional form of the
stress components in r, e [13] remains unchanged, i.e.,

(}x = (::)"t cos(ej2)[1-sin(ej2) sin(3ej2)]

- (k 2)-L sin (ej2) [2+cos (ej2) cos(3fJj2)] +
2r 2

k
(}y = (2r\t cos (ej2) [1 + sin (ej2) sin (3fJj2)]

+ (:~t sin(fJj2)cos (ej2) cos (3ej2) + ...

G. C. Sih xxv

T xy = (~r)t cos (8/2) sin (8/2) cos (38/2)

+ (~~t cos(8/2)[1-sin(8/2) sin(38/2)] + ...

k1 kz .
o"z = 2v (2r)tcos(8/2)-2v (2r)tsm(8/2) + ...

T xz = - (~~t sin (8/2) + '"

k3
T yz = (2r)t cos (8/2) + (3)

where the non-singular terms have been dropped and r,8 are the polar
components in the yz-plane (Figure 3). For an elastic material, the strain

a'y

z
Figure 3. Stress components near crack bord er.

energy stored in the element d V = dx d y dz under a general three-dimensional

stress system is

+ 1 (Txy+Txz+TyZ
2/1 z z z )]
dV. (4)
XXVI Introductory chapter

Substituting equations (3) into (4) yields the quadratic form for the strain-
energy-density function

dW
-d
V
= -1r (a l l k 21 +2a12klk2+a22k2+a33k3
2 2)
+ ... (5)

Note that the higher order terms in r have been neglected and that the strain-
energy-density function near the crack possesses a 1/r energy singularity.
Hence, the quadratic
(6)
represents the amplitude or the intensity of the strain-energy-density field
and it varies with the polar angle 8 in Figure 3. The coefficients aij (i, j = 1, 2, 3)
are given by
1
a ll = 16,u [(3-4v-cos 8)(1+cos 8)]

a 12 = 1~,u 2 sin 8 [cos 8-{1-2v)J

1
a22 = -6 [4{1-v)(1-cos 8)+(1+cos 8)(3 cos 8-1)J
1 ,u

1
a3 3 = - (7)
4,u
where v is the Poisson's ratio.
Equations (3) represent the general form of the crack border stress field
involving the three stress-intensity factors k l , k 2 , and k 3 • For two-dimen-
sional problems where the crack extends in the xy-plane, the stress-intensity
factors do not var)' along the crack front and S depends only on one variable,
namely the angle 8. In three dimensions, k b k 2, and k 3 may occur simulta-
neously and they can also vary from point to point on the crack border.
An example of this is given in [12J.

Invariant property oJ density Jactor. Before proceeding with the application

of the field strength concept to the fracture problem, it is worthwhile to
examine the invariant property of the local strain-energy-density field. The
important point to be made here is that the quadratic S in equations (6) has
a value that is independent of the choice of the stress-intensity factors k l , k 2
G. C. Sih XXVII

and k 3 . In other words, S is a form "invariant" with reference to one system

of stress-intensity factors to another. This implies that
(8)
where k ~ and k i are the stress-intensity factors of two different systems and
S possesses the inherent property of being a constant. Equation (8) defines a
quadric surface for each state of stress-intensity factors and the discussion
of this quadric paralle1s closely that of the strain or stress quadric of Cauchy
in the theory of elasticity. Briefly, equation (6) may be solved as an eigenvalue
problem. For a nontrivial solution, the three eigenvalues are found to be
(9)

Using relations of a ij in equation (7), the first of equations (9) gives

Al = l~fi [4(1- 2v) + (l-cos 8)2J

.
)·2 = l~fi (1 + COS 8)2 (10)

Hence, the quadric surface in eigenform is

Al Ki + ..1 2 K~ + }.3 K~ = constant (11)
and the associated transformation

r- 01 [kll [Kl]
l
cos(8/2) sin (8/2)
sin (8/2) cos (8/2) 0 k2 K2
o 0 1 k3 K3
The solution determines the points on a central quadric surface for which
the distance from the origin is stationary relative to neighboring points.
With this background, the property of the quadric S will be shown to play an
important role in the theory of crack propagation.

IH. Fundamental hypotheses on crack initiation

and direction

Since the strain-energy-density factor S in equation (6) has some attributes

of the intensity of a force field associated with ~ . type of potential, it is
XXVIII Introductory chapter

natural to inquire on the relationship between Sand the potential energy L: in

the system. If the cracked body is subjected to tractions only, then the
potential energy is equal to the negative of the strain energy*. Now let P
stand for the potential energy per unit volume of the element located at a
distance r from the crack border as shown in Figure 3, i.e., P = dL:jd V, and
similarly let U be the strain energy per unit volume gi yen by U = d Wj d V.
Making use of the relation P = - U and U = Sjr, the potential energy per
unit volume becomes
S
P = - -. (12)
r

Basic assumptions. Two fundamental hypotheses** of crack extension will

now be laid down:
Hypothesis (I): The crack will spread in the direction of maximum potential
energy density.
Hypothesis (2): The critical intensity Scr of this potential field governs the
onset of crack propagation.
Note that for crack propagation to take place in the xy-plane the direction
of maximum potential energy density must be found. In two-dimensional
problems, the direction of crack propagation can be determined by a single
variable 8 and hence hypothesis (1) can be satisfied by the application ofthe
calculus of variations. A necessary condition for the potential energy density
P to have a stationary value is that
oP (13)
08 = 0, at 8 = 80 •

The value of 80 , which makes Pa maximum, determines the angle ofthe plane
along which the crack spreads and can be found by further requiring that
02 P
08 2 < 0, at 8 = 8 0 (14)

which is a position of unstable equilibrium. From the canonical form of S

in equation (11), it can be concluded that S is positive definite and thus Pis
negative.
* The opposite holds for displacement loading conditions.
** These hypotheses will be further discussed in a general theory of crack propagation being
developed by Sih [14].
G. C. Sih XXIX

Rewriting the conditions in equations (13) and (14) in terms of the strain-
energy-density function renders
as a2 s (15)
a() = 0, a()2 > 0 at () = ()o

which are the necessary and sufficient conditions for S to be aminimum.

Hypothesis (1) is thus equivalent to the assumption that
crack initiation will start in a radial direction along which the strain energy
density is aminimum.
An essential point to be made here is that the above criterion is based on
the local density of the energy field in the crack tip region and requires no
special assumption on the direction in which the energy released by the
separating crack surfaces is computed as in the Griffith theory [1,2] and
others. This removes the fundamental difficulties involved in the past for
computing energy release rate in mixed mode problems. It is now dear
that any fracture criterion based on a single stress parameter such as k l
alone will not be sufficient to describe the problem of mixed mode fracture.
Furthermore, the Mode II energy release rate commonly computed as
G 2 = nk~/E, where k 2 is the stress-intensity factor for skew-symmetric
loadings, is not valid since in Mode II the crack does not run straight ahead
as in Mode I. Hence the crack energy release for a mixed mode problem
cannot be obtained by simply adding G l and G 2 . It should also be emphasized
that the so-called "crack dos ure" method though conceptually correct has
misled a number of previous investigators to solve the branch crack or
kinked crack problem, analytically as weIl as numerically. This type of
boundary value problems is extremely difficult to solve and thus far no
effective solutions have been found.

IV. Prediction of crack growth direction

One of the least understood problems in fracture mechanics has been on the
estimate of applied loads at crack instability in mixed mode situations where
a crack can spread in any direction depending on the relative orientation of
the load and crack position. Strangely enough, this problem has never been
examined seriously. Admittedly, this is not an important problem in fracture
toughness testing studies since all experiments could be carried out under
Mode I crack extension. However, the omission of the mixed mode effect in
xxx Introductory chapter

predicting the applied stress to trigger fracture in structures could be

dangerously optimistic. For this reason, the classical fracture mechanics
approach is basically a theory for characterizing materials and has limited
use in structural design.
A major shortcoming of the classical theory is that it cannot predict the
direction of crack propagation. It is basically a theory for cracks that propa-
gate in a self-similar manner, although Griffith did postulate that the crack
will open up in the plane normal to the direction of maximum stress. At
first sight, this statement appears to be plausible and has received a certain
degree of acceptance in the literature. The validity and completeness of the
Griffith's postulate has never been clearly understood and is not a simple
matter to settle. It will be shown that the predictions based on the maximum
stress criterion do deviate from those of the strain-energy-density criterion
and can be questioned simply on physical grounds. Additional discussions
on this subject will be brought up in the general theory of crack propagation
in a future communication.
At the present time, it is more pertinent to illustrate the method of deter-
mining the direction of crack propagation by considering a few simple
examples. All of the crack problems treated by the energy density theory are
taken to be in astate of plane strain.

M ode I crack extension. In his classical paper, Griffith examined the

problem of an infinite body containing a central crack of length 2a subjected
to applied stress (J normal to the crack plane as in Figure 1a or 4a. Because
of load symmetry, the direction of crack propagation never entered into the
problem. Suppose now that this is an unknown in the problem, then it is
necessary to apply equations (13) and (14) or (15).
F or the Griffith crack
(16)
and hence equation (6) takes the simple form
(J2 a
S = 16,u [(3-4v-cos O)(l+cos 0)]. (17)

Differentiating S with respect to 0 and setting oS/oO=O, two possible

solutions are found
o= ° and cos 0 = 1 - 2v . (18)
G. C. 8th XXXI

The second derivative of S with e gives

;j2 S (J2 a
ae 2 = 8J.i [cos 2e - (1- 2v) cos eJ . (19)

Inserting the results in equation (18) into (19), it is found that the solution
80 =0 yields a2 s/ae 2 >0 and thus S is aminimum:
(1- 2V)(J2 a
Smin = 4J.i . (20)

The plane eo = 0 corresponds to the direction of maximum potential energy,

a position of unstable equilibrium. The critical applied stress to initiate crack
growth becomes
(21)
where the parameter (J er a1 is a material constant as in the classical case.
Thus for cracks propagating in a self-similar fashion Scr can be related to
f in the Griffith theory and to k 1c or G 1c as folIows:

(22)

Mode II crack extension. Let an infinite solid with a through crack of

length 2a in Figure 4b be subjected to shear stresses L such that the crack
occupies a plane of skew-symmetry. For this problem
(23)

er

1 - 1: (v= 0.3)

e0" 0 L-'2:o0"---_----o.j.l 8
-
0=0

1
er
1:

(a) Mode I (b) Mode 11

Figure 4. Mode I and Mode II crack extension.
XXXII Introductory chapter

and the direction of crack growth is no longer obvious. Applying the condi-
tions stated in equation (15) to
'[la
S = -6 [4(1-v)(1-cos 8)+(1+cos 8)(3 cos 8-1)] (24)
1 /1
it is found that
1-2v
cos 80 = -3- (25)

which gives S a minimum or P a maximum. The other solution sin 8=0 is

not of interest in discussing crack propagation. The predicted fracture angle
80 in equation (25) depends on the Poisson's ratio v (see Table I).
A point to be recognized is that the energy-density theory predicts the
crack to initiate in a plane which is no longer collinear with the crack itse1f.
Furthermore, this direction depends on the material property of the solid.
TABLE I
Mode II fracture angle

v 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

-70.5° -90.0°

This marks a fundamental departure from the classical concept of fracture

mechanics. The minimum value of S is found to be
[8(1-v) -4v l J '[la
Smin = 48/1 . (26)

In passing, it should be mentioned that the maximum stress criterion in [4J

predicts a fixed angle of 80 = -70.5° which corresponds to a material with
zero Poisson's ratio in Table 1.

Mixed mode crack extension. The first study of the initial direction of crack
growth in the presence of both k 1 and k l was made in [4J for the problem of
a crack of length 2a inclined at an angle ß with the loading axis as in Figure l.
The stress-intensity factors k 1 and k l for this problem are [15J
k 1 = O"a-t sin 2 ß
(27)
k l = O"a+ sin ß cos ß
G. C. Sih XXXIII

where (J is the applied stress. It was assumed that the crack will start to
extend in the plane which is normal to the maximum circumferential stress
(Je in accordance with the condition

(28)
for determining the initial angle of crack growth (}o. Using equation (27),
k 1 and k 2 may be eliminated. This renders
sin (}o+(3 cos (}o-l) cot ß = 0, ß:f=O (29)
which contains no e1astic constants. This result implies that for the crack
configuration and loading condition given in Figure 1 the initial angle of
crack growth is independent of the material properties.
Turning now to the strain-energy-density theory which states that crack
pro pagates in the direction of

(30)

being aminimum. The coefficients aij in equation (30) as derived from equa-
tions (6) and (27) are those given in equations (7). Differentiating equation
(30) with respect to () and setting the result to zero, the fracture angle (}o for
a given position of the crack specified by ß can be calculated from
2(1- 2v) sin ((}o - 2ß) - 2 sin [2((}o - ß) ] - sin 2(}o = 0, (31)

(a) Uniaxial tension. The numerical results of equation (31) for negative
values of (}o and positive (J are shown in Fignre 5 which is a plot ofthe fracture
angle (}o versus the crack angle ß from 0° to 90°. The curve based on the
maximum stress criterion which is dotted agrees well with equation (31) for
large values of ß and represents a lower bound for small values of ß. In
general, it can be taken as an average curve.
The validity of these predictions can be checked with the results of aseries
of experiments [4] performed on the specimen in Figure 5. Plexiglass sheets
of approximate1y 9" x 18" X 136" were used with a central crack of ap-
proximately 2" in length positioned at angles of ß from 30° to 80° in in-
crements of 10°. The initial fracture angles at both ends of the crack were
measured. The experimental data for four sets of tests are given in Table II
with ((}oLvg being the average fracture angle of all the measured values. The
last two rows give the theoretical calculations of equation (28) for the
XXXIV Introductory chapter

v- 0.5
0.4 0"

0.3 i
~-eo
0.2

0.1
o

UJ
~r:J
0::
:J
~ Plane Strain
u
<t
0::
l.L

W --- Max. Stress

>
;::: Criterlon
<t
(!) 200 - Strain-Ene rgy-
w
z Density Criterion
~t
o 40° 60° 80° 90°
ß-CRACK AN GLE
Figure 5. Crack angle versus fractüre angle ·in tension.

TABLE II
M easured and calculated va lues of the fracture angle

ß 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80°

1 _64° -55.5° -50° -40° _29° _17°

80 2 -600 _52° -50° -=43.5° -30.5° -18°
@ right 3 -630 -57 0 -53° -44.5° -15S
4 _57 0 _52° -43.5 0

1 -65° _58 0 -50S _44° -31S -18.5°

80 2 -53 0 -520 -400 -31° -17.5°
@ left 3 -60° _55° - 51S _46° - 31.5° -'17°
4 -57° -50° -43°

(8 0 )avg. -62.4° -55.6° -51.1° -43.1° -30.7° -17.3°

Eq. (28) -60.2° -55.7° -50.2° -43.2° -33.2° -19.3°
Eq. (31) -63S -56.7° -49.5° _41.5° -31.8° -18.5°
G. C. Sih xxxv

maximum stress criterion and equation (31) based on the strain-energy-

density criterion with v=t.
As it can be seen the agreement between theory
and experiment is good. Additional experiments are needed to verify the
influence of Poisson's ratio on the fracture angle 8 0 as predicted by the solid
curves in Figure 5.

(b) Uniaxial compression. There exists another set of solutions of positive

80 to equation (31) which will also yield a minimum on S. Physically, the
positive values of 80 correspond to the problem of Figure 1b in which the
inc1ined crack is now under uniaxial compression. Since S depends on a 2 ,

er
180°r---------~-------------------,

170"
Plane Strain
W
.-l
c.9
z 150 0
<l:
w
e:::
:::J
I-
U
«
e:::
LL
w
>
I-
(f) 0.1
o
a.. 0.2
I
o
CD 0.3
0.4
0.5

o 80 0 90°
ß-CRACK ANGLE
Figure 6. Crack ang1e versus fracture angle in compression.

equation (30) contains both the solutions of uniaxial tension ( + a) and com-
pression ( - a). A plot of the positive fracture angle 8 0 against ß is given in
Figure 6 for different values of the Poisson's ratio. In contrast to tensile
loading, where the crack tends to become horizontal, the crack path under
XXXVI Introductory chapter

uniaxial compression is towards the direction ofloading. Such a phenomenon

has indeed been observed by Hoek and Bieniawski [17J who have tested a
number of glass plates with an inclined crack under uniaxial compression.
U nfortunately, they did not report the initial angle of crack extension so
that a comparison of the theoretical results in Figure 6 with experiments
cannot be made at this time. Nevertheless, they did publish the values of the
applied stress (jcr to initiate crack growth for different positions of the crack.
It will be shown that their results on the variations of (jcrät with ß are indeed
predictable from the present theory.

V. Intrinsic property of strain-energy-density factor

One of the principal aims of fracture mechanics is to characterize the

behavior of materials in the presence of flaws or cracks. This requires a clear
distinction of the difference between Sand Scr' The strain-energy-density
factor S is simply the leading coefficient of the series expansion of d W/d V
about the crack point r = 0 in Figure 3 and it varies as a function of the polar
angle (). In the vicinity ofthe crack tip, S may be regarded as a crack resistance
force with the interpretation that the crack tends to run in the direction of
least resistance that corresponds to S reaching aminimum. Once S has
attained a critical value Scr at the point of incipient fracture it may be
regarded as a crack extension force which should be independent of loading
conditions and crack configuration. When verified experimentally, Scr can
be used as a material constant that serves as an indication of the fracture
toughness of the material.
In order to become familiar with the strain-energy-density factor S, which
can be viewed as a vector-like quantity, further considerations will be given
to the inclined crack problem. For the case of uniaxial tension, the crack
will spread in the negative (}-direction in a plane for which the crack resistance
force S is aminimum. Figure 7 shows a plot of 16pSmin/(j2a against ß for v
varying from 0 to 0.4 inclusive. In general, the quantity 16pSmin/ (j2 a increases
with the crack angle ß reaching a maximum along the axis of Mode I crack
extension. As Smin will be used as a material constant, the above statement
implies that the lowest value ofthe appliec;l stress (jcr to initiate crack propa-
gation occurs at ß= n/2 for a material with low Poisson's ratio. A similar
graph for uniaxial compression is shown in Figure 8. An interesting point
to be observed here is that the quantity 16pSmin/(j2a first increases with the
crack angle ß reaching a peak and then decreases in magnitude. The peak
G. C. Sih XXXVII

er
Cl:::
0
4.0 t
~
r-
U
«u..
>-
r-
Cf)
3.5 ~
Z
w
0
t
(]"
I 3.0
>-
<.9 Plane Strain
Cl:::
w
z
w 2.5
I

-z
«
Cl:::
r-
Cf) 2.0
0
W
N
-l
« 1.5
~
Cl:::
0
z
1.0
0
'"b
-..
.!: 0.5
E
Cf)

::1.
<D

0 80° 90°
ß- CRACK ANGLE
Figure 7. Variations of density factor with crack angle for tensile loading.

value is a function of the' Poisson's ratio. This suggests that given 16.uSmin/
(J2 a = constant there exists a critical angle ßo at which the critical applied

compressive stress is aminimum.

Having completed the preliminaries, the theoretical results will now be
compared with the experimental data obtained on DTD 5050-5! % Zn
aluminum alloy in [18]. All the tests were carried out in specimens containing
an inclined crack. The measured values of (J er a t for different crack sizes and
failure loads are plotted against the crack angle ß in Figure 9. The solid and
dotted curves represent the predicted values for the aluminum alloy with
k 1c equal to 28.2 ksi int and 29.2 ksi int, respectively. The agreement is good.
XXXVIII Introductory chapter

--.1-0
~
0
~
ü
lt 0.3
;:.-
~
ü'i
z
w
0
I
;:.-
c.9
~
W
Z
W
~ 0.2 er
<t
~ Plane Strain
~
(/)

CI)
(/)
W
-l
Z
0
ü)
z
w
:::E 0.1
0

0
N

--"
b

oE
CI)

::1.
~

0 30° 60° 90°

ß-CRACK ANGLE
Figure 8. Variations of density factor with crack angle for compressive loading.

The same data is given in Figure 10 with the critical stress-density factor Ser
normalized with respect to its value (Ser)1t/2 corresponding to Mode I crack
extension and Ser remained essentially constant. Although corrections for
plasticity ahead of the crack can be made, it is not considered to be essential
in this discussion.
The fracture mechanics of an inc1ined crack under compression is basically
different from that of extension. F or glass with a Poisson's ratio of v = 0.25,
the theoretical curve in Figure 11 predicts a critical angle of ßo c::::. 37° at
which the applied stress to initiate fracture is a minimum. In [17J, compres-
sion tests on 6" x 6" precracked glass pI at es were performed. The critical
G. C. Sih XXXIX

~r
\
55 \

~
\
\
\
\
\
50 \
\
\
\ <ic:r
\
45 \
\ --- (erer Va )TCh = 29.2
L! \
\
(CT'er Va) TCf2 = 28.2

~
In \
40
.-c • \0
\
• Straight Cracks Q8J

~ tJ o Slanted Cracks [18J

~ \
b'" \
35 \
\
,
\0

Plane Strain
v=0.333
", "- •0
........
.......
3D
16 l-I. Sera 1.06 X 109 ltflin~
--.

o 20° 40° 60°

ß-CRACK ANGLE
Figure 9. Critical tensile stress versus crack angle.

loads were then measured for cracks inclined at various different angles with
respect to the axis of loading. The experimental curve is dotted and indicates
a critical angle ß0 ~ 31 0 • F or cracks loaded under remote compression, there
is a tendency for the crack surfaces to come into contact and to rub against
one another. Thus, the important point to be made here may not be in the
quantative agreement of theory and experiment but in the trend of the failure
stress variations with crack angle for fracture under compression which has
been predicted by a theory based on the concept of a strain-energy-density
factor.
In addition, the new theory can explain that the apparent compressive
 XL Introductory chapter

1.4
~"1~ ~~.,
1.2 _______ E. __ ol~:~Ya):- 2&2
La
N
"""-
~
o
u
(J) 0.8
"""-
~
u
(J) 0.6 • • Straight Cracks ~a]
0.4 o Slanted Cracks [la]
0.2

0
ß - CRACK ANGLE
Figure 10. Critical density factor as a material constant.

>-
I-
U5
Z
w 8.5
I
I- I
z 16
\ Theoretical Curve 4
I
(J)
I I
(J)
w 7.5 I f
c::: I I
I-
(J) \ I
Ui
\ I
(f) \ I
UJ 6.5 \ I
-.J
z \ I
0 \ I
(f) \ I
z \
UJ 5.5 \ d
:!E \ I
0 I
\
I A \ 6 I Plane Strain
c: f I
'E 4.5 /
""-
V= 0.25 (Glass)
(f) /
::1. "-C> /
....... _ -t:S;
cD
"""-
6 Experimental Values [17]
0
N ...
U
b
0 30 0 40 0 50 0
ß-CRACK ANGLE
Figure 11. Critical compressive stress versus crack angle.
G. C. Sih XLI

strength of brittle materials can be many times greater than their ten'sile
strength depending upon the geometry and loading conditions. Griffith has
attempted to use the maximum stress criterion to explain this apparent
strength* difference. It is now wen known that the Griffith conc~pt must be
defective since it predicts that the compressive fracture stress of a material is
exactly eight times the tensile stress. This obviously cannot be true in general,
particularly in rocks, where compressive fracture stress in excess of one
hundred times the tensile stress have been reported. McClintock and Walsh
[16J pointed out this defect in the Griffith conception and modified the
Griffith's model by assuming that the cracks elose up under compression,
developing friction on the sliding crack surfaces. However, as they point out,
the coefficient of surface friction would have to be unrealistically high in
order to explain compressive fracture stress in excess of ten times the tensile
stress. The deficiency lies in using the maximum stress theory as the criterion
offracture and the failure to realize that the fracture stress does not represent
the strength of the material.
The answer to the problem posed by Griffith is given by the curves in
Figures 7 and 8 or Figures 9 and 11. On a qualitative basis, it is easily seen
that for sufficiently large values of ß, say 60° or 70°, the ratio of O'cr(compres-
sion) to O'cr(tension) can be very large. This ratio depends on the Poisson's
ratio and the position of the crack relative to the applied load. It should be
emphasized that the material possesses only one strength characterized by
the critical value of the strain-energy-density factor Ser regardless of the
nature of loading. The fact that Griffith chooses to distinguish between
compressive strength and tensile strength of the same material is in itself a
weakness of the theory.

VI. Mixed mode fracture criterion

Having shown that Scr can be used as a material constant, a mixed mode
fracture criterion can be stated. The critical values of k 1 and k z, i.e., k 1c and
k 2c in a given problem williie on a curve in the k 1, kz-plane determined by the
hypotheses stated earlier. The theoretical values of k 1 and k 2 may be deter-
mined from equations (30) and (31) for a given material, i.e., a specific value
of Sero From the reported values of k 1c in [18J on the aluminum alloy, the
* The strength or the intrinsic property of a material and the maximum stress at failure are two
different quantities. The failure to observe such a distinction has caused numerous misconcep-
tions in the open literature.
XLII Introductory chapter

Plane Strain
30 v= 0.333

~
11)
~

.S 20
N

•
~

c:::
0
!-
U
Li: • Straight Cracks [18J
> OSlanted Cracks [18J
!-
V) 10
z
W
!-
~
- - - (C/cr Va ln/2 = 29.2
(cJcr Va )Tt/2 = 28.2

- - - Max. Stress Criterion

o 10 20 30
INTENSITY- FACTOR k 1 in ksi ~
Figure 12. Mixed mode fracture criterion of k 1c versus kk

values of 4.8 (,uScr}t=28.2 psi in t and 29.2 psi in-l- are used and the theoretical
plots of k z versus k 1 are given in Figure 12. The third curve represents the
prediction based on a criterion of maximum stress [4]. It is evident that the
strain-energy-density theory is c10ser to the experimental results. The same
observation has been made on plexiglass plates tested in [4J ; i.e., the measured
points of (k 1C, k zc ) lie outside of the k1kz-curve of the maximum stress
criterion.
The k 1 kz-curve governing the mixed mode fracture of cracks under remote
compression is basically different from that of tension. First, the curve does
not intersect the k l-axis which implies the obvious fact that Mode I crack
extension does not exist in compression. This can be easily verified by solving
equations (30) and (31) for k 1 and kz with the constraint that the crack angle
and fracture angle satisfies the relations dictated by the curves given in
Figure 6. For a glass with v = 0.25, the theoretical prediction gives a slanted
G. C. Sih XLIII

40

Theoretical Curve

~ 30 (j

!
N
..:::.:
Cl::
~ 20
u
Lt
>-
I- Plane Str_ ...
(f)
Z v=- 0.25 (Glass )
w 10
I-
Z
ß Experimental Values [17]

o 10 20 40
INTENSITY FACTOR
Figure 13. Mixed mode criterion for cracks under compression.

curve in the k l , k 2 -plane as shown in Figure 13. Again the qualitative

feature of the solution is in agreement.

VII. Conc1uding remarks

A theory based on the concept of a strain-energy-density factor S has been

presented. The stationary values ofthis density factor can predict the direction
of crack growth under mixed mode conditions, whereas it is well known that
the c1assical theory of Griffith lacks this basic feature of predicting the direc-
tion of crack propagation. In addition, the critical value Scr has been shown
to be independent of the crack geometry and loading and hence it can be
used as a material parameter for measuring the resistance against fracture.
U sing the ex am pIe of an inc1ined crack, the theory predicts two basic
solutions, one for tensile loading and the other for compressive loading. The
XLIV Introductory chapter

theoretical results for both of these loadings are in good agreement with the
available experimental data on crack extension in combined stress fields
where Mode I is mixed with Mode 11.
Strain-energy-density factors S for a variety of mixed mode crack problems
have already been developed and experimentations are underway to establish
the quadric surface of failure for each of the following problem areas:
1. Cracks in a generally anisotropic body.
2. Cohesive and adhesive failure of layered composites.
3. Vibration and impact of cracked bodies.
4. Classical and higher order plate and shell theories.
5. Miscellaneous crack problems of fundamental nature.
The present theory has opened the door to a new and fruitful area of research
in fracture mechanics. The future progress will depend largely on the
willingness of the practitioners in the field to accept this new concept. There
is no doubt that the c1assical theory will have to be replaced so that tech-
nology in fracture mechanics can advance and provide solutions to numerous
previously unanswered questions, particularly in the area of applying
fracture mechanics to structure problems. The ne!?iligence of the mixed mode
effect in design can lead to drastic errors on the prediction of the applied
stress to cause fracture.
This work represents a simplified version of a more general theory of
fracture [14] which has already been developed far beyond the basic
concept presented here. The special theory being the first deviation from the
c1assical thought can be easily understood and immediately applied for
resolving many practical problems in the field.

References

[lJ Griffith, A A, Phil. Trans. Royal Society, A221, p. 163 (1921).

[2J Griffith, A A, Proc. 1st. [nt. Congr. Applied Mech., Delft, p. 55 (1924).
[3J Irwin, G. R., Structural Mechanics, Pergamon Press, London, England, p. 560 (1960).
[4J Erdogan, F. and Sih, G. c., J. of Basic Engrg., 85, p. 519 (1963).
[5J Knauss, W. G., [nt. Journal of Fracture Mech., 6, p. 183 (1970).
[6J Barenblatt, G. 1., Prikl. Mat. Mech., 23, p. 434 (1959).
[7J Dugdale, D. S., J. Mech. Phys. Solids. 8, p. 100 (1960).
[8J Rice, J. R., J. of Appl. Mech., 35, p. 379 (1968).
[9J Eshelby, J. D., Proc. of Roy. Soc. London, Series A, 241 (1957).
[lOJ Sih, G. c., Strain-Energy-Density Factor Applied to Mixed Mode Crack Problems, Institute
of Fracture and Solid Mechanics Technical Report, Lehigh University (1972).
 G. C. Sih XLV

[11] Sih, G. C., Some Basic Problems in Fracture Mechanics and New Concepts, Journal of
Engineering Fracture M echanics, in press.
[12] Sih, G. c., Application of the Strain-Energy-Density Theory to Fundamental Fracture
Problems, Institute ofFracture and Solid Mechanics Technical Report, Lehigh University.
(1972).
[13] Sih, G. C. and Liebowitz, H., Mathematical Fundamentals of Fracture, Academic Press,
New York, p. 67 (1968).
[14] Sih, G. c., A New Outlook on Fracture Mechanics (forthcoming).
[15] Sih, G. C., Paris, P. C. and Erdogan, F., J. of Appl. Mech., 29, p. 306 (1962).
[16] McClintock, F. A. and Walsh, J. B., Proc. oI the 4th U.S. Nat. Congress of Appl. Mech.,
p. 1015 (1962).
[17] Hoek, E. and Bieniawski. Z. T., Fracture Propagation Mechanics in Hard Rock, Technical
Report-Rock Mech. Div., South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
(1965) .
. [18] Pook, L. P., J. of Engrg. Frac. Mech., 3, p. 205 (1966).
 O. L. Bowie

1 Solutions of plane crack problems by

mapping technique

1.1 Introduction

The analysis of crack problems in plane elasticity has intrigued mathemati-

cians for nearly sixty years. Inglis [1] found the solution for a single crack in
an infinite sheet with the use of elliptic coordinates. Since then, many
mathematical approaches with wide ranges of sophistication have been
applied to a variety of crack configurations and loading conditions. It is
easy to appreciate the mathematical interest in a problem area in which
solution techniques span such diverse topics as analytic function theory,
integral equations, transform methods, conformal mapping, boundary
collocation, finite differences, finite elements, asymptotic methods, etc.
Muskhelishvili's work on the complex form of the two-dimensional
equations due to Kolosoff [2] has undoubtedly been the major developmeI!t
and influence on analytical techniques for solving plane crack problems
during this era. As a result of his work, particularly the formulation of the
problems of"linear relationship" using analytic continuation arguments, the
analyst is provided with considerable insight into the mathematical character
of the solution in terms of analytic function theory. With this insight,
mathematical singularities due to geometry or loading can usually be
anticipated and frequently the structure of the singularity can be predicted.
This feature Is invaluable in the choice of solution representation for by-
passing numerical convergence difficulties.
Many numerical solutions and techniques have appeared in the last decade
following the great surge of interest in crack problems due to Irwin [3] .
. Irwin's concept of stress intensity related the stress distribution local to the
crack tip with the earlier Griffith [4] energy concept and thus stimulated the
growth ofthe recent field offracture mechanics. Considerable creditfor many
2 O. L. Bowie

of the solutions must also be given to the substantial growth of computer

teehnology in this same period. Few, if any, of the effeetive numerieal
teehniques in use today would have been eonsidered feasible fifteen years aga
in the age of the desk ealculator.
The great variety of numerical teehniques for eomputing crack stresses
has played a healthy role in ensuring reliability of numerical results. This has
been essential in a problem area where all teehniques are prone to eonvergenee
diffieulties. Most key problems have been duplieated by several teehniques
and a eommon aecuraey requirement is an error toleration of one or two
percent. This has minimized gross errors from appearing in the literature and
forced eareful refinements of such approaehes as finite elements, ete.
This ehapter will be eoneerned primarily with teehniques involving eon-
formal mapping eombined with the Muskhelishvili formulation for plane
elasticity. The basic formulations for the isotropie and orthotropie theory
will first be summarized and illustrated briefly in the following two seetions.
Then aseries of techniques drawn from the author's methodology will be
deseribed and illustrated. These teehniques range from the method of poly-
nomial approximation, e.g., Bowie [5J, to arecent method, the modified
mapping-colloeation technique, Bowie and N eal [6J. The extension of the
latter teehnique to plane crack problems in orthotropie materials, Bowie and
Freese [7J will be described. The several numerieal solutions inc1uded to
illustrate the teehniques have not been previously published in the open
literature.
The first section is introductory in nature and is intended to serve as a
guide for the reader uninitiated to Muskhe1ishvili methods of analysis. On
the other hand, it was eonsidered worthwhile to inc1ude this seetion for the
more experieneed analyst for the sake of eontinuity and effieieney in presenta.-
ti on of the teehniques in the later seetions.

1.2 Complex variable formulation

Several results of the eomplex variable formulation of two-dimensional .

elastieity for both isotropie and orthotropie materials will be summarized
briefly in this seetion. Only those areas primarily relating to the mapping
teehniques of this chapter will be considered. F or eomplete aeeounts of the
isotropie and anisotropie theories, the reader is referred to the c1assieal
treatments of Muskhelishvili [8J and Lekhnitskii [9J, respeetively. Brief
Solutions of plane craek problems by mapping teehnique 3

introduetions to the respective theories may be found in Timoshenko and

Goodier [10J and Savin [11].

Isotropie formulation. In the two-dimensional theory of elastieity for

homogeneous isotropie bodies, a well-known device is the description of the
stresses in terms of suitable derivatives of the Airy stress function, U (x, y).
In reetangular coordinates, if U x= 02Ujoy2, U y= 02Ujox 2, "!xy= - 02Ujoxoy,
then the two-dimensional equations of equilibrium and compatibility are
satisfied provided
(1.1)
where V4 denotes the biharmonic operator.
To describe the complex variable formulation ofMuskhelishvili, introduce
the complex coordinate system, z = x + iy, and, heneeforth, refer to the z-plane
as the physical plane. The formulation depends upon the representation of
U(x, y) in terms oftwo analytic funetions ofthe eomplex variable, z, namely,

r
cjJ(z) and I/I{z), where

U(x, y) = Re [zcjJ(z) + 1/1 (z)dZ] . (1.2)

In equation (1.2), Re denotes "real part" and bars denote eomplex conjugates.
With this representation and the eonventional use of primes to denote
differentiation, the stresses and displaeements in reet angular coordinates
ean be written as

O"y+O"x = 2[cjJ'(z)+cjJ'(z)J = 4 Re [cjJ'(z)J

(1.3)
O"y-u x +2i "!xy = 2 [zcjJ"(z) + tjI'{z)J
and
2,u{u+iv) = KcjJ(Z)-ZcjJ'(z)-tjl(z) (1.4)
where ,u=Ej2(1+v) and K=3-4v (plane strain) and K={3-v)j{1+v)
(generalized plane stress). E and v are Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio,
respeetively.
An additional relation which will be used frequently throughout this
ehapter is provided by the stress resultant acting on an arbitrary arc of the
material. Consider the arc AB (Figure 1.1) with element of length ds and
normal n drawn to the right of the arc when looking along it in the positive
4 O. L. Bowie

direction. Then, if Xnds and Ynds denote the horizontal and vertical compo-
nents, respectively, ofthe force on the elements ds (exerted on the side ofthe
positive normal), it can be shown that

(Xn+iYn)ds= -id{q,(z)+zq,'(z)+I/I(z)}. (1.5)

Thus,
q,(z)+zq,'(z) + I/I(z) = i r
(Xn+iYn)ds

=!1(s)+i!2(S) . (1.6)
When the arcAB is chosenas the boundaryofthe physical region'!l (s)+ i!2(S)
is known to within a constant on those intervals where the boundary loads

y
B

A
:~
o x
Fig. 1.1. Sign convention für stress resultant.

are specified. In a similar calculation, the resultant moment, Mo, (with respect
to the origin of the co ordinate system) can be written

Mo = [ (xYn- yXn)ds
JAß
= Re {X(z)-zl/l(z)-zzq,'(z)}! (1.7)
where X' (z) = 1/1 (z).
There are, of course, many additional details of the formulation which for
the sake of brevity must be left to the reader. Important properties of the
analytic functions q,(z) and I/I(z) are elegantly deduced by Muskhelishvili
from physical considerations. For example, when rigid body motions are
not prec1uded, the analytic functions are obviously not unique. The extent
of arbitrariness in their definitions can be systematically considered for the
several boundary!value problems of elasticity. Overall equilibrium re-
quirements and the single-valuedness ofthe displacements lead to additional
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 5

relations. For example, if AB in equation (1. 7) is a closed curve and the bound-
ary of a simple connected region of the material, then the integral over the
totalloop must vanish (equilibrium). Such a condition clearly places specific
requirements on multi-valued functions which might be used for stress
function representation. When the physical region is infinite or multiply-
connected further properties of the stress functions can be deduced. These
refinements of the formulation should be familiar to the reader before he
undertakes actual problem solving.
The formulation of the two-dimensional problem in terms of analytic
functions lends itself to the application of conformal mapping. Conformal
mapping, in turn, provides the analyst with a powerful tool for the systematic
introduction of curvilinear coordinates compatible with the geometry of the
physical region. The formulation in terms of mapping functions will be
summarized as follows:
Let Sz denote an open region in the physical plane and let us introduce a
complex parameter plane, the (-plane along with the transformation.
z = (O(() . (1.8)
It will be assumed that there exists an open region S~ in the (-plane such that
equation (1.8) provides a one-to-one correspondance between the points
z E Sz and ( E S~. Such a transformation is said to be conformal provided the
mapping function (0(0 is analytic and (O'(()=I=O for (ES~. Singularities in
(0(0 can exist on the boundary of S~ for corner-describing properties of the
boundary of Sz.
The significant feature of the analytic function formulation is the carry-
over of analyticity to the parameter region. From the well-known property of
analytic functions, if <jJ(z) is analytic for ZES z and (0(0 is the conformal
mapping function in equation (1.8), then <jJ [(O(() J is an analytic function of (
for (E S~. Thus the explicit determination of <jJ(z) and I/I(z) can be by-passed
and the analyst can seek directly the analytic functions <jJ [(O(()] and 1/1 [(O(OJ
as functions of (.
The necessity for introducing considerable new notation can be avoided
by designating <jJ [(O(OJ as <jJ(0, etc., which leads to such relationships as
<jJ'(z)=<jJ'(()/w'(O, etc. Thus, the stresses, displacements, etc. can now be
written
O"y+O"x = 4Re {<jJ'(o/(O'((n (1.9)

O"y - 0" x + 2i L xy = 2 {(O(O [<jJ'(O/ (O'(() J' + I/I'(O} / (0'(0 (1.10)

6 O. L. Bowie

2,u(u+iv) = K4>(()-W(()4>'(')/W'(')-l/I(') (1.11)

4> (0 + W(O 4>' (,) / w' (,) + l/I (,) = i J5 (X + i ~) ds

n (1.12)

etc.
It is important intuitively to keep in mind the parametric nature ofthe,-plane.
The original physical problem always remains defined in the z-plane. The
solution in terms of' is parametric in nature and must be related back to the
physical problem through the mapping function. In section 1.6, the para-
metric nature of mapping by using an unconventional version of the pro ce-
dure will be considered. (The above remarks are in contrast to mapping by
inversion, Timoshenko [12], where several solutions are obtained in which
both geometry and loading are considered in the image region.)
In the conventional use of conformal mapping, the parameter region S~
is often chosen as the interior (exterior) of a cirde or the upper (Iower) half
plane for simply connected regions SZ' In general, the parameter region must
enjoy the same connectivety as the physical region. (Exceptions to this remark
will be encountered later when certain analytic continuation arguments are
made for the stress functions.) The choice of a circular region for S~ is partic-
ularly convenient for handling boundary conditions with apower se ries
representation of the stress functions. The choice of a half plane is more
natural for an integral representation.
The most remarkable of Muskhelishvili's contributions to the two-
dimensional theory are the elegant <lnalytic continuation concepts he intro-
duced which lead to a formulation in terms of a Hilbert problem. In addition
to leading to explicit solutions in terms of Cauchy integrals for the wide dass
of problems of '"linear relationship", such a formulation provides valuable
insight into the mathematical character ofthe solution for all two-dimensional
problems. Due to the frequent use of these concepts in this chapter, the basic
argument will be summarized.
Let S; and S: denote the region (y< 0) and (y > 0), respectively, and let
us assurne the elastic body occupies the lower half plane, S;. Consider
I

4>{z) as defined in the unoccupied region, by S:,

4>(z) = -z(jj'{z)-i/J(z) , {I. 13)

where the bar notation is defined by

J(z) = j{z) (1.14)

Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 7

The function ljJ(z) can now be expressed as

ljJ(z) = -(f)(z)-z<l>'(z) , ZES; . (1.15)
Replacing ljJ(z) in the force condition (1.6) by its definition (1.15), we find

(1.16)

F or most practical loading systems acting on the real axis, z = x, one can
correcdy assurne that
1<1>' (z) 1< A/lz-xl<X, O~ct<1 (1.17)
for z near x. Thus the force condition (1.16) on the boundary z = x reduces to
(1.18)
where <I> - (x) and <I> + (x) denote the values <I>(x) as approached through S;
and S:, respectively.
The consequences which can now be deduced are remarkable. Consider
an inter val Sx of the real axis as traction-free. Then, by adjustment of the
constant of integration in equation (1.6),
(1.19)
Thus, <I> (z) is analytic for z E Sx. The problem of determining two analytic
functions <I> (z) and ljJ (z) in Sz- ~ reduced to finding a single analytic function
<I>(z) defined in S; +S: which continues analytically through the unloaded
intervals of the real axis. The corresponding Hilbert problem can often be
solved effectively in terms ofCauchy integrals. For example, ifthe stresses at
infinity are assumed to vanish and if loads are prescribed on the real axis
such that f1 (x) and f2 (x) satisfy the Hölder condition, then the solution can
be written direcdy as

<I>(z) = ~ r f1 (x) + if2 (x) dx (1.20)

2m JL x-z
where L denotes the real axis.
Similar continuation arguments can be made for other regions with the
use of Schwarz's symmetry principle. For example, frequent use is made of
Kartzivadze's continuation form [13] for mapping onto the exterior (interior)
ofthe unit circle. Now consider equation (1.8) as a conformal mapping ofthe
experior ofthe unit circle SI;- into the region ofthe elastic material. Points on
8 o. L. Bowie

the unit cirele, ( = eJ, will be assumed to map into the finite boundary of the
physical region. The function 4>(0 is extended by definition into the interior
of the unit cirele, S!, as
4>(0 = -w(()q>'(1/0/w'(1/0-i7!(1/0, (ES! (1.21)
where the bar notation is now defined by

J(I/0 = f(l/~) . (1.22)

The function t/I(O becomes
t/I (0 = - <7>(1/0 - w (1/() 4>'(()/ w'(() , (ES<;- . (1.23)
The resultant force condition (1.12) when evaluated on the unit drele can be
written with obvious notation as

4> - (eJ) - 4> + (eJ) + [w - (eJ) - W + (eJ)] 4>' (eJ)/ W' (eJ) = f1 (s) + ifz (s) . (1.24)
Ifthe mapping function w(() is continuous across the unit cirele, then again,
in general, (1.24) reduces to
(1.25)
Again the problem has been reduced to the determination of a single analytic
function 4>(0 which is defined in Si" and st
and continues analytically
across the intervals of the unit cirele corresponding to unloaded intervals of
the physical boundary.
One ofthe useful applications ofthe continuation arguments which is made
later in crack analysis is the generation of stress functions ensuring traction-
free conditions on the crack. If, for example, the unit cirele above maps into
a crack and the continuation argument is used, then analyticity of 4>(0 across
the unit cirele ensures traction-free conditions on the crack.

Anisotropie formulation. The formulation for the plane problem for

rectilinearly anisotropie bodies will now be briefly summarized. F or astate
of generalized plane stress, the inplane stress-strain relations are

Gx =alleJx+a12eJy+a16'txy
Gy = a12eJx+aZZeJy+aZ6'txy (1.26)
Yxy= a16eJx+aZ6eJy+a66'txy·
A similar set of relations can be written for plane" strain. Ineluded in these
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 9

considerations is the familiar case of orthotropy which is defined when the

body possesses three planes of elastic symmetry. In the case of orthotropy,
the additional symmetries imply that a 16 =a 26 =0 in equation (1.26).
When theAiry stress function, U (x, Y), is substituted into the compatibility
equation, there results the condition
a 22 04 Ujox 4 - 2a2604 U j ox 3oy+(2a 12 + a66 )o4U j ox 2oy2
-2a 16 04 U j oxoy3 +a 11 a4 u j oy4 = O. (1.27)
If the roots I1j of the characteristic equation
alll1t-2a1611;+(2a12+a66)11;-2a2611j+a22 = 0 (1.28)
are distinct, the solution of equation (1.27) is
U (x, y) = U1(x + 111Y)+ U2(x+ 112Y) + U3(x + 113Y) + U4 (x+ 114Y) . (1.29)
Leknitskii [9J showed that the characteristic roots are either complex or
purely imaginary and occur in conjugate pairs. When 111 = 112 = i, the situation
corresponds to the isotropic case and equation (1.29) can no longer be
considered the general solution of (1.27). The stress function, for distinct
roots 111,112, fi1' fi2 (with 111 =f:. 112) can be expressed as
(1.30)
where U1(Z1) and U2(Z2) are analytic functions of the complex variables
Z1 =x+s 1y and Z2=X+S 2Y where
(1.31)
and (J.j' ßj are real constants computed from the material pro·perties. Without
loss of generality, assume ß1 >0, ß2 >0; ß1 =f:.ß2'
The stresses and displacements can now be expressed in terms of the Airy
stress function in the usual mann er. To simplify notation, the new functions
(1.32)
are introduced. Then

<Ix = 2 Re [si 4>'(Z1) + s~ 1/I'{Z2)J

<I y = 2 Re [4>'(Z1)+I/I'(Z2)J (1.33)
'r xy = -2Re [S14>'(Z1)+S21/1'(Z2)J
and
10 o. L. Bowie

u = 2 Re [P1 4>(Z1)+ P2l/!(Z2)]

(1.34)
v = 2 Re [q1 4>(Z1)+ Q2l/!(Z2)]
where

(1.35)

The resultant force condition (corresponding to equation (1.6)) becomes

r
(1 + is 1 ) 4>(Z1) + (1 + is 2 ) l/! (Z2)+ (1 + is 1 ) 4>(z 1)

+(1 +isd l/!(Z2) = i (Xn+i J:)ds (1.36)

The conformal mapping arguments summarized previously for the isotropic

case carry over with some conceptual modifications to the formulation above.
Clearly the preservation of analyticity affected by conformal transformation
must be considered with regard to the Z 1 and Z 2 co ordinate planes rather than
the physical z-plane in the present case.
It will be convenient to consider three complex planes, z, Z1' and Z2 where

z =x+iy
Z1 = x+s1Y = X+1X 1y+iß1Y (1.37)
Z2 = x+s 2Y = X+1X 2y+iß2Y·

Equation (1.37) can be considered as a mapping of the physical region Sz

into two image regions Sz1 and Sz2. The image sets are interre1ated since, for
fixed S1 and S2' a given value of z determines unique1y a corresponding set of
coordinates z 1 and z 2. These mappings are not conformal, thus conformal
mapping when applied directly to the physical geometry is not feasible in
this case.
Now introduce two additional parameter planes, the 'l-plane and the
'rplane, along with a pair of conformal transformations
Z1 = (01 ('1)
(1.38)
Z2 = (02('2) .
Two parameter regions SI;1 and S~2 will be assumed to map conformally into
Sz1 and SZ2' respectively. Again, in conventional mapping procedures, the
regions S~1 and Sp are taken as half-planes, circ1es, etc. When boundary
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 11

eonditions are eonsidered in terms of the parameter regions, it is clearly

neeessary to retain the identity of the pairs (1 and (2 assoeiated with a given
point z.
F ormally, the formulation ean now be written in parallel to the isotropie
ease. We set 4>(Z1)=4>[W 1((1)] =4>((1) and l/I(Z2)=l/I[W 2((2)]=l/I((2); thus,
4>'(Z1)=4>'((1)/W'((1)' ete. Then,
(Jx = 2 Re {si 4>'((1)/ W~ ((1)+ s~ l/I'((2)/ WZ((2)}
ete. (1.39)
Similarly, the resultant foree eondition beeomes

(1 + is 1) 4>(( 1) + (1 + i S2) l/I((2)+ (1 + i S1) 4>(( 1)

+(1+is 2)l/I((2) =f1(S)+if2(S). (1.40)

The requirements above are somewhat deeeiving in their simplieity. In
praetiee, it is very diffieult to find suitable mapping funetions (1.38) and,
until reeently, only a few simple eases have been solved. In seetion 1.6,
however, a praetieal utilization of this formalization in the "modified
mapping-eolloeation" teehnique will be deseribed.
The analytie eontinuation arguments deseribed previously for the isotropie
ease ean be similarly earried out for reetilinear anisotropy, e.g. Bowie and
Freese [7J.
First, eonsider the ease when the material oe eu pies the lower half-plane
S;, (z< 0). It is clear from equation (1.37) that the image regions S;1 and
S;2 will also eorrespond to lower half planes in the Z1- and z2-planes,
respeetively. It will be eonvenient, eoneeptually, to introduee an additional
eomplex plane, the W-plane, and to eonsider the two image planes as mapped
into this single plane. Thus, S;1 and S;2 will be eonsidered as two overlapping
eoverings of the lower half of the W-plane, i.e., on S;V.
Introduce a funetion F(W), analytie in S;V and extend it by definition into
the upper half-plane st such that
BF(W) = i]/(W)-CF(W) , WEst (1.41)
where Band C are eomplex eonstants and the funetional bar notation is
again defined as
j(W) =f(W) (1.42)
Sinee Z2 E Sit, it follows from equation (1.41) that
12 O. L. Bowie

l/J(Z2) = B F (Z2)+ C P(Z2) , (1.43)

Now, if
(1.44)
then </J(Zl) and l/J(Z2) have been defined in terms of P(W) and its extension
aeross the real axis.
Nowehoose
B = (8 2 -8 1 )/(S2 -82)
(1.45)
C = (82-S1)/(S2-82)
and insert equations (1.43)-(1.45) into (1.40) and evaluate on the real axis
W = ~ = x. This gives
(1 + i 82)(S2 - S1)(8 2 - S2)-1 [P- (~) - p+ (~)]
+ (1 + is 2 )(82 - 81)(S2 - 82t 1 [P (~) - p+ (~) ] = - if (Xn + i Y,)ds (1.46)

where P- (~) and p+ (~) denote P(~) approaehed through Sw and S~,
respeetively. Again, a traetion-free interval of the real axis implies
(1.47)
on this interval by adjusting the eonstant of integration in equation (1.46).
As in the isotropie ease, P (W) eontinues analytieally aeross an unloaded
interval of the real axis.
The extension argument for the ease when the image regions are mapped
onto the exteriors (interiors) of the unit eircles of respeetive parameter planes
is similar. The parameter regions, S~l and Sz;., (exteriors of unit circles) will
again be eonsidered as overlapping regions on a eommon '-plane (in the

2 =, =
sense ofthe previous W-plane). Now assume that it is possible to determine
the mappings (1.38) sueh that, 1 (j on the unit eircle, i.e., on the eommon

boundary in the '-plane. We then define p(n as analytic in S~- and extend its
definition to the interior of the unit circle as st
BP«() = il!(1/n- CF(l/n (1.48)
where
F(l/O = P(1/0 . (1.49)
The remaining arguments are essentially identical to equations (1.43)-(1.46)
with ~ replaeed by (j.
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 13

1.3 Crack problems and conformal mapping

The earliest application of conformal mapping to two-dimensional crack

problems perhaps can be considered as Kolosoffs solution [14] for an
elliptic hole in an infinite region using the mapping z = c cosh ,. Next,
Muskhelishvili [15] used mapping of a circular region to solve this problem
in terms of Cauchy integrals. In spite of the considerable interest in crack
problems generated by Griffith's theory [4] and the subsequent refinements
of the complex variable theory by Muskhelishvili, remarkably few solutions
were available prior to the late 1950's. Griffith [16] and Neuber [17] found
solutions for hyperbolic notches in a region of infinite extent. Outstanding
crack solutions in this period include Sneddon and Elliot's solution [18J for
varying press ure inside a crack (by transforms) and Willmore's solution [19J
for the case oftwo equal collinear cracks in an infinite region. An interesting
account of the evolution of several of these earlier solutions is contained in
a survey by Sneddon [20].
This section will relate the previous formulation specifically to crack
analysis. First, a simple example of mapping combined with analytic
continuation will be described to illustrate basic procedures and the nature
of singularities at crack tips. Then, the nature of the stress distribution and
the stress intensity concept ofIrwin [3] is summarized. Finally, the difficulties
introduced by branch points in the mapping function are examined in terms
of the analytic continuation arguments.

A simple illustration of conformal mapping. Several aspects of mapping,

analytic continuation, etc. will now be illustrated by the following solution
of the classical problem of an infinite region under simple tension, T,
containing an internal crack (Figure 1.2).
First consider the isotropic case for which the crack is traction-free.
Utilization will be made of t~ mapping function,
(1.50)
which maps the unit circle and its exterior SZ- in the '-plane into a crack of
length 2L and its exterior, respectively, in the z-plane. From Muskhelishvili's
formulation for infinite regions, it follows from the loading in Figure 1.2
that, forlarge Izl, 4>(z)~ Tz/4and!/J (z)~ Tz/2. Thus, forlarge 1'1, 4>(')~ TL'/8
and 1/J(')~TL'/4. Except for these simple poles at infinity, both 4>(0 and
!/J(O are analytic in SZ-.
14 O. L. Bowie

Traction-free conditions on the crack can be ensured by using the con-

tinuation arguments ofthe previous section. A tentative form ofthe extended
definition of 4> (0 for the entire (-plane, S~, can be written as

L
00

4>(() = TL(/8 + (Xn(1-2n, (1.51)

n=l

where the (Xn's are real coefficients. The form of equation (1.51) is consistent
with the properties of 4> (0 for (E S~ and utilization of the obvious stress

T
Figure 1.2. Crack in an infinite sheet under tension.

symmetries of the physical problem has been made. The extension of 4>(()
into the interior ofthe unit cirele, st,
by equation (1.21) requires consistency
of the properties of I/I(() in (1.23). In this case 1/1(0 must be analytic in S~
except for a simple pole at infinity with residue TL/4. After substituting
equations (1.50) and (1.51) into (1.23), one finds this condition requires
(Xl = - 3 TL/8, (X2 = (X3 = ... = O. Thus,

(1.52)
and this completes the solution. This remarkably simple solution illustrates
the effectiveness of the analytic continuation argument. Since the crack was
traction-free, a solution in terms of a single analytic function defined in S~
is anticipated.
F or the problem of a pressurized crack, (Jn = - P, with stresses vanishing
at infinity, it is equally elear that with extension, 4> (() will not continue across
the unit cirele. This problem from equation (1.25) reduces to the solution of
the Hilbert problem for the determination of the analytic function 4> ((),
vanishing at infinity, and satisfying the condition
(1.53)
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique , 15

The solution can be expressed as

(1.54)
or

(1.55)

Thus, <p (() is sectionally analytic in S~- and stbut, as anticipated, does not
continue across the unit circ1e.
In the solution (1.52), it will be noted that <p (() is well-behaved at the crack
tips, i.e., at (= + 1. On the other hand, from equations (1.23) and (1.52),
(1.56)
The stress function t/I (() has simple poles in the parameter plane at the crack
tips. This property is similar to a variety of.crack problems and must be
taken into account in the stress function representation.
The problem in Figure 1.2 has been solved for plane rectilinear anisotropy,
e.g., Savin [11]. The solution can be found more elegantly by using the
continuation arguments of the previous section. From equations (1.37), it
is evident that if the crack is oriented along the real axis of the z-plane then
z 1 = Z 2 on the crack images in the z 1- and zrplanes. The mappings (1.38) can
be written as
Zl = (L/2)((1 + (~1) (1.57)
Zz = (L/2)((2 + (2-1) .
The structures of the stress functions for large z are again determined by the
applied loads, e.g., Savin [11]. For (j~OO)= T,

<p(zl)~B*Zl
(1.58)
l/I(zz)~ (C* +iD*)zz
where
(s~ + si) B* + (s~ +sDc* +i(s~ -8~)D* = 0
2B* +2C* =T (1.59)
(Sl + 81 ) B* + (S2 +82) C* +i(S2_- 82 )D* = 0
Therefore, for large 1(11 and 1(21 ,
16 O. L. Bowie

«(
</> 1) - (LB* /2) (1
(1.60)
1/1«(2) - (L/2)(C* + iD*)(2 .
Now apply the continuation argument of the previous section and choose
the function F(O of equation (1.48) so that
(1.61)
Since </>«( 1)=F«(1) for (1 E S~, it follows from equation (1.60) that a = LB*/2.
Furthermore, the extension (1.48) implies that

1/1('2) = BF(1/'2)+CP('2) (1.62)

where Band C are defined by equations (1.45).
1/1«(2) = B[a(z1 +0'2J +C[a(2 +b'zlJ (1.63)
From equations (1.60) and (1.63)
Bo+aC = (L/2)(C*+iD*) (1.64)
Thus,
·P(,) = (LB*/2) , +L[C* -iD* -B* CJ (-1/213 (1.65)
and the solution is complete.

Crack-tip stresses, stress intensity factors. It was Sneddon [21 J who was
the first to give stress field expansion around a crack tip. When one considers
the time interval between this expansion and the Inglis solution [lJ, the
reluctance of the earlier elasticians to accept even qualitatively the local
stress infinities at crack tips is evident. Furthermore, there was the matter of
selection of a useful dass of loadings involved in a formal dassification of
stress infinities. Clearly any number of applied loads, e.g., hydrostatic tension,
can be found for which the crack-tip stresses are bounded and well-behaved.
Williams [22J introduced polar coordinates' (r, 8) at the apex of a wedge with
traction-free sides and examined the non-trivial solutions. In this manner,
he established the general r--t character of the stresses in the vicinity of a
traction-free crack tip for two-dimensional isotropie crack problems.
Irwin's characterization [23J of the stress fields into three basic types with
corresponding stress intensity factors, ki (i= 1,2, 3) followed.
Ifthe crack lies along the x-axis in the z-plane and (r, 8) are the local polar
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping techniqu,! 17

coordinates measured from a crack tip, then, for the isotropie case ofMode I,
(jx = k 1 (2rt+ eos (8/2) [1- sin(8/2) sin (38/2) J + .. .
(jy = k 1 (2rt+ cos (8/2) [1 + sin (8/2) sin (38/2)] + .. . (1.66)
't"xy = k 1 (2r)-1" cos (8/2) sin (8/2) cos (38/2)+ ...

and, for Mode II,

(jx = -k 2 (2r)-+ sin (8/2)[2+cos (8/2) cos(38/2)]+ ...
(jy = k 2 (2r)-1" sin (8/2) cos (8/2) cos (38/2) + ... (1.67)
't"xy = k 2(2r)-1" cos (8/2) [1- sin (8/2) sin (38/2) J + ....

F or Mode I, (j x and (j y are even functions of 8 and 't" xy is odd in 8, whereas, in

Mode II the situation is reversed. In isotropie analysis, symmetry eonditions
of the loading and geometry are usually suffieiently apparent to the analyst
for the prediction as to whether the problem is one of Mode I or II or,
frequently, a combination of both.
Sih, Paris and Irwin [24] extended several ofthe basic eoneepts offracture
mechanics to the case of plane rectilinear anisotropy. For Mode I,

and, for Mode II,

(j = ~ Re [ 1 ( .s~ - sf 0) ] +
x ° (2r)+ SI -S2 (cos 8+S 2 sin 8)1" (cos 8+s 1 sin 8)+
etc. (1.69)

The definitions of k 1 and k 2 in equations (1.68) and (1.69) are consistent with
the ease of isotropy. In fact, in several problems, including the problem in
Figure 1.2, the stress intensity faetors for the isotropic andreetilinearly
anisotropic eases can be shown to be identical. This property, however, is
not true in general. Furthermore, in the ease of anisotropy, prediction of the
type of mode requires the consideration of symmetries of the material
properties as weIl as the symmetries in loading and geometry.
The computation ofstress intensity faetors in terms ofthe Muskhelishvili
analysis can be reduced to a simple statement. For the isotropie case, Sih,
Paris and Erdogan [25J observed that
18 O. L. Bowie

(1.70)

where z 1 corresponds to a crack tip. In terms of mapping, therefore,

k= 2·2+ lim [w(O-W((l)]t4>'(()/w'(O (1.71)
~-+~1

where (1 corresponds to the parametric coordinate identifying the crack tip.

This matter was considered independently by the author [26], using the
extension arguments in section 1.2. It was shown for mappings on the
exterior of the unit cirde and the sub se quent continuation arguments, if
( = Cl 0 is a point on the unit cirde corresponding to a crack tip, then 4> (() can
be considered as analytic in the neighborhood of Cl 0 provided traction-free
conditions are assumed on the crack in the neighborhood of the tip. By
expanding 4>(0 and w(n about (=Clo and utilizing the property w' (ClO) =0,
it can be shown by series reversion and the definition of k, that

(1.72)
The equivalence of equations (1.71) and (1.72) can easily be shown.
Similar arguments can be made for the cas~ of plane rectilinear anisotropy.
In fact,

etc. (1.73)
where Zo is the image point in the z l-plane corresponding to the crack tip.

Multi-valued mapping functions. Corner points in the boundary geometry

occur in many practical problems involving cracks. The local character of
mapping functions with corner-describing properties is well-known, in fact,
the exact mapping functions for a large dass of useful geometries can be
found by using the Schwartz-Christoffel transformation for polygonal
regions. Such mapping functions are multi-valued with branch points
occurring at points corresponding to the vertices of the corners.
It will be shown that the knowledge of the mapping function does not
always lead to a simple solution for the stress analysis. The dass of multi-
valued mapping functions in general does not lead to simple dosed solutions.
It is usually necessary to introduce specialized techniques to analyze the
corresponding geometries.
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 19

To illustrate the difficulties introduced by multi-valued mapping functions,

consider
dz/z = (1- (-K)d(/ ((1 + 2e(-K + (-2K)! (1.74)
which was introduced by Bowie [5] to map the exterior of the unit circle in
the (-plane into the exterior of a circle with k radial cracks emanating from
its boundary. This mapping function has branch points occurring on the unit
circle at the roots of
(1.75)
These branch points describe the corner points corresponding to the inter-
sections ofthe radial cracks and the circle in the z-plane. For the case, k= 1,
z = C [( + (- 1 + (1 + e) + (1 + (- 1) (( 2 + 2e( + I)!] (1.76)
and the two branch points, (=e±i..1., lie on the unit circle with
cos A. = -e, sin). = (l-e 2 )! . (1.77)
In order to render the mapping function single-valued, it is necessary to
choose an appropriate branch cut. Although this cut can be chosen in a
variety of ways, the simplest and most natural choice is along the are of the

Figure 1.3. Branch cut in (-plane.

unit circle joining the two branch points, e.g., Figure 1.3, ABC (or CDA).
In either choice, the mapping function must be considered as discontinuous
across the cut. Therefore, there is an interval on the unit circle for which
(1.78)
It is the property (1.78) that causes the difficulty in solution. In the previous
continuation arguments, the property oflinear relationship depended on the
reduction of equation (1.24) to (1.25). In the present case, such a reduction is
20 O. L. Bowie

no longer valid on the interval defined by equation (1.78) and the problem
is no longer one of linear relationship. In general, therefore, the relatively
direct solutions outlined in the previous section are no longer valid. Alter-
native approaches are considered later on.
There are interesting exceptions ofthe solution difficulties described above.
Recently, Andersson [27J found the solution for a star-shaped contour in an
infinite tensile sheet. This solution is of considerable practical interest since
it provides a basis for the study of crack branching observed frequently in
glass and other very brittle materials.
In Andersson's solution, a mapping function carrying the unit cirde and
its exterior into a branching crack contour and its exterior, respectively, is
described. Such a mapping function has k branch points corresponding to
the k cracks emanating from a common point, and the solution difficulties
would see m consistent with our discussion above. However, for this particular
dass of mapping, an unusual property exists, namely,

w(o-)/w'(o) = g(o) (1.79)

where g(o-) is a rational function of (J. When equation (1.79) is introduced in
(1.12), the stress functions can be found in dosed form by the application of
standard Cauchy integral arguments.

1.4 Method of polynomial approximation

The approximation of complicated boundary geometries by polynomial

mapping functions and the subsequent stress analysis has been utilized for
many years by authors of the Muskhelishvili school. The method gained
much of its initial impetus in this country from a solution by Morkovin
[28J for an ovaloid in an infinite sheet. The main attraction ofthe method is
the directness by which a stress analysis can be carried out for a given
polynomial approximation. The analysis dearly falls into the category of
linear relationship and the stress functions can be found by the arguments
of section 1.2. In fact, Muskhelishvili [8J provides a systematic treatment of
the mathematical analysis for most practical boundary-value probleins in
terms of polynomial mapping functions.

Application to crack problems. The application ofthe method of polynomial

mapping approximation to complicated configurations involving cracks was
first carried out by Bowie [5J for the solution for radial cracks emanating
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 21

from a circular hole in an infinite sheet. Although the exact mapping function
for this problem could be found, e.g. equation (1.74), the stress analysis was
complicated by the multi-valued character of the mapping function.
In this earlier solution, it was recognized that in mapping approximations
of crack configurations it was important to preserve the accuracy of the
crack tip geometry. This was accomplished by ensuring the existence of a
cusp at each approximate crack tip, i.e., co' (O"i) = 0 where O"i are the points on
the unit circle corresponding to the crack tips.
The determination of suitable polynomial approximations was accom-
plished as folIows: First, aseries representation of equation (1.74) was found
in the form

(1.80)

where the An's are real. The An's were obtained numerically from simple
recursive formulae determined by expanding both sides of equation (1.74) in
series form, squaring to remove the radical, then equating coefficients of
equal powers of (. The existence of cusps at locations corresponding to the
crack roots implies
(1.81)
where g(n is a polynomial with coefficients chosen so that the roots of
g«()=O fall inside the unit circle (conformality should be preserved exterior
to the unit circle). Suitable polynomial approximations

co «() = t
c [, + n 1 Gn' 1 - knJ (1.82)

were then obtained by setting Gn~ An with small perturbations made to

satisfy equation (1.81). Due to the rapid convergence of(1.80) for all but the
very short crack lengths, there was no need at that time to devise a more
systematic truncation process. Convergence to reliable values of the energy
release rate was found by comparison ofthe solutions for several values of N
for each crack depth.

Systematic truncation plan. When the series repr~tation of the exact

mapping is slowly convergent, the selection of polynomial approximations
which preserve crack tip geometry without disturbing the overall configura-
tion requires a systematic truncation plan. Such a plan was proposed by
22 o. L. Bowie

Bowie [26J in the solution for rectangular tensile sheet with symmetric edge
cracks. Incorporated in this plan is the additional requirement of the accuracy
of the second derivative of the mapping function at the crack tip. This latter
requirement was motivated by the appearance of w"(o-o) in the calculation
of the stress intensity factor, equation (1.72).
The truncation plan is simple, yet, it has proved to be remarkably effective.
Let the expansion of the exact mapping function be given, for ex am pIe, by
the following form:

I
OCJ

w(n = A n ,2n-l (1.83)

n=l

where it is presumed that the An's can be determined numerically from the
exact mapping function. Furthermore, assume that w"(o-o)=Q (where 0-0
corresponds to the crack tip) can be calculated direct1y from the exact
mapping function. Now, the partial sums of the expansions for w'(O and
w"(n are given by
M
w'(O = I (2n-l)A n ,2n-2
n=l
(1.84)
M
w"(n= I (2n-l)(2n-2)A n ,2n-3.
n= 1

°
Thenumerical valuesof w'(o-o)and w"(o-o) in (1.84)as a function ofthetrunca-
tion index M will reveal, in general, preferredvalues, M*, for which w' (0-0) ~
and w" (0-0) ~ Q, simultaneously. Effective truncations can now be constructed
as follows: Let
M*+2
Y)
W T (~ = 'L...
" "n y2n - 1
c. ~ (1.85)
n=l
where,
sn=A n , n=1,2, ... ,M*; GM*+l= +R; GM*+2= +s. (1.86)
The constants Rand S can be simply calculated to ensure that w;"(o-o)=O
and w:;'(o-o)=Q, exact1y. Thus, preservation ofthe geometry at the crack tip
is made with little disturbance of the overall configuration.
In practice, one should consider approximately three distinct values of
M*, preferably in the ranges, (0,30), (30,60), (60,90) to ensure convergence.
Most solutions exhibit remarkably rapid convergence with respect to M*.
In contrast, iftruncations of equation (1.83) are based only on index number,
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 23

experience has shown that, in many such problems, the corresponding

solutions often exhibit very slow convergence.

An example. To illustrate the truncation process and the ensuing stress

analysis, consider the solution for periodic edge cracks in a semi-infinite
tensile sheet (as illustrated in the Appendix, Figure 1.13). This solution was
found by Bowie and Freese [29] but has not been reported previously.
The mapping function, described by
(1.87)
maps the real axis and the lower half of the '-plane into the region shown in
Figure 1.13. The parameter a can be varied to control the ratio LjW, in fact,
2-!- + (1- a)-!-}
2nLjW = In { 2-!- -(l-a)-!- . (1.88)

The mapping function can be expressed in series form as

(1.89)

where the An's can be computed from simple recursive relations derived
from equations (1.87) and (1.89).

by considering a typical crack tip, e.g.,

and evaluating at n give
,=
Since the mapping function is periodic, cracktip accuracy can be specified

,= n. Differentiating equation (1.87)

w"(n) = Q = i Wj2n(2-2a)-!- . (1.90)

The choices of M* as described previously are made from an examination

of the conditions

(1.91)
M
w~(n) = -i(Wj2n) L nA n( _l)n ~ Q .
n=l

Effective mapping approximations can then be chosen in the form

(1.92)
24 O. L. Bowie

where en = An (n = 1, 2, ... , M*) and the last two coefficients are adjusted so
that equations (1.91) are satisfied exactly.
T 0 complete the stress analysis, set

(1.93)

where the Cl.n'S are real. The structure of equation (1.93) is consistent with the
o bvious symmetry ofthe stresses and loading conditions at infinity. Traction-
free conditions on the finite boundary can be ensured by the previous analytic
continuation arguments. Here use is made of the reflection across the real
axis in the (-plane. Thus,
(1.94)
with the notation of equation (1.14). It is necessary to ensure that I/t(() as
defined by equation (1.94) satisfies analyticity requirements at infinity. From
the loading conditions at infinity, it can easily be shown that I/t(() must
approach - TW(j 4n for large I". From equations (1.92)-(1.94), this
requires
M*+2-k
Cl. k + L {enCl.k+n+nCn+kCl.nj(n+k)} = ekj4k k = 1, 2, ... , M* + 1
n=l
(1.95)
and
(1.96)

This linear system of simultaneous equations must be solved for the Cl.n'S to
complete the solution.
In the calculation of the stress intensity factor, it will be recalled that in
equations (1.66) the crack was assumed to lie along the x-axis. To account
for the crack(s) lying along the imaginary axis in the present problem,
equation (1.72) must be modified to
k1 = 2cf>'{n)j[ -ico"(n)Jt . (1.97)
It then follows that

(1.98)

Numerical results are listed in the Appendix, Table 1. For very short crack
Solutions oi plane crack problems by mapping technique 25

lengths, the numerical results approach the well-known limit for a single
edge crack (Koiter [30J), k 1 -? 1.12T(It).

Observations. The method of polynomial mapping approximation for

crack problems has been applied successfully to several problems where the
exact mapping function is known. In addition to the previous reference,
Bowie [31 J considered damped end conditions for finite rectangular plates
with symmetrie edge cracks. This work was extended by J. M. Bloom [32J
to single edge cracks in rectangular sheet subjected to end rotations. Bowie
and Neal [33J used the method to verify the accuracy of the collocation
solution of Gross et al. [34J for the single edge crack in finite tensile sheet.
Akas and Kobayashi [35J analyzed short edge-notched specimens subjected
to three-point loading. Brown and Kobayashi [36J applied the method to
solve the Dugdale model for estimating the extent of the plastic zone in
single edge-cracked tensile specimens. Rich and Roberts [37J found the
solution for out-of-plane bending of an infinite sheet with radial cracks
emanating from an interior circular hole. Wieselmann [38J automated the
method in a computer pro gram and found the solution for several cases of
oblique edge cracks.
The method of polynomial mapping approximation as described in this
section is seriously limited by the relatively small dass of geometries for
which exact mapping functions can be found. Although the Schwartz-
Christoffel transformation has proved useful for a limited dass of edge-crack
geometries, direct methods for 0 btaining mapping functions for most
geometries are still unavailable. Additional complications are evident when
the physical region is multiply connected. Methods for obtaining mapping
functions for parameter regions with corresponding multiple connectivity
are virtually non-existent.
Some consideration has been given to the matter of introducing iterative
schemes to find suitable polynomial mapping approximations. In principle,
the crack tip geometry can be preserved to the ex te nt ofspecifying w'(O"o) = 0
and the polynomial coefficients determined numerically on the basis of the
remaining geometry by any of several well-known iterative schemes. It is
believed,that such a process would be non-competitive with other methods,
e.g., the modified mapping collocation technique which will be described
later.
26 O. L. Bowie

1.5 An unconventional application of mapping to

edge cracks and notches in semi-infinite regions

The previous sections considered mapping techniques from a conventional

viewpoint. Mapping functions were sought which mapped either exactly or
approximately a rigidly prescribed parameter region into the physical
geometry. The prescribed parameter regions were chosen as the upper
(lower) half plane or the exterior (interior) of the unit circ1e. In this and the
following sections, departure from the conventional choice of parameter
regions will be made. Although the procedure used in this section does not
compare with the radical departure which will be made in section 1.6, it
serves to illustrate the flexibility which can be gained by appealing to the
parametric nature of mapping.

s+Z
I c+
T ,
V
, T
L

sz

Figure 1.4. Edge crack in a semi-infinite region.

The procedure used in this section was introduced by Bowie [39J and
applied to semi-elliptic edge notches in a semi-infinite region under tension.
Here, the procedure will be applied to the problem of an edge crack in a
semi-infinite sheet under tension. This solution was originally carried out by
Bowie and McLaughlin [40J but the results were not reported in the open
literature. An accurate solution to this problem was obtained originally by
Koiter [30J.
Consider the material with an edge crack of length L as occupying the
lower half plane S; in Figure 1.4. The boundary ofthe crack will be denoted
by C-. Now extend 4>(z) into S: by the definition (1.13). 4>(z) is now defined
in the region exterior to C = C + + C - where C + is the reflection of C - across
the real axis. If 4> (z) is now considered as analytic exterior to C (except at
infinity), then, from the previous continuation arguments, the portion ofthe
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 27

boundary lying along the real axis can be considered as traction-free. Apart
from the conditions at infinity, the remaining boundary conditions cor-
respond to traction free conditions on C-. Thus,

</>,(z) + </>' (z)_e 2i1X [(z- z) </>"(z)- </>'(z) - (f)'(z)] = 0 (1.99)

where Cl denotes the angle between the x-axis and the outward normal to
C-.
It is at this point we introduce an auxiliary ,-plane and the mapping func-
tion
(1.100)
The unit circ1e, , = CJ = e i8, and its exterior are mapped into C and its exterior,
respectively, by equation (1.100). Introduce the new notation </>,(z)=<1>('),
1>"(z) = <1>'(n/w'(n, etc. The extended stress function <1>(n can be written as
(1.101)
where T is the applied tension at infinity and <1>(0 is analytic for 1'1> 1 and
0(,-2) forlarge '- It can easily be verified that equation (1.101) is compatible
with the conditions at infinity. Analyticity of <1> (0 assures traction-free condi-
tions along the real axis ofthe physical plane. The conditions corresponding
to equation (1.99) can be written on the unit circ1e as
G (CJ) = <1>1 (CJ) + <1> 1(CJ) + 2<1> 1((J) - 2 (CJ - (J- 1) <1>~ (CJ)/ (1 + (J2) + T = 0 ,
n~ e~ 2n. (1.102)
Before an effective representation of <1>1 (0 can be assumed it is necessary to
study the possible singularities existing on the unit circ1e. It is evident from
equation (1.102) that singularities in <1>1 (0 probably exist at CJ= ± i. (Note
that although G(CJ) is not defined for 0< e< n, singularities at CJ=i must be
considered in the calculation of G(-i) due to the term <1>1(B)). Since ex-
perience dictates that <1> 1 (n has a simple pole at the crack tip, (J = - i, then
from equation (1.102) compatibility of singularities implies that <1>1 (0 has
a third order pole at CJ = + i.
It is convenient, therefore, to introduce the function F(O where

F(,) = (,2 + 1)(' _i)2 <1>1 (0. (1.103)

The function F (0 will have no singularities of a severe nature on the unit
circ1e and will be analytic exterior to the unit circ1e except for a pole of order
two at infinity. Thus, F(() may be represented as
28 o. L. Bowie

L
00

F(()= TR_ 2(2+TR_ 1 (+T Rn(-n, (1.104)

n=O

From obvious stress symmetries, it follows that

R 2K =S2K, K = -1, 0, 1, 2, ...
(1.105)
R2K-1=iT2K-1' K = 0, 1, ...
where S2K and T2K - 1 are real.
The boundary conditions (1.102) can now be expressed in series form by
utilizing equations (1.103)-(1.105). Satisfaction ofthese conditions is assured
by imposing the conditions

j = - 2, - 1, 0, 1, ... . (1.106)

The conditions (1.106) provide a linear system of simultaneous equations

for the determination of the unknowns R j.
The first fifty six coefficients are tabulated in the Appendix, Table 11. The
accuracy of the results can be shown by the calculation ofthe stress intensity
factor. It is easily shown that
ce
k 1 = T(±U) L
K= -1
(S2K- T2K + 1)( _1)K . (1.107)

Using the values in Table 11, we find k 1 = 1.1214 U. This can be compared
with Koiter's result, k 1 = 1.1215 U.
The philosophy ofthis approach represents adeparture from conventional
mapping. A mapping of a standard type of parameter region would involve
branch points in the mapping function corresponding to the junction of the
crack and the real axis. It is interesting that this aspect of the problem has
been formally circumvented in the solution above.
There is a useful dass of edge crack problems which can be solved by this
approach.As examples, the mapping function (1.74) can be used to analyze a
semi-circular edge notch with radial cracks. The problem of an oblique edge
crack could be solved by using the mapping function described in Andersson's
work. In general, if the mapping function is known for a region exterior to a
dosed contour possessing symmetry with respect to an axis, a corresponding
edge notch problem can be solved by the above approach. When such
mapping functions involve branch points, it is assumed that the method of
polynomial approximation can be incorporated as part of the procedure.
Solutions oJ plane crack problems by mapping technique 29

1.6 The modified mapping-collocation method

Recently, an extremely effective technique which combines modified versions

of conformal mapping and boundary collocation arguments has been devel-
oped for two-dimensional crack problems. This method will be referred to as
the MMC (modified mapping-collocation) technique. Tfie MMC technique
was originally presented by Bowie and Neal [6J as a procedure for the analysis
of an internal crack in a finite geometry for isotropic materials. Extension of
the method to orthotropic (or rectilinearly anisotropie) materials was
carried out shortly thereafter by Bowie and Freese [7J. Since that time the
MMC method has been developed and extended to cover a. wide range of
problems involving cracks, notches, cutouts, etc. The remainder of this
chapter will be devoted to a discussion of this technique along with several
numerical illustrations.

The MMC method Jor isotropie problems. The MMC technique depends
basically on combining the most attractive features of conformal mapping
and boundary collocation arguments. With the flexibility gained by com-
bining these methods, it is possible to arrive at a versatile and effective plan
for solving many two-dimensional problems of elasticity.
In the MMC technique a major modification ofthe conventional mapping
procedure is made in the choice of parameter regions. I t is no longer necessary
to seek the mapping function which maps a rigidly prescribed parameter
region into the entire physical region. Instead, only a portion ofthe parameter
region is prescribed and simple mapping forms are chosen to describe key
portions of the physical boundary at the discretion of the analyst. Aigebrai-
cally simple forms of mapping functions can therefore be utilized which,
in turn, can be inverted to locate the entire geometry ofthe parameter region.
The carry-over of the analytic function theory into the parameter plane is
still retained, and, many ofthe useful features ofthe continuation arguments
can be preserved in local regions of the problem.
The difficulty offinding the mapping functions for complicated geometries
is minimized by the plan above. This compromise must entail some sacrifice,
in particular in the direct analytical arguments previously described for the
solution of the boundary value problem. This matter is compensated for by
the modified boundary collocation scheme which is described later.
As an illustration of the modification of the mapping arguments, consider
the original solution by Bowie and Neal [6J for a circular disk with an
30 o. L. Bowie

internal crack, Figure 1.5. Such a problem illustrates the limitations of the
conventional mapping technique. Since the region is doubly connected, a
natural choice of the parameter region is a concentric circular ring. Even
though the exact mapping function happens to be known in this case
(Nehari [41]), the difficulties in finding suitable polynomial mapping ap-
proximation necessary to the stress analysis are formidable.
For this problem, the simple approach of the MMC method consists of
choosing the mapping
(1.108)
The unit circ1e and its exterior in the (-plane are mapped by equation (1.108)

Figure 1.5. Circular disk with internal crack loaded by uniform external tension, T.

into the crack and its exterior in the z-plane. The points in the physical plane
can be simply re1ated to the parameter plane by
(1.109)
In particular, the outer circular boundary will correspond to a c10sed curve
r exterior to the unit circ1e in the (-plane (Figure 1.6).
The parameter region corresponding to equation (1.108) is therefore the
annulus bounded by 1(1 = 1 and r.
Traction-free conditions on the crack can again be handled by applying
the continuation arguments of section 1.2. In particular, if the extension
described by equations (1.21)-(1.24) is adopted, traction-free conditions on
the crack are ensured if the extended stress function cjJ(O is analytic in the
annulus bounded by rand r', where r' is the inverted image of r with respect
to the unit circle.
The determination of cjJ (0 requires a form of representation and the satis-
faction of conditions on r corresponding to the tractions specified on the
circular boundary in the physical plane. For this problem, it will be assumed
that cjJ (() can be represented in the form of a Laurent series. This appears to
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 31

be a reasonable assumption although the boundaries T and T' are not circular.
There is no apriori reason in the present problem to suspect that the region
of convergence of such aseries could not extend over the necessary parameter
region. Thus, taking into account obvious stress symmetries,

L
OCJ

c!>(() = T Cl n (2n+l (1.110)

- OCJ

where the Cln'S are real and must be determined from the boundary conditions
on T.
The choice ofmapping function (1.108) is by no means unique although it
does provide a basis for generating power series expansions with traction-
,,--...... 1:
;' "-

:' @
__~ ,1\
I' \,.
II~I=' \

I I } I
\ '--' J
\ I
\ {
\,.
,'--"" / /

Figure 1.6. Region defined in the parameter plane.

free conditions on the crack. In general, the analyst has the option of the
choice of mapping function. The choice will generally depend on the plan
of expansion of the stress function and clearly could vary with the particular
problem as will be illustrated in section 1.7. The practical restriction on
cu (() is that its inverse be readily calculable. It is clear that unspecified
portions of parametric boundary, e.g., T, must be found in order to consider
the boundary conditions. Since boundary collocation arguments will be
used, only a pointwise knowledge of the boundary of the parameter regions
is required.
The method of boundary collocation of a stress function for solving crack
problems was developed by Gross et al. [34] and Kobayashi [42]. Gross
solved the problem of a single edge crack in rectangular tensile sheet
by boundary collocation of a stress function derived by Williams [22].
Kobayashi solved the same problem by boundary collocation of aseries
of complex stress functions derived by generalizing a stress function due to
Westergaard. In recent years several crack problems have been studied
effectively by boundary collocation arguments.
As a method, boundary collocation has the advantage of simplicity. Ifthe
32 o. L. Bowie

analyst can find a representation of the biharmonic stress function suitable

for a particular problem it is an easy matter to program on a digital computer
the boundary conditions at specified boundary stations. The corresponding
linear system of simultaneous equations can be directly solved for the stress
function coefficients for a given truncation ofthe expansion. Since the condi-
tions are considered at discrete boundary points, irregularities in the bound-
ary geometry create little disturbance in the computational set-up. In this
sense, the adoption of this plan to compliment the modified mapping
approach, e.g., to complete the analysis on 1" to determine the an's in equation
(1.110), is very attractive.
There are several, somewhat subtle, pitfalls which must be considered in
the application of boundary collocation arguments. Perhaps the most
important consideration is the matter of completeness of the representation.
Now, as is commonly the case, let the stress function be represented by an
infinite number of terms. Such a representation could be complete, incom-
plete, or even overly complete, mathematically, for the actual solution. On
the other hand, the conventional boundary collocation process by its very
nature will generally yield a set of numerical values for the coefficients for a
truncated form of the representation. Furthermore, large errors in the
"off-point" intervals of the boundary can occur in such a manner that
"apparent" convergence can be found to an incorrect result. For example,
simply take a known function analytic in the region of a circle and compute
its boundary values on the circle. Now assurne the obviously incorrect form
of a Laurent series and apply the conventional-boundary collocation
argument. It will be found that the coefficients of the incorrect terms of the
expansion will not necessarily approach zero with refinement of mesh
spacing on the boundary. Frequently, the coefficients will appear to converge
at the expense of an increase in the off-point boundary error. Clearly, the
conventional boundary collocation argument does not have the finesse to
evaluate over-specification or recognize underspecification of functional
representation.
Since the representation of stress functions for complicated geometries
must be somewhat heuristic, e.g., equation (1.110), the analyst is faced with
the problem of assessment of the accuracy of solution when boundary
collocation is used. Furthermore, a rigorous proof of completeness of
representation for most problems would be impossible. In fact, the require-
ment of completeness is not always desirable. Many effective solutions are
asymptotic in nature in that the desired information can be accurately
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 33

determined although the solution as a whole is incorrectly represented. On

the other hand, a modification of the conventional boundary collocation is
elearly necessary to avoid "apparent" convergence to incorrect results.
In the MMC method, a modification of conventional boundary collocation
is introduced by heuristically providing a rational assessment of the effects
of residual errors in the boundary conditions on the accuracy of the desired
information. The plan is simple, as it should be, and is motivated by Saint
Venant's principle. It will be assumed that the desired information is the
crack-tip stress intensity factor. Now the effects of residual boundary errors
are grouped into two types, namely, remote and local. Errors remote to the
crack tip will be assessed on the basis ofresultant force and resultant moment
in keeping with Saint Venant's argument. Errors local to the crack tip imply
that the crack tip is sufficiently elose to boundary to be influenced by local
errors in the boundary conditions.
The effects of residual boundary errors of the remote type can be studied
conveniently by considering the resultant force f1 +ifz, e.g., equation (1.6),
and the resultant moment Mo, e.g., equation (1.7), calculated as a function of
the arc length on the boundary. Hfl +ifz is satisfied at two successive bound-
ary stations, then the residual error in stress boundary conditions in the
intermediate boundary interval must correspond to a self-equilibrating
distribution of force. A measure of the moment effect along a boundary
are L is provided by

Mo = L(xY,,- yXn)ds = - L (xdfl + ydfz)

= - (Xfl + yfZ)L + L (f1 dx + fzdy) . (1.111)

It is elear from equation (1.111) that off-point errors inf1 andfz can build up
into an accumulated moment effect due to the last integral. On the other hand,
it is evident that the accuracy of f1 + ifz is the dominant factor in general for
minimizing remote types of error effect. (A strict adherence to the Saint
Venant argument would require aresolution ofthe moment into components
with respect to orthogonal axes, e.g., Mx and My. Such aresolution is awk-
ward to formulate compared with equation (1.7) and the small gain made in
the argument does not seem to justify the considerable additional effort.)
In the MMC method, the following modification of the conventional
boundary collocation plan is suggested by the preceding considerations. At
each boundary station, the five conditions corresponding to Mo, f1 + ifz,
34 O. L. Bowie

and N 1 +i Tl are imposed where N 1 and Tl correspond to the normal and

tangential components ofthe applied stress. Then the coefficients ofthe stress
function can be determined on the basis of satisfying these conditions in a
least square sense. With this modification, the effects of remote errors are
minimized by Mo, fl' and f2 and the effects of local errors are controlled by
N 1 and Tl' The analyst is therefore provided with a rational basis for error
assessment.
There is some flexibility in the plan which can be deduced from its own
arguments. The role of Mo is generally secondary compared with fl and f2
as was shown by equation (1.111), thus, Mo can frequently be omitted from
the plan. When the completeness of the stress function representation is
obvious, accurate results can be expected by using only f1 and f2 provided
the crack tip is remote to the physical boundary. In regions where the crack
tip is near the boundary, N 1 and Tl must be considered in the plan at least
over an interval of the boundary near the crack tip. Finally, when there is
reason to suspect that the representation is over- or underspecified, as
frequently occurs, the fully modified plan should be adopted for the complete
range of computation.
To complete the solution of the problem shown in Figure 1.5, truncations
of equation (1.110) are considered.
N
cp(') = T L C(n,2n+ 1 . (1.112)
-M
The stress boundary conditions on the circular boundary are
(1.113)
Thus,
Nt -i Tl = <1>(0+ <1>(0
e 2iO --
- w'(O {w(0+,-2w'(1/0[~(1/0+<1>(0-w(1/0<1>'(0]} = T, 'EC:
(1.114)
where <1>(0= cp'(O/ w'(O, etc., and w(O is the mapping function (1.108). The
boundary condition in terms of the force resultant becomes

cp(O-cp(lg)+ [w(O-w(lg)] <1>(0 = f1 +if2 = Tw(O, 'E c:. (1.115)

Similarly, a condition corresponding to Mo for (E c: can be derived from
equation (1.7).
Truncated series forms (equation (1.112)) when substituted into (1.114),
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 35

(1.115) and the moment condition, lead to five real conditions at each bound-
ary station for the determination of the (Xn's. For given set of boundary
stations, the (Xn's can be determined on the basis of minimizing the total of
each error squared and summed over the boundary stations. The numerical
results of this calculation are available in the paper by Bowie and Neal [6J
and will not be repeated here.
The numerical results obtained for the previous problem were remarkably
consistent with the heuristic arguments which formed the basis ofthe MMC
method. For short and intermediate crack lengths, it was found that reliable
crack-tip stress intensities can be obtained by the use of f1 +ifz alone. For
the deeper cracks a build-up of the stress errors on the boundary was
observed which, in turn, affected the reliability of the computed stress
intensity factors. No systematic process involving the choices ofthe trunca-
tion indices, M and N, and the point spacing on the boundary could be found
to eliminate this difficulty. On the other hand, with the use of both f1 + ifz
and N 1 + i Tl' reliable results were obtained for very deep cracks. The effect
of the moment condition, Mo, in general appeared to be secondary although
for very deep cracks a slight improvement in accuracy was obtained. The
trends indicated here (based on subsequent experience ofthe MMC method)
are typical of the behavior of a well-specified representation of the stress
function.
The versatility ofthe MMC method is quite evident. The outer boundary
and loading in Figure 1.5 could have been chosen as any c10sed contour
with arbitrary loading provided geometrie irregularities or singular loads
are not introduced which would invalidate the form of expansion (1.110).
In the latter instance, appropriate changes in the form of expansion would
be required. Several isotropie solutions have been carried out since the
original method was devised. Bowie and Neal [43J found an accurate
solution for the well-known problem of a central crack in a uniformly
stressed strip. Bowie and Freese [44J found the solution for a radial crack
in a circular ring. Several additional examples are described in section 1.7.
It was brought to the author's attention that Newman [ 45J independently
studied the use of f1 + ifz in the least square sense. He has recently, Newman
[ 46J, carried out several applications of his "modified boundary-collocation
method" to crack problems. The accuracy of his results is consistent with
our own observations. His method, which is an abbreviated version of the
MMC method, should be used with caution in situations where both force
and stress conditions in the collocation plan are required.
36 O. L. Bowie

The MMC methodfor anisotropy. The MMC method was applied success-
fully to the two-dimensional problems of rectilinear anisotropy by Bowie
and Freese [7] when they considered the solution for a central crack in an
orthotropic rectangular panel under tension (Figure 1.7). The approach is
very similar to that of the isotropie case; thus, only abrief outline of the
analysis will be summarized here.

====:::::l'--
} ----X
I•
ce

2L .I

T
Figure 1.7. Central crack in rectangular orthotropic panel under tension, (Jy= T.

The mapping plan consists of choosing the simple mappings

z =w(()=(L/2)((+(-1)
Zl = W 1 ((1) = W((l) = (L/2)((1 +(1 1 ) (1.116)
Z2 = W2((2) = W((2) = (L/2)((2 + G: 1) .

On the unit circ1e, (, (1 and (2 coincide, that is, the three parameter regions
defined to map into z, Zl' Z2 intersect on the crack and its images (section 1.3).
Otherwise, (1 and (2 are distinct and are found from
(1 = (z d L )+ [(zd L )2 -lJ!
(1.117)
(2 = (Z2/ L ) + [(Z2/ L )2 -1]! .
Traction-free conditions on the crack can be ensured by applying the con-
tinuation arguments indicated in equation (1.48) and illustrated in (1.61)-
(1.65). In the present problem, the parameter region for which F(O is defined
is a finite annulus. Although the annulus is not circular we again make the
reasonable assumption of a Laurent expansion for F(n, thus,

L
00

F(() = T (an+ibn)(n. (1.118)

- 00

The coefficients an+ib n can be determined by applying the modified bound-

Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 37

ary collocation arguments to the remaining boundary conditions correspond-

ing to the loads acting on the perimeter of the rectangle in Figure 1.7. The
force conditions become
(1 +is 1) F«( 1) + (1 +i sz) [BF (1/(2) + C F«(z) J+ (1 + is 1) F«( 1)
+(I+iSz)[BF(I/~z)+CF«(z)] =fl +ifz (1.119)
and the stress boundary conditions can be easily found from
O"x= 2Re {siF'«(I)/o/«(I)+s~[ -BF'(I/(z)/(~OJ'«(z)+CF'«(z)/OJ'«(z)]}
ete. (1.120)
In equations (1.119) and (1.120) the notation is that defined in section 1.2.
The modified eollocation argument ean be applied in essentially the same
manner as we have deseribed previously for the isotropie ease. The ehoiee of
boundary stations can be made on the reet angular boundary in the z-plane.
These stations along with the material properties determine ZI and Zz and,
henee from equations (1.117), the corresponding (1 and (z loeations. The
numerieal trends previously discussed in the isotropie ease carry over in a
similar manner to the problems we have solved in orthotropy. The moment
resultant Mo again plays a secondary role and ean be generally omitted in
the MMC plan with little loss of aecuraey.
In the earliest version of this solution, for the sake of concreteness in the
numerieal ealculations, it was assumed that the principal direetions of
elastie symmetry coineide with the x- and y-axes in Figure 1.7. In this case,
from obvious stress symmetries,
rY:!

F(n = T[szl(sz -SI)J I cn(Zn+ 1 (1.121)

-rY:!

where the cn's are real. This case falls into Sih and Liebowitz's [47J eategory
of "plane symmetrie loading" and equation (1.73) reduces to
k 1 = (2111)[ (S2 - SI)/ sz] F'(I)
rY:!

= (2T/ IJ) I
-rY:!
(2n+ l)c n · (1.122)

It should be noted that geometry and loading symmetries are not suffieient
to justify the stress symmetries implied by equation (1.121). The compatibility
of the material properties must also be considered. E.g., in the present ex-
ample, if the principal direetions of the material properties are not assumed
to coineide with the x- and y-axes, the reduetion of equation (1.118) to
38 O. L. Bowie

(1.121) would no longer be valid. In this latter situation, equation (1.122)

would no longer hold, and, over a range of the parameters, there would be
both a k 1 and k 2 contribution in the calculation of the stress intensity
factors.
An interesting example of the orthotropic case is provided by 8 1 = i ß1
and 82 =iß2' In this case,
ß1ß2 = (EdE2)~
(1.123)
ßl +ß2 = 2t{(EdE2)t-V12+El/2,u12}
where, in equations (1.26)
a ll = 1/E 1 , a 22 = 1/E 2 , a 66 = 1/,u12
(1.124)
a 16 = a 26 = 0, a 12 = -V 12/E 1 = -V 2l /E 2 .

In the above, E 1 and E 2 are the Young's moduli, V 1 2 and V 21 ' the Poisson
ratios, and ,u12' the shear modulus.
By fixing ßl = 1 and considering ß2 = 1 + 8 in the solution of the problem
corresponding to Figure 1.7, two interesting results were obtained. First, it
was found that the isotropic solution, 8 = 0, can be accurately bracketed by
solving for small values of + 8. For many practical purposes, therefore, there
is no need to consider two separate analyses. The second and perhaps the
most significant result was the dear indication of the dependence of the
orthotropic stress intensity factors on the elastic constants. In contrast, for
boundary value problems of this type, the isotropic stress intensity factors
are independent of the material constants. Thus, the equivalence of the
anisotropic stress intensity factors for boundary value problems involving
self-equilibrating load systems on the crack (which was commonly accepted
before this work) is not gene rally valid. (It can be shown, however, that there
are large ranges of the geometry where such an approximation is valid.)
The MMC method has been applied successfully to several additional
problems in orthotropic elasticity. Gandhi [48] extended the original
solution above to the case of several angular orientations of the crack for
various orientations ofthe material properties. Freese [49] has computerized
the procedure for a useful dass of notches and cutouts in orthotropic panels.

1.7 Several applications of the MMC method

In this section, consider several representative numerical solutions recently

obtained by the MMC method. The problems are selected to illustrate
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 39

useful variations within the technique. Rectangular outer boundaries are

chosen only for the sake of concreteness. Only isotropic solutions are specif-
ically considered due to the wide range of material properties in orthotropic
analysis. Yet, the carry-over of ideas to orthotropic analysis will be evident.
The numerical data are included in the Appendix and generally are not
previously available in the open literature.

Normal edge crack in a rectangular panel. In Figure 1.8a, we consider a

rectangular panel with an edge crack oflength L loaded by a uniform tension
acting over an interval oflength a. The total force acting on the interval will
be denoted by P and we shall consider P as constant throughout the cal-
culation. With P fixed and allowing a-O, the limiting case for the familiar
problem ofthe "crackline loaded single-edge-cracked specimen" is obtained.

Br ----...,
AI :
I
UNIT I
h CIRCLE IC
I
w I

E, i
OL-----...J

(b) (-plane.
Figure 1.8. Edge crack in rectangular panel with orientation 1.

Srawley and Gross [50J have considered the latter problem by a boundary
collocation technique.
With the geometry orientation shown in Figure 1.8a, it is natural to choose
the mapping function (1.108) to describe the crack, i.e.
z = w(O = (L/2)(C +(-1).
~ ~
Then, the interval EGA in the (-plane maps into the crack and ABCD E maps
into the rectangular boundary. Traction-free conditions on the crack are
ensured by adopting the extension argument of equations (1.21)-(1.24). The
extended parameter region now becomes the interior ofC'B'ABCDED'C'.
The extended stress function <p (0 must now be considered analytic in this
simply-connected region.
Apower series representation of <p (0 is at best awkward in the present
40 O. L. Bowie

circumstance. The point ( = 0 is not even in the region. Alternative points of

expansion within the region, e.g., (= 1, are not promising due to the shape
of the region. Such expansions, however, could be expected to provide
reasonable asymptotic results with the MMC arguments. This was verified
numerically. It was found, however, that such expansions had difficulty in
matching boundary conditions along AB (ED).
An alternative plan which proved to be very effective is indicated in
Figure 1.9. The argument is essentially that used in section 5. First, 4>(z) is

F
r------i
I \
I \
I \
E \

BOA)e
I

D(
\
\ T f
\ I
\
L ______ ...lI
G
(a) z-plane. (b) (-plane.
Figure 1.9. Edge crack in rectangular panel with orientation 11.

extended across the real axis by equation (1.13). Then, if 4>{z) is analytic
within the rectangle RNN'R' except for the crack and its reflection, traction-
free conditions are guaranteed on the segments OS and OM. For parametric
representationofthisregion, themappingfunction(I.100)isagainintroduced,
l.e.,
z = w(() = (L/2)(( _(-1).
The problem then becomes one offinding 4>(() defined in the annular region
illustrated in Figure 1.9b. Boundary conditions on AEB (corresponding to
the crack) and on CFD (corresponding to the specified traction on MNRS)
can be imposed by the modified collocation process.
The arguments in section 1.5 relative to singularities on the unit circle are
again pertinent and it is again appropriate to introduce a function F{()
defined a manner comparable to equation (1.103). It is now reasonable to
assume a Laurent expansion for F {(), i.e.,
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 41

(1.125)
-00

Since boundary collocation arguments are used to determine the an's, it was
found advisable to impose the force conditions at the crack tip as an explicit
relation between the coefficients for a truncated form of equation (1.125).
Accuracy at the crack tip is thus direct1y weighted which is highly desirable,
considering that boundary conditions along the crack are enforced by
collocation in this formulation.
The above plan proved to be very effective. Freese [49] carried out the
numerical solution shown in Table IH. The quantity H where
(1.126)
was computed for various ajW and LjW ratios for a square pan~l Wjh= 1.0.
For ajW= 1, the results compare within one percent with Bowie and Neal
[33]. As ajw~O, the values of H can be obtained by extrapolation to within
an estimated accuracy of one percent. The agreement with the corresponding
data ofSrawley and Gross [50] is to within two percent. The apparent growth
in discrepancy for shorter and deeper crack lengths is consistent with their
stated limitations of their stress function representation.

Oblique edge crack in a rectangular panel. Consider now the ca se of an

oblique edge crack in a rectangular panel as illustrated in Figure 1.10.
N

E ~
VOR M

(b) '-plane.
Figure 1.10. Oblique edge crack in a rectangular panel under uniform tension, T.

Again, c/>(z) will be considered extended across the real axis by equation
(1.13). Then, if c/>(z) is analytic within the rectangle B'BCC' except for the
crack and its reflection, traction-free conditions are guaranteed on the
segments OA and OD.
42 O. L. Bowie

This problem was chosen to illustrate the flexibility in the MMC method
of the choice of mapping. It will be recalled that a criterion for the choice
was the relative simplicity by which the inverse can be found. In the present
case, it is desired to find a mapping of the unit circ1e and its exterior into a
bent crack (the inc1ined crack and its reflection) and its exterior. Such a
mapping function is a special case of Andersson's c1ass of mappings [27J
and can be written as

z = w (() = A ~- 1 (( - l)A (~ + 1)2 - A. (1.127)

~
The interval RSV of the unit circ1e maps into the physical crack inc1ined by
the angle he/2 to the x-axis. The point S, corresponding to (= eiß, cor-
responds to the crack tip and can be calculated from

ß = Arctan {
(2A
1-=-/~
'2t} 2 • (1.128)

The constant A in equation (1.127) is chosen so that

(1.129)

The mapping function (1.127) can be inverted by any of several iterative

schemes to find the corresponding boundary in the parameter region.
The solution of this problem was carried out by Freese [49J. Again the
anticipation of singularities on the unit circle must be considered. A Laurent
series is assumed for the corresponding F (() and the coefficients are deter-
mined by the MMC arguments from the consideration of boundary condi-
~ ~
tions on RSV and MNE.
Numerical results are presented in the Appendix in the form of curves
(Figure 1.16). Since the solution is generally non-symmetric about the crack
tip, there will be both a k 1 and k 2 component of the stress intensity factor.
In an obvious manner the quantities H 1 and H 2 will be defined as
H1 =.ktl T(IJ)
(1.130)
H 2 = k 2 / T(IJ).

Curves of H 1 and H2 are shown as a function of A for various crack depths

L/W for a rectangle with h/W = 2.0. When A = 1, obviously H 2 = 0 and the
value of H 1 correspond to the normal edge crack solution previously
referenced.
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 43

Mixed boundary value problemfor a central crack in a rectangular panel. As

an illustration of the MMC method for mixed boundary value problems,
consider the problem of a central crack in a rectangular panel with con-
strained ends (Figure 1.11). This problem was solved recently by Neal [51J
to determine the effects of rigidity of the end constraints on the crack tip
stress intensity factors.

( ) h E
I. 2L .1

Figure 1.11. Central crack in rectangular panel with constrained ends.

Two extreme types of boundary conditions were considered which will be

denoted by case 1 and case 2.
Case 1.
u = 0, v= vo (constant) on AB
(1.131)
u = 0, v= -vo (constant) on CD

Case 2.
T xy = 0, v = vo (constant) on AB
(1.132)
T xy = 0, v= -v o (constant) on CD
where u and v are the horizontal and vertical displacements, respectively.
In both cases the crack and segments AD and BC are considered traction-
free.
The mapping and extension phase ofthe analysis was handled in the same
manner as described in section 1.6. Along BC and AD, the force and stress
conditions in the MMC plan are prescribed. For consistency on the ends
AB and CD, to the conditions (1.131) and (1.132) are added the additional
44 O. L. Bowie

(redundant) conditions.

Case 1. Bu/ax = av/ax = 0 on AB, CD (1.133)

Case 2. f1 = 0, av/ax = 0 on AB, CD. (1.134)

In multiply connected regions there is an interesting difficulty associated
with constants of integration in f1 + if2' In the present problem, for example,
when the extension plan of section 1.6 is chosen for a traction-free condition
on the crack, the constant of integration for f1 + if2 has been chosen as zero.
Thus, f1 +if2 at E (Figure 1.11) is not arbitrary, in fact, it is the resultant
force acting on the segment of the real axis from the crack tip z = L to the
point E. In the case of symmetry, if Fis the total force acting on AB, then
obviously f1 +if2 =F/2 at E. In general, when symmetry is not present, it is
necessary to consider J~ + iJ2 at E as an unknown constant of integration
and treat it as an unknown value determined by the solution.
It was found convenient in the present problem to introduce an average
tensile stress, TA' acting on AB, where

(1.135)

Then, obviously

(1.136)

Instead of choosing V o and determining TA' it is convenient to fix TA and

treat V o as an unknown constant in the calculations.
Numerical results for a square specimen, h/W= 1.0 are presented in the
Appendix. In the calculations, K was chosen as K=2.2 (see Equation (1.4)).
It is clear from a comparison of H(l) and H(2) that the effect ofthe manner of
end constraint is relatively insignificant. It is interesting to compare the
results with H(3) and H(4), the tension solutions for rectangular panels with
central cracks with h/W;:?; 3.0 and h/W = 1.0, respectively. Evidently the end
constraints have altered the tension solution for the short specimen in such
a manner that the solution is equivalent to the tension of a long strip with a
central crack.

Radial cracks emanatingfrom a circular cut-out in a rectangular panel. Now

consider the solution for radial cracks emanating from a circular cut-out in
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 45

a rectangular panel (Figure 1.12). Conceptually this problem is similar to

the radial crack in a circular ring carried out by Bowie and Freese [44J. The
present problem will be approached from a somewhat different point of
view by considering the orthotropic sol ution for Figure 1.12 and then demon-
strating that the isotropie solution can be found numerically by approaching
the appropriate limiting values of the orthotropic constants.

h r0i
I. .1 2L

(a) (z-plane),
Figure 1.12. Radial cracks emanating from a circular cut-out in a rectangular panel.

The mapping function (1.116) will be adopted, i.e.,

Z1 = W('1) = (L/2)('1 +'1 1)
z2 = W('2) = (L/2)('2 +(2'1) .
Thus, in the 'l-plane the ares AB and CD --
.- of the unit circle map into the two
intervals in the zl-plane corresponding to the crack segments (Figure 1.12b).
Similarly, the contours Cl' C 2 and r map into the contours in the zl-plane
corresponding to the upper and lower halves of the circular cut-out and the
rectangular boundary, respectively. These contours can be ca1culated by
using eq uations (1.117). A similar consideration holds for the second auxiliary
plane, the (2-plane.
Traction-free conditions on the crack segments can again be ensured by
applying the continuation arguments in equations (1.48) and (1.61)-(1.65).
The reflected boundaries are indicated by primes in Figure 1.12b. It is clear
that both parameter regions will have a connectivity offour. Thus, F(n was
chosen as

I + I
CI:) CI:)

F(O = a n (2n+ 1 bnn(2 + 1t n . (1.137)

- 00 Tl=l
46 O. L. Bowie

Freese [49J carried out this solution for h/W = 2.0 and 2r/W = 0.25 for
several values of 2L/W and the results are shown in the Appendix. In these
calculations, the isotropie solution was found by setting the orthotropic
constants sl=1.0i, s2=i and sl=0.99i and s2=i. The numerical results
coincide to three significant figures in both cases.
By coincidence, Newman [46] solved this problem by least squares and
the force conditions. The agreement is very good as can be seen from Table V.
For very deep crack lengths, the effect of the cut-out is negligible with our
choice of dimensions. This can be verified by the excellent agreement with the
previous solution of Bowie and Neal [43J for a central crack in a rectangle
with h/W=2.00.

1.8 Summary

Outlined in the preceding sections is an evolution of techniques involving

conformal mapping and analytic function theory for the solution of two-
dimensional crack problems. Utilization of the rapid growth in computer
technology is reflected in the nature ofthe recent approaches, yet, a consider-
able emphasis on basic analysis is retained. Such a compromise enjoys
several redeeming features as compared with strictly numerical procedures.
The sterility of routine arithmetic approaches is avoided and much of the
interesting beauty of the continuum theory is preserved for the analyst.
Furthermore, the analyst is encouraged to develop improvement in analyt-
ical methods. In turn, the analyst is rewarded by a deeper insight into the
evaluation of solution accuracy, particularly for problems which are locally
characterized by mathematical singularities. At the same time, with a
compromise on the requirement of strict mathematical rigor, flexible
procedures can be adopted which utilize current computer capability,
thereby allowing for an educated numerical solution for most problems.
In the author's opinion, the MMC method at the present time appears to
be a very promising approach to the numerical solution of most two-
dimensional problems of elasticity. An interesting balance of analysis and
computer applications is basic to the approach. In addition to the crack
problems discussed in this chapter, other notch and cut-out configurations
in finite geometries have been considered. A variety of interesting analyticaI
difficulties challenge the analyst, yet, when resolved lead to numerically
accurate solutions in both isotropie and orthotropic studies. Several of the
latter soIutions are currently being used in conjunction with parallel ex-
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 47

perimental investigations to determine the extent of correlation ofhomogene-

ous orthotropic theory with the behavior of composite materials.
Several improvements are needed immediately in stress function represen-
tation. F or example, apower se ries representation is woefully inadequate to
handle certain geometrical regions. Certainly, also, the mathematical
formalization of the conditions for an adequate asymptotic representation
ofthe desired solution implied by the MMC arguments would be of consider-
able practical value. The extension of the modified collocation arguments
to three-dimensional problems would also appear to be achallenging and
promising direction for future work. A combination of modified collocation
and finite element procedures offers still another potentially effective direc-
tion. In general, there is an apparent need for a new set of formalized mathe-
matical theorems with an eye set on the auxiliary application of computer
capability of the present and the future.
48 O. L. Bowie

1.9 Appendix

(1) Solution for periodic edge cracks in a semi-infinite sheet under tension.

w
L

Figure 1.13. Periodic edge cracks in semi-infinite sheet.

TABLE I
Stress intensity jactors, k l , jor periodic edge cracks in a semi-injinite tensile strip

L L/W k1/T(L)t L L/W kdT(L)t

0.00 0.000 1.12 4.36 0.693 0.48

0.32 0.051 1.09 4.88 0.776 0.45
0.65 0.104 1.03 5.58 0.887 0.42
0.96 0.153 0.95 5.99 0.952 0.41
1.23 0.195 0.88 6.68 1.063 0.39
1.49 0.237 0.81 8.99 1.430 0.33
1.76 0.281 0.75 11.29 1.797 0.30
2.06 0.328 0.69 13.59 2.163 0.27
2.42 0.385 0.64 15.89 2.530 0.25
2.89 0.459 0.58 18.20 2.896 0.23
3.20 0.509 0.55 20.50 3.263 0.22
3.64 0.578 0.52
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 49

(2) U nconventional application of mapping to an edge crack in a semi-infinite

region.

L
T T

Figure 1.14. Edge crack in semi-infinite region.

TABLE II
Stress Junction coefficients Jor single-edge crack in semi-injinite tensile sheet

K S2K T2K + 1 K S2K TzK + 1

-1 -2.51562 0.94674 13 -0.00176 -0.00031

0 0.94401 -0.12669 14 -0.00142 -0.00031
1 0.10043 0.08003 15 -0.00114 -0.00036
2 -0.00379 0.04932 16 -0.00093 -0.00032
3 -0.01877 0.02674 17 -0.00076 -0.00035
4 -0.01763 0.01452 18 -0.00062 -0.00029
5 -0.01395 0.00798 19 -0.00051 -0.00032
6 -0.01064 0.00442 20 -0.00042 -0.00026
7 -0.00801 0.00239 21 -0.00036 -0.00029
8 -0.00611 0.00125 22 -0.00029 -0.00022
9 -0.00465 0.00055 23 -0.00025 -0.00025
10 -0.00362 0.00017 24 -0.00020 -0.00018
11 -0.00281 -0.00009 25 -0.00019 -0.00023
12 -0.00223 -0.00020 26 -0.00014 -0.00015
50 O. L. Bowie

(3) Normal edge crack in a rectangular panel.

h
L
w

Figure 1.15. Loading of rectangular panel with edge crack.

TABLE III
Tabular values oJ H = Wk 1 /P (L)! Jor W/h= 1.0

~w
u/W
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

1.0 1.23 1.49 1.85 2.32 3.01 4.15 6.40 12.0

0.9 1.43 1.72 2.13 2.67 3.45 4.73 7.22 13.4
0.8 1.67 1.99 2.45 3.05 3.91 5.31 8.05 14.8
0.7 1.95 2.31 2.82 3.48 4.40 5.92 8.88 16.2
0.6 2.31 2.70 3.25 3.95 4.93 6.54 9.71 17.6
0.5 2.78 3.19 3.76 4.48 5.48 7.17 10.50 19.0
0.4 3.38 3.76 4.32 5.03 6.03 7.78 11.40 20.4
0.3 4.09 4.43 4.92 5.57 6.57 8.39 12.20 21.8
0.2 4.88 5.16 5.54 6.13 7.12 9.02 13.00 23.2
0.1 5.64 5.88 6.16 6.68 7.67 9.65 13.90 24.7
0.0(1) 6.40 6.60 6.78 7.22 8.22 10.30 14.80 26.1
0.0(2) 6.70 6.68 7.14
. 8.14 10.10 14.60

(1) Obtained by extrapolation.

(2) Srawley and Gross [50].
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 51

(4) Oblique edge crack in rectangular panel.

h
T ·1
I..~--'------./
1.1 h/W - 2.0

1.0

.9
wl~~~A.n/2 ~ T
.8

s:
t-
.7
-.
:2'.6
~ .5
:J:

.4

.2
.1

A
Figure 1.16a. H 1 as a function of A for hjW = 2.0.

LlW-
hlW - 2.0
6.0 .7

h
5.0 T '" '"

4.0
wI ~ ~1t/2
~ T

1.0 - .1

.O~-L_L--L_L-~_~~_ _~~~~~

1. 0 1.2 1.4 1.6 2.0

Figure 1.16b. H 2 as a function of A for hjW=2.0.

52 O. L. Bowie

(5) Mixed boundary value problemfor a central crack in a rectangular sheet.

( ) h
_ 2L

w
Figure 1.17. Central crack in rectangular panel with constrained ends.

TABLE IV
Tabular values of H for h/W = 1.0

2L/W 0.040 0.100 0.200 0.400 0.500 0.667 0.741 0.800

H(1) 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.10 1.17 1.39 1.57 1.78
H(2)
1.00 1.00 1.02 1.10 1.17 1.40 1.59 1.80
H(3)
1.00 1.01 1.02 1.11 1.19 1.41 1.59 1.81
H(4)
1.00 1.01 1.06 1.22 1.33 1.60 1.78 2.00
h
jl V 5 )jTA 0.198 0.200 0.210 0.253 0.290 0.389 0.460 0.540
h
jl V 6 )jTA 0.200 0.203 0.213 0.255 0.291 0.391 0.464 0.545

(1) Case 1
(2) Case 2
(3) [43], h/W ~3.OO
(4) [43], h/W = 1.00
(5) Case 1
(6) Case 2
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 53

(6) Radial cracks emanating from a circular cut-out in a rectangular panel.

2.8

2r/W-.25
hlW - 2.0
2.4

h
2.0

s:f-1.6-
--
~
ß
:::c
1.2

.8-

.4

·~0~-.~1--.~2~-.3~-.~4--~.5---.6~-.~7--~.8---.~9~
2L1W
Figure 1.18. The functiün H=K/T(IJ) für h/W=2.00. 2r/W=0.25.

TABLE V
Tabular values far H far h/W=2.00 and 2r/W=0.25

2LjW 0.25 0.27 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90

MMC 0.0 0.85 1.08 1.18 1.22 1.28 1.40 1.57 1.89 2.58
Newman 0.0 0.85 1.08 1.18 1.22 1.28 1.40 1.57 1.90 2.62
54 O. L. Bowie

References

[1] Inglis, C. E., Trans. Roy. Inst. Naval Architecks, 60, p. 219 (1913).
[2] Kolosoff, G., Doctoral dissertation, Dorpat (1909).
[3] Irwin, G. R., J. Appl. Mech., 24, p. 361 (1957).
[4] Griffith, A A., Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Series A221, p. 163 (1921).
[5] Bowie, O. L., J. Math. and Phys., 35, p. 60 (1956).
[6] Bowie, O. L. and D. M. Neal, Intl. J. Fracture Mech., 6, p. 199 (1970a).
[7] Bowie, O. L. and C. E. Freese, Army Symp. on Solid Mech., AMMRC, Watertown, Mass.
(To appear in Intl. J. Frac. Mech.) (1970a).
[8] Muskhelishvili, N.I., Some Basic Problems ofMathematical Theory ofElasticity, Noordhoff,
Groningen, Holland (1953).
[9] Leknitskii, S. G., Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropie Elastic Body, Holden-Day, San
Francisco (1963).
[10] Timoshenko, S. and J. N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York (1951).
[11] Savin, G. N., Stress Concentration Around Holes, Pergamon, New York (1961).
[12] Timoshenko, S., Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York (1934).
[13] Kartzivadze, I. N., Comp. rend. de l'acad. sc. de l'V.R.S.S., 20, p. 95 (1943).
[14] Kolosoff, G., Z. Math. Physik, 62 (1914).
[15] Muskhelishvili, N. 1., Izv. A N. SSSR, p. 663 (1919).
[16] Griffith, A A, Tech. Rpt. Aeronaut. Res. Comm. (Great Britain), 2, p. 668 (1927).
[17] Neuber, H., Ingenieur-Archiv, 5, p. 242 (1934).
[18] Sneddon, I. N. and H. A Elliott, Quart. Appl. Math., 4, p. 262 (1946).
[19] Wilmore, T. J., Quart. J. Mech. and Appl. Math., 2, p. 53 (1949).
[20] Sneddon,1. N., Crack Problems in the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. North Carolina
State College, Raleigh, N.C. (1961).
[21] Sneddon,1. N., Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) Series A187, p. 229 (1946).
[22] Williams, M. L., J. Appl. Mech., 24, p. 109 (1957).
[23] Irwin, G. R., in: Structure Mechanics; Proc.lst. Symposium on Naval Structure Mechanics,
Pergamon, New York (1960).
[24] Sih, G. c., P. C. Paris and G. R. Irwin, Int. J. Fracture Mech., 1, p. 189 (1965).
[25] Sih, G. c., P. C. Paris and F. Erdogan, J. Appl. Mech., 29, p. 306 (1962).
[26] Bowie, O. L., J. Appl. Mech., 31, p. 208 (1964a).
[27] Andersson, H., J. Mech. Phys. So lids, 17, p. 405 (1969).
[28] Morkovin, V., Quart. Appl. Math., 2, p. 350 (1945).
[29] Bowie, O. L. and C. E. Freese, Unpublished data at AMMRC, (1970b).
[30] Koiter, W. T., J. Appl. Mech., 32, p. 237 (1965).
[31] Bowie, O. L., J. Appl. Mech., 31, p. 726 (1964b).
[32] Bloom, J. M., Int. J. Fract. Mech., Vol. 2, p. 597.
[33] Bowie, O. L. and D. M. Neal, J. Appl. Mech., 32, p. 708, (1965).
[34] Gross, B., J. E. Srawley and W. F. Brown, NASA TND-2395, Lewis Research Center,
Cleveland, Ohio (1964).
[35] Akao, H. T., A S. Kobayashi, J. of Basic Engineering, 89 (1967).
[36] Brown, R. C. and A S. Kobayashi, The Trend. University of Washington, 19, p. 8 (1967).
[37] Rieh, T. P. and R. Roberts, J. of Appl. Mech., 34, p. 777 (1967).
Solutions of plane crack problems by mapping technique 55

[38] Wieselmann, P. A., Doctoral Dissertation, Mass. Inst. of Tech., Cambridge, Mass. (1969).
[39] Bowie, O. L., J. Math. and Phys., 45, p. 356 (1966).
[40] Bowie, O. L. and J. J. McLaughlin, AMRA TR66-16, Army Materials Research Agency,
Watertown, Mass. (1966).
[41] Nehari, F., Conformal Mapping, McGraw-Hill, New York (952).
[42] Kobayashi, A. S., Document No. D2-23551 Boeing Co., Seattle, Washington (1964).
[43] Bowie, O. L. and D. M. Neal, Eng. Fracture Mech., 2, p. 181 (1970b).
[44] Bowie, O. L. and C. E. Freese, Fourth National Symposium on Fracture Mechanics,
Carnegie-Mellon, Pittsburgh, Pa., (To appear in J. Eng. Fract. Mech.) 1970c.
[45] Newman, J. C., Jr., Master's Thesis, Virginia Poly. Inst., Blacksburg, Va. (1969).
[46] Newman, J. c., Jr., NASA TN. D-6376, Langley Research Center, Hampton, Va. (1971).
[47J Sih, G. C. and H. Liebowitz, In Fracture (ed. H. Liebowitz) Academic Press, New York
(1968).
[48] Gandhi, K., J. of Strain Analysis, (To be published (1970)).
[49] Freese, C. E., Private communication (1971).
[50] Srawley, J. E. and B. Gross, NASA TN-D3820 Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio
(1967).
 M.Isida

2 M ethod of Laurent series expansion

for internal crack problems

2.1 Introduction

This paper presents a general method of analysis of internal cracks in iso-

tropie homogeneous elastic media. The proposed method is based on the
Laurent series expansions of the complex potentials which are consistent
with the singlevaluedness of displacements as well as stresses and strains.
It applies to the problems oflongitudinal shear, plane stress or plane strain
and classical plate bending in which the stress state is completely character-
ized by one or two complex potentials.
The common procedure of the analysis is as follows:
(1) Assurne the Laurent se ries expansions of the complex potentials, and
determine the relations among their coefficients from traction-free conditions
of the edge of an elliptical hole or a crack. Each of the coefficients of negative
powers are expressed as linear combinations of positive powers. These
relations can be applied to many problems involving a variety of shape and
loading parameters.
(2) Additional relations among the coefficients of the assumed Laurent
series are developed for other boundary conditions. In contrast to the above
free hole relations, the coefficients of positive powers are expressed in terms
of negative powers.
(3) The above simultaneous relations are then treated by aperturbation
procedure, where all the unknowns are assumed as power series of a relative
crack length A. and their coefficients are determined successively by alternative
use of the above relations.
(4) The stresses, stress intensity factors and other physical quantities are
given by double infinite series, corresponding to the assumed Laurent
expansions and the power se ries introduced in the perturbation procedure,
Laurent series expansion for interna I crack problems 57

but the former series can be summed up in closed forms and the results are
obtained as power series of A whose coefficients are evaluated exactly.
The method is applied to longitudinal shear, plane extension and classical
plate bending problems. The analyses are deve10ped for general elliptical
holes which include the crack configuration as a special case.
Numerical results of the stress intensity factors for many crack problems
are given in the Appendices.

2.2 Longitudinal shear

Basic jormulae. In the state of longitudinal shear, components of dis-

placement and stress are given in terms of the only complex potential 4>(z),
as follows:

'rd
w = GRe{4>(z)}
(2.1)

where 'r and d are some reference stress and length, and z is the dimensionless
complex variable defined by
X+iY
z= (2.2)
d

Stress components 'rru and Lst with respect to new coordinate axes n, s

1: x t t

r
X,X
Figure 2.1. Longitudinal shear problem.
58 M.Isida

generated by rotating the axes X, Y are related with !xt and !yt by the
formula
(2.3)
where a is the rotation angle.
Now consider a longitudinal hole of an arbitrary profile and derive the
necessary conditions to be satisfied by 4> (z) in order that the hole boundary
should be free from stress. For convenience, introduce the mapping function
z = Q(() (2.4)
which conformally transforms the hole boundary and its external region into
a unit circ1e and its external region as shown in Figure 2.2. Taking the outward

Y,y
1J

Figure 2.2. Conformal mapping of hole boundary into unit circle.

normal and tangent at a point P on the hole edge as axes n and s, the following
relation is obtained:

icz
e =
[Q'(O( J
IQ' ((gi ~=eiß' (2.5)

The stress components at point P with respect to those new axes are given
from equations (2.3) and (2.5) as

. [ (<P'(O ] (2.6)
!nt -l!st = ! IQ' (()(I ~=eiß
where ß is the argument of point P', image of P on (-plane, and
4>(z) = 4> [Q(O] = <P(O . (2.7)
Laurent series expansion for interna I crack problems 59

General form of camp lex potential for free elliptical hole. F or a free hole
L m must vanish on the hole edge and hence from equation (2.6)

(2.8)
In the present problem stresses and strains have no singularities within the
domain. Therefore tP' (() must be an analytic function from equation (2.6),
and by means of the well known theorem it can be expressed as the following
Laurent series of (:

I
00

tP'(() = CX o + (cxm(m+ßm(-m). (2.9)

m=l

Substitute equation (2.9) into (2.8), replace ~ by (- t, rearrange in ascending

Y,y
11

.D
N

20
Z-plane !:-p lone
Figure 2.3. Conformal mapping of elliptical hole into unit circle.

power se ries of ( and put the coefficients of all the powers to zero. It is found
that
(m ~2). (2.10)
Integrating equation (2.9), with relations (2.10) and dropping the term in
log ( which gives multivalued displacement, the following general form of
the complex potential is found:

I
00

tP(() = (Ym,m+ 1+Ym,-(m+ 1») (2.11)

m=O

where new coefficients Ym are used in place of cxm/ (m + 1).

Now consider the special case of an elliptical hole having its center at the
origin and principal diameters 2a and 2b along axes X and Y. Define the
following dimensionless parameters
60 M.Isida

(2.12)
e
b
a
R = (a+
a-b
l-e
b)t = (~)-t
and the mapping function (2.4) becomes

z = Q(O = ~ (R( + ;(). (2.13)

On inverting equation (2.13) the result is

R( = ~ {I + [1 - (;YJ t
}

(2.14)
(RO- 1
~{1 -[1 - (;YJ-t}.
=

Equation (2.11) is the general expression of 4'(() for arbitrary free holes, and
can be written in terms of z. It can be shown from equation (2.13) that

±(2 +l) {(RO zm + +(RO-(2m+1)}.

(2.15)
Z2p+l = (~)2P+l P 1

2 m=O P m

Moreover, the coefficients )Im in equation (2.11) may be expressed in terms

of the new parameters M p :

Y1m = R Zm +1 f
p=m
(~)lP+l (2 P +l)M1P
2 P m
(2.16)
Y1m+l RZm+Z L
co (C)lP+1
-2 (2 P_+2) M +1
= 1p .
p=m P m
Putting (2.16) into equation (2.11) and dropping trivial constant terms lead to
co co
cJ>(z) = 4'(n = L Mnz n+1 + L Ym(-(m+ 1)
n=O m=O
Laurent series expansion Jor interna 1 crack problems 61

The negative power terms of' in the righthand-side can be replaced by those
of z by means of the following expansions:

(c)2n
(RO- 2m = L
Cl)
A n- m,2m -
n=m Z

(2.18)
(R ."Y)-(2m+ 1) =
Xl
~
L..
A n-m,2m+l (c)2n+l
-
n=m Z

which are derived from the second relation of equation (2.14), and the coef-
ficients in the righthand-sides of equation (2.18) are given explicitly by [1, 2J

m ( 2n )
A n- m,2m = 2 2n n n-m

A
n-m,2m+1
= 2m + 1 (2n +
2 2n + 1(2n+1) n-m
1) (2.19)

Substituting equation (2.18) into (2.17) and exchanging the order of summa-
tions, 4>(z) for free elliptical holes takes the form

L
00

4>(z) = {(F;+iF~)z-(n+l)+(M;+iM~)zn+l} (2.20)

n=O

dots and primes denoting real and imaginary parts respectively and the
coefficients of negative powers of equation (2.20) can be expressed in terms
of those of positive powers as follows:
00 00
Fo2n = - ~
L..
;t2n+2p+2 p2n
2p Mo2p' - -
F·2n+l- ~
L..
;t 2n + 2p + 4 p2n + 1 M·
2p+l 2p+l
p=O p=O
00 00
F'2n = - ~
L..
;t2n+2 p+2Q2n
2p M'2p' F'2n+l = - ~
L..
;t2n+2 p+4Q2n+l
2p+l M'2p+l
p=O p=O
(2.21)
where

(1_8 2)n+ p+l ~ (2 P +1) {1-R4m +2)A

{QP~;}
2n
2p
=
22p+ 1 L..
m=O
_
P m
+ .
n-m, 2m-.- 1
(2.22)
p2n+l} (1-82t+P+2 n,p (2 P +2)
{ Q ;~:: = 2 2p +2 L _ {1+R 4m+4)A n_m,2m+2
2p+l m=O P m
and for the upper bounds of summations smaller values should be taken.
62 M.Isida

In the special case of a crack (e=O, R= 1), equations (2.22) become

P 2n
2p = p2n+1
2p+ 1 = 0

Q 2n
2p =
1 n,pL (2P_+ 1) A n- m,2m+1
2 2p (2.23)
m=O P m
1 n,p
Q~;ti=22P+1 L
(2 P_+2) A n - m ,2m+l'
m=O P m
The values of Q~;, Q~;t i (p, n ~ 8) are given in Tables I and II of Appendix I.
For a circular hole the relations (2.21) simplify to
F"n = 2 2n +2 M"n' F'n = _2 2n +2M'n- (2.24)
In order to illustrate the procedure of getting closed form solutions from the
Laurent expansions, consider a simple example of an infinite body with an
elliptical hole subjected to -r'; = -r at infinity. From the symmetry of the
problem, assurne

L
00

<jJ(z) = i (F~nz-(2n+ 1) + M~nz2n+ 1) . (2.25)

n=O

The boundary conditions at infinity yield at once

M'o = - 1, M~n =0 (n ~ 1) (2.26)
and the free crack relations (2.21) become

F'2n = _C 2n +2 1 +R 2
2 A n,l . M'0 • (2.27)

Thus the potential function is written as

<jJ(Z)=iM'o{ z-~(1+R2)c n~o An, 1 (~)2n+1} (2.28)

and is summed up in a closed form

<jJ(z) = iM'o [z-!{l + R 2){z- (Z2 - c 2)!} ] (2.29)
by using the equations (2.18) and (2.14). Note that equation (2.29) can be also
transformed into the expression in the elliptical coordinates (~, 17) using a
mapping function

z = i (e';+i7/ + e -(';+i>J}), x = c cosh ~ cos 17, Y = c sinh ~ sin 17. (2.30)

Laurent series expansion for internal crack problems 63

Random elliptical holes and cracks in infinite body. Consider the longitudinal
shear of an infinite body containing random distribution of N longitudinal
elliptical holes, some of which may be circular holes or cracks as special
cases. Let axes X, Y be chosen as shown in Figure 2.4. Denote the polar

Figure 2.4. Random elliptical holes.

coordinates (Pj' ß) of the center Oj of the j-th hole, its major and minor
diameters 2aj,2b j and inclination angle xj as in Figure 2.4. Take also N
co ordinate systems (Xj , 1]) (j = 1, 2, ... , N) with their origins at 0 j and with
Xraxes along the major diameters of the corresponding holes.
Define dimensionless coordinates, complex variables and parameters by
X Y
x- d ' y=d' z =x+iy

-
X·J
X
j- d' (2.31)

"aj Pj Pjk
Aj = d' r j = d' rjk = d U, k = 1, 2, ... , N)

with a reference length d which is arbitrarily specified, then the dimensionless

radius vector between Oj and 0k is given by
(2.32)
Now the total complex potential</> ofthe pr'oblem defined by equations (2.1)
is assumed as the following sum of (N + 1) functions:
64 M.Isida
N
<P=<PO(Z) + L
k=l
<Pk(Zk) (2.33)

where <Po (z) corresponds to the applied stresses "C~ and "Cr; at infinity and is
given by
<Po(z) = (Mö,o+iM~,o)z
with (2.34)
Mö,o = "C~/"C, M~,o = -"Cr;/"C.
Further, <Pk (Zk) is the function having singularities within the k-th hole and
written in the form

L
00

<Pk(Zk) = (F;,k+iF~,k)Zk(n+l). (2.35)

n=O

The total potential <P satisfies the boundary conditions at infinity since
<Pk (Zk) give no stresses there, and thus those along the hole edges have to be
considered. In order to discuss the j-th hole it is necessary to express <P with
the only variable Z j' From simple geometry considerations of Figure 2.4
the relations

(2.36)
are obtained. Substituting equations (2.36) into (2.34) and (2.35), the total
potential is written in terms of Zj as follows:
00
,h
'f'
= ~
i...J {(F·n,).+iF'n,J.)z:-(n+l)+(M·
J n,).+iM'n,J.)z~+1)·
J ) (2.37)
n=O
where
00 N
M~,j= (Mö,ocos ctj-M~,o sin ctJL1~ + L k*j
L (e~:JF;.k- f~:JF~.k)
p=O
(2.38)
00 N
M~,j= (M ö. o sin ctj+M~.ocos ctJL1~ + L k*j
p=O
L (f~:~F;,k+e~:~F~,k)
L1~ being the Kronecker delta, and
Laurent series expansion Jor interna 1 crack problems 65

The complex potential is thus reduced to the same form as equations (2.20)
of the preceding section, and the free hole conditions (2.21) and (2.22) are
rewritten as follows:

00
Fo - - " J.Zn+Z p +4(pZn+I) Mo
Zn+ I,i - L. i Zp+ 1 i 2p+ 1,i
p=O
(2.40)
00

F 'Zn,j = - "L. A)
1~n+Zp+Z(QZn).M'
Zp J Zp,).
p=O
00
F'Zn+ I,i -- - Zp+ 1)
"L. J.iZn+Z p +4(QZn+ 1 i
M'Zp+ 1,i
p=O
where

(P~;)i} =
{(Q zn)
(l-EJ)n+ +I
2Zp+ 1
p
~
L.
(2 P_+ 1) (1-+ R~m+Z)A n-m, 2m+
J 1
Zp i m=O P m

t(Q 2n+l)
(P~;~Di} = (l-eJ)n+ +2 ~ (2 P +2) (I+R~m+4)A
p
22p+Z L. _ ) n-m,2m+2 (2.41)
2p+ i 1 m=O P m

R~ = l+Ei
) l-e··
J

The next step in the analysis is to determine the unknown coefficients

F;,i' F~,i' M;,i' M~,i (n=O, 1,2, ... , ; j= 1,2, ... , N) from the relations
(2.38) and (2.40). Use is made ofthe perturbation technique. For convenience
let
(2.42)
with a new parameter J. and constants Sj which represent the ratio of hole
lengths, and all the unknowns are assumed as the following power series
of the only parameter ).:
00 00

F 2n ,i= I F~2:,j},2P, F 2n + l,i = I F~2:1I,iJ.2p

p=n+l p=n+2
(2.43)
00

M n,]. = M(O).L1 0
n,] n
+ "L. M(2I!)
n,J J..Zp .
p=1
66 M.Isida

Substitute equations (2.43) into (2.38) and (2.40), equate the terms of the
same powers in the both si des, there results
o(O)
M O,j = Mo0,0 COS IX j - M"0,0 SIn IXj , M'(O)
O,j =
Mo .
0,0 SIn IXj
+M'0,0 COS IXj
M o(~) = M'(O) =
n,} n,}
0 (n ~ 1)

Fi~~j+2) = -s;n+2(p~n)jMö~3), F~~:'j+2) = -sJn+2(Q~n)jM6?J

N
= "L.- (eO,~ F .(2) -fO'~ F'(2»)
n,} O,k n,} O,k
k*j

N
M'(~)
n,}
= "L.- (fO,~ F
n,J
.(2)
O,k
+ eO,~ F'(2))
n,} O,k
k*j
q-l
Fo(2'!+2q) = _ " s~n+2p+2(p2n).Mo(2l1.-2p-2)
2n,) L.- } 2p } 2p,}
p=O

q-l
F,(2'!+2q) = _ " s~n+2p+2(Q2n).M'(2q.-2p-2)
2n,} L.- } 2p ) 2p,}
p=O

q-2
F.(2n+2q) _ _ " s2n+2 P +4(p2n+I) Mo(2q-2p-4)
2n+ I,j - L.- j 2p+ 1 j 2p+ I,j
p=O

q-2
F'(2n+2q) _ "S2n+2 p +4(Q2n+l) M'{2q-2p-4)
2n+ I,j - - L.- j 2p+ 1 j 2p+ I,j
p=O

M n,J
o(~q) ="L.- "L....
N 2q-2
(eP,~ F .(2q) - fP'~ F' (2 q
n,} p,k n,) p,k
»)
k*j p=O

="L.- "L.-
N 2q-2
M' (~q)
n,J
(fP'~ F o(2q)
n,J p,k
+ eP'~ F' (2 q»)
n,J p,k

u= 1, 2, ... , N ;
k*j p=O
q = 2, 3,4, .... ) (2.44)
By using the above relations in this order, taking j = 1, 2, ... , N for each
relation, the expansion coefficients of equations (2.43) can be calculated
successively.
Now from equations (2.6) and (2.13), the stresses along the .i-th hole are
calculated by the formula
. (Zj2 -Cj2)t , ]
(r nt -Ust)j = r [ I(zJ _ cJ)tl <P (Z) . (2.45)

In case when this hole is a crack, the stress intensity factor at crack tip
x j = Aj is given by [3J
Laurent series expansion for internal crack problems 67

k 3,j=iT(2d}t lim [(Zj-A)t4>'(Z)]. (2.46)

Zj-Aj

Substitute equation (2.43) into (2.37) and use the ca1culated results of F i~:f)
etc., then 4>' (zJ in equations (2.45) or (2.46) can be written as the following
power series of A:
4>' (Zj) = ,t '.t
A2 sJ' [ M2~j-2') {ZJ' + .t (2n+ 1)(Pl~)jZi(2'+'2)}
+iM~<;'j-2p) {z;p + n~o (2n+ 1)(Q~~)jZj(2n+2)} ]
+ ,,00
L....
A2q+l "q S~p-l [Mo(2 q-2.P) {Z~P+l
L.... J 2p+l,J J
q=O p=O

+ n~o (2n+2)(P~~~ D Zj(2n+3)}

j

+iM~~rl,~p) {Z;P+l + n~o (2n+2)(Q~;~DjZj(2n+3)}J (2.47)

where
(2.48)

The infinite series including (P~;)j etc. can be summed up in closed forms by
means of the definitions (2.41) and the relations

~ (2n+l)A Z-(2n+2) = 2m+l {Z_(Z2_1)-H2m+l

n~m n-m, 2m+ 1 (Z2 -1)t I

(2.49)
~ (2n+2)A Z-(2n+3) = 2m+2 {Z_(Z2_1)t~2m+2
n~m n-m,2m+2 (Z2-1)+ I

which are easily derived from (2.18) and (2.14). In this way the stresses along
the hole edges or the stress intensity factors at crack tips are given as power
series of A whose coefficients are evaluated exact1y.
It follows that equation (2.46) for a crack is reduced to the simple expression

k .=
3,J
-T(a.)t[~
J
),2n ~ (P+1)(2P+l)s~PM'(2n.-2P)
L.... - L.... 22p P J 2p,J
n=O p=o

~ A2n+ 1 ~
+ L.... L....
(p+ 1) (2 P + 1) s~p+ 1 M' (2n-2. Pl ] (250)
22p P J 2p+l,;"
n=O p=O
68 M.Isida

A computer pro gram is then prepared according to the above theory. It

automatically computes the results for the circumferential stresses or the
stress intensity factors of all the holes or cracks with various geometrie and
loading parameters.
The stress intensity factor for the crack is thus given by apower series of
the form
M
k 3,i = T(aJt F3,i' F3,i = L Cn,)·n (2.51)
n=O
in which the coefficients Cn,i are given exactly by closed form expressions as
rnentioned above.

Infinite row of periodic cracks. The analysis is simplified in the special case
of periodic cracks. As an example consider an infinite row of equal parallel

01:
Figure 2.5. Infinite row of equal parallel cracks.

cracks as shown in Figure 2.5. The complex potential must have the same
type of singularities within each crack, and can be written by the surn of the
principal parts as follows:

00 00
(2.52)
cp = -iz o + L L F z-(n+ 1)
n k
k=-oo n=O

where T is the shearing stress at infinity and Zk is the cornplex variable with
the origin at crack center 0k'
Laurent se ries expansion for internal crack problems 69

Substituting Zk = Zo - k ei8 and expanding, e/> is -written as the Laurent

series of Zo
- L
00

(Fnzo{n+l)+Mnz~+l) (2.53)
n=O

= -iLl no _ ~
~
(2n+2
2
P+l) S 2n+2p+2
e- i (2n+2p+2)8F
2p
p=O P
(2.54)
M - ~ (2n+2 P +3) S -i{2n+2p+4)8 F
2n+ 1 - P~O 2p+ 1 2n+2p+4 e 2p+ 1

q 1 (-1)q+lB 2 (2n)2 q
= 2 n~l n 2q = (2q) !q
(2.55)

where B 2q are the Bernoulli's numbers with the following first values and
recurrent formula

(2.56)

B 2q = 2q+
11 { q-"i -
1 q- 1
m"f 1
(2 1) }.
q+
2m B 2m ·

The free crack conditions for the potentiale/> are given from equations (2.21)
F; = 0
00
= ;t2n+2Q2n _
o ""
~.
),2n+2 p +2Q2n M'
2p 2p (2.57)
p=O

00
F f - _ "" ;t2n+2 p +4Q2n+l M'
2n+l- ~ 2p+l 2p+l·
p=o

The simultaneous relations (2.54) and (2.57) give at once

F 2n + 1 = M 2n + 1 =0 (n = 0, 1, 2, ... ) (2.58)
and the potential function for the problem is simply given as follows:
00

= ""
~
riFf Z-(2n+l)+(Mo +iM' )Z2n+l}
2n 0 2n 2n 0 (2.59)
n=O

00 00

M in = - ""
~ f 2n
2p F'2p' M'2n = - A
LJ nO
- "~
" e 2nF'
2p 2p
p=O p=o (2.60)
00

'
F 2n = - ""
~ A
12n+2 p +2Q 2p
2n M'
2p
p=O
70 M.lsida

where
e~;} (2n + 2p + 1)
{f~; {COS} (2.61)
= 2p S2n+2p+2° sin (2n+2p+2)e

and Q~; are given by equation (2.23) and Table I of Appendix I. The un-
knowns F ~n and M ~n are determined by a perturbation procedure.
N ow assurne the following power series
OCJ OCJ
F'2n = "~ F 2n
,(2q);. 2q
• , M'2n = "~ M,(2q)
2n
A. 2q (2.62)
q=n+l q=O

and as many coefficients of equations (2.62) as required are easily calculated

successively. Hence, the stress intensity factor is calculated from

(2.63)
n=2

Numerical results based on the analyses of this section are given in Figures
2.14 and 2.15 of Appendix IVo

2.3 Plane problems

Stress combinations in transformed variable. In plane problems the Airy's

stress function is given in terms of two complex potentials cf> (z) and t/J (z) as
follows:
(2.64)
And components of the stress, rotation, displacement and resultant force
are expressed as follows:
8°G
ax+ay + -11 ())xy = 4acf>'(z)
+K
(2.65)
ax - a y- 2i T xy = - 2a {zcf>"(z) + Ij/' (z)}
2G(u - i v) = ad {KqJ (z)- zcf>' (z) -Ij/ (z)} (2.66)
Py+iPx = -ad{(j)(z)+z<j>'(z)+Ij/(z)} (2.67)
where
Laurent series expansion Jor internal crack problems 71

3-v
K = -1- (plane stress) , K = 3 - 4v (plane strain) (2.68)
+v
and Py , Px are components of the resultant of the stresses acted upon the
lefthand-side by the righthand-side of the domain along any path leading
to point (x, y) from a definite point.
In what follows the general expressions of 4J (z) and 1/1 (z) appropriate for
the free elliptical hole as shown in Figure 2.3 will be derived. Since the stresses
and rotation are single-valued within the plate, 4J' (z) and 1/1" (z) must be
analytic functions and can be expanded in some Laurent series. To start
with, the following expressions are expressed in terms of ,
ao
4>' {Q(,)} = CX o + L (cxm,m+ ßm,-m)
m=l
(2.69)

Moreover, since these complex potentials must give single-valued dis-

placement, equations (2.69) and their integrated expressions, together with
equation (2.66), give the relation
(2.70)
The stress components with respect to axes n, s shown in Figure 2.3 are
related to those associated with axes X, Y by the formulae

(2.71)

Using equations (2.65) and the relation

2iCl (Q'(O (2.72)

e = ~Q'(~)
in equation (2.71), stress components along the hole edge are given by
O"n + O"s = 20" {4J' (z) + <P' (z) }~=eiß
(2.73)

O"n-O"s-2l'r ns
.
= -20"
[ ' {-(-) d4J'
(Q'(O Q, d' + d'dl/l'}]
!;=e iß '

General Jorm oJ stress Junction Jor a Jree elliptical hole. F or a free boundary .
the sum of the both expressions of equations (2.73) must vanish. Equating
72 M.Isida

the coefficients of all the terms to zero and after some algebra, the following
relations are found:
m
ß2m+3 = R -(2m+ 1) ct1 + '" 2 - +1 ) + R- 1Y2p+1
ct2p+3+ R- 2ct2p
~ R p-2m{(2 p+ 2)(- - }
p=O
m
ß2m+2 =2R-(2m+2)ct·+(2m+1)iX
0 2m+2 + '" R 2p-2m-2(4piX 2p +R"12p)
~
p=O
<>1 = 0
<>2m+ 3 = (2m +2)(R -(2m+ 1) + R -(2m+5»)ct 1+ {R+ (2m + 2)2 R - 3} iX 2m +1
+ {(2m+ 2)2 -I} R -1 iX 2m +3+(2m+ 2)R- 2Y2m+ 1
m-l
+(R 3+R- 1 ) I R2p-2m{(2p+2)(iX2P+3+R-2iX2P+d+R-IY2P+I}
p=O
<>2m+2 = 2(2m+ 1){R -(2m-I) + R -(2m+3»)ct ö +2m {2mR + {4m+2)R -3} iX 2m
+ 2m(2m+2)R -1 iX 2m +2 + (2m + 1)R -2 Y2m
m-l
+(2m+1)(R 3+R- 1 ) I R 2P-2m-2(4piX 2p +RY2P) (m=0,1,2 ... ).
p=O
(2.74)
Making use of equations (2.69) together with relations (2.70) and (2.74) the
general expressions of the complex potentials in terms of ( are obtained. In
order to write them in terms of z, ctn and Yn will be written in terms ofthe new
parameters M p and K p •

ct 2m = R 2m f: (2p + 1) (~2)2P ( p 2pm)\ M 2p

p=o

ct2m+l=R2m+1 I Ci;)
(2p+2) (C)2
P
-2 + 1 (2 P_+ 1).M2p +1
p=O P m
(2.75)
{2m = (2m+1)R 2m +1
p=O
f: (2P+2)(~2)2P(2P+1)K2P
P m
P P
{2m+1 = (2m+2)R 2m +2 I
(2p+3) (C)2
00
-2 +1 (2 _+2) ' K 2p +1 •
p=O P m
Substituting equations (2.75) into (2.69), derivatives of complex potentials
are written by terms of positive powers of z and negative powers of (. Using
expansions (2.18) and after integration, the complex potentials appropriate
for free elliptical holes become
Laurent series expansion Jor internal crack problems 73

I
00

<jJ(z)= {(F;+iF~)z-(n+l)+(M;+iM~)z'I+l}
n=O
(2.76)
I I
00 00

ljJ(z) = -D olog z + (D;+iD~)z-n + (K;+iK~)zn+2

n=l n=O
with the relations among the coefficients
00
"L.. ;.2n+2 p+2(p2n 2n M-2p)
2p K-2p +R 2p
p=O
00
F-2n = - "L.. ;.2n+2 p+2(Q2n 2p M-2p )
2p K·2p +S2n
p=O

I
00

Din+ 1 = }.2n+ 2p+4(P~;~ 1Ki p+1 + R~;~ 1Mi p+1)

p=O
00
p+4(Q2n+1K-
-
F 2n+l = - "12n+2
L.. A 2p+l M-2p+l )
2p+l 2p+l +s2n+l
p=o
(2.77)
OCJ

D'2n = - 2p K'2p + V 2n
"L.. ;.2n+2 P +2(T 2n 2p M'2p)
p=O
00

2p K'2p + W 2n
"L.. ;.2n+2 P +2(Q2n 2p M'2p )
p=O

2p+l 2p+l + v 22p+l

00
'
D 2n+l "12n+2 p+4(T 2n +1 K' n+l M'2p+l )
= - L.. A
p=o
00

2p+l K'2p+l + W 2p+l

"L.. ;.2n+2 p+4(Q2n+l 2n +1 M'
F~n+l = 2p+1 )
p=O
where
pO = (1- 2)p+ 1 (p+2p1) (2 P + 1)
2p 8 2 P ,

p
p~;} = (1_8 2)n+ +l [{4(P+1)
+
( 2 P.
P 1) (1 + -;;1) A n. 1}
{ T 2n2p 2 2p +2 0

I (
+ p+l,n 2p+2 )
{(2p+1)R 4m+1}A n_ m,2m
]
m=l p-m+1
74 M.Isida

{R~~}
V 2n
2p

+2p ~
P
~ (2 _+
m=O pm
1) R.4m+2 A n- m,2m+l
..
] (n;?:1)

Q 2n
2p
p
-_ (1- e2)n+ +l (p+1)
22p ~
~
(2 P+1) R 4m +2 A n-m,2m+l
m=O p-m

S~;}
{ W2n _ (1_e 2)n+ p+l ~
22p +1 (p+ 1)
(2P+1)
An,l
n,p (2P+1)
+ I _ A n- m, 2m+ 1
2p P m=O P m

+ 2(2p+ 1)
n+l,p( 2p ) 4m
I P _m R A n- m+1, 2m J
m=l

[ +(p+2) ( 2P+3)
p+1 An,1

+
n,p+1 ( 2p+3 )
I_I {(2p+2)R 4m+2+1}A,,_m,2m+l
J
m=O P m+

{R~;t~}
v2n+l
2p+
=(1_e2),,+p+2[+( +1) (2 P+1) (R+R- 1 )2A
22p +2 -p p - n,1

J
1

n+1,p+1 ( 2p+2 )
+(2p+1) I_I
m=l P m+
R4mAn_m+l,2m

Q 2n+1 = (1_e 2)n+ p+2 (2p+ 3) n+ ~+ 1 ( 2p+2 ) R4m A

2p+ 1 2 2p +2 ~ _ +1 ,,-m+l,2m
m=1 P m

+2(2p+2)
n+ 1,p
I (2P_+ 1) R4m+2An_m+l,2m+l] (n ;?:O)
P m
..
m=O

(2.78)
Laurent series expansion for internal crack problems 75

In the special case of a crack, e and R in equations (2.78) are put to zero and
one respectively and
v n = wn
p p (2.79)
with exceptions of trivial coefficients Tg p and vgp- Values of p~; etc. for
the case of a crack for p, n~ 8 are given in Tables III to VIII of Appendix 1.
For a circular hole equations (2.77) are reduced to the simple relations
D ö = 2M öA. 2 , D n = (n-1)Kn_2A.2n+nMn},2n+2 (n ~ 1)
(2.80)
Fn = -(n+2)KnA.2n+2_(n+3)Mn+2A.2n+4.

Now let us show by a simple example how the Laurent se ries expansions
lead to the c10sed form solutions. Assume a wide plate with an elliptical
hole under the stresses at infinity

a': = (J.a, a;' = ßa, T: = ya . (2.81)

These stress conditions give
ß - rI. + 2i y ß + (J.
K o= 4 ,Mö = -4-' K n = Mn = 0 (n ~ 1) (2.82)

and hence from equations (2.77) and (2.78)

'
F 2n = C 2n +2R 2K'A
0 rl,1' F 2n+l = 0

(n = 0,1,2 ... ). (2.83)

The circumferential stress a s is given by 4 Re {q>' (z)} and the corresponding
infinite series are summed up in a c10sed form solution as folIows:

a s = 4M ö+4Re{ (R 2K o +M ö) n~o (2n+l)A n,1 (~yn+2}

= ß+rI.+Re[{(R2+1)ß-(R2-1)rI.-2iYR2}{(z2~c2)-!- - 1}] . (2.84)

Another form of equation (2.84) may be obtained by means of the mapping

function (2.30). This expresses a s in the elliptical coordinates:

a = a [f (e 2+ 1) sinh 2~ 1
';! _ e2';1} ß _ { (e 2<;1-1) sinh 2~ 1 _ e 2';1} (J.
s 1cosh 2~ 1 - cos 2'Yf cosh 2~ 1 - cos 2'Yf
2e 2';1 sin 2'Yf ] .
- Y (2.85)
cosh 2~1 -cos 2'Yf •
76 M.lsida

Tension 01 an infinite strip with an eccentric crack. Consider an eccentrically

cracked long strip subjected to uniform tensile stress (J at infinity. Take

- -
- d1
a d

-
y
fI
I-a
---
-0'"

-
---
I

d2 d
I
-- 1
Figure 2.6. Tension of long strip with eccentric crack.

axes X, Y and define geometric parameters as shown in Figure 2.6, and the
following dimensionless coordinates and parameters:

6--
I
d'
(2.86)
X
x = d' z=x+iy.

First the stress function is assumed as

X ="10+"11
"10 = (Jd 2 Re {z4>o (z) + '" 0 (z) } (2.87)
Xl = (Jd 2 Re {z4>(z) + ",(z)}

"10 corresponds to the uniform tensile stress at infinity, and

(2.88)

The complex potentials 4>(z) and ",(z) are written as Laurent series of the
forms (2.76). From stress symmetry with respect to the X -axis, the coef-
ficients must be real, and writing simply F ~ = Fn etc. this yields
Laurent series expansion for internal crack problems 77

I (Fnz-(n+ 1) + Mn zr + 1)
00

</>(z) =
n=O
(2.89)
00 00

t/J(Z) = -D o log z + I Dnz- n + I K nz n+2 .

n=1 n=O
The free crack relations (2.77) become
00
Dn = ,;.n+2 pn0 (K 0,0 +M0,0) + ~
~
,;.n+p+2 pn(K
p p
+M)
p
p=O
(2.90)
00

Fn = _,;.n+2Qn0 (K 0,0 +M0,0 ) - ~

~
,;.n+ p +2Qn(K
p p
+M)
p
p=O
where terms for odd values of (n + p) are missing, and values of p~ and Q~
are calculated from equations (2.78), putting R=l and 8=0. Numerical
values for n, p::::;; 8 are also given in Tables III to VI of Appendix 1.
Now there exist some relations among the coefficients of equations (2.89)
since the straight edges are free from tractions. The necessary relations were
fIrst derived by C. B. Ling [4J for the circular hole problem, and are written
in the present notations as follows:
00 00

Kn= I
p=O
(a~Dp+b~Fp), Mn = I
p=O
(c~Dp+d;Fp) (2.91)
where

a~p = (n+2)! ~2P-1)! {Pn+2 P+2 +n~+2p+ 1

+ 1 2 b(-v,.+2P+2+b~+2P+2)}

a~p+l = __):-1-:(~)_
-;-(n+2 ! 2p !
{-Pn+2P+3+(n+2)Un+2P+2

+ 1 2 b (- Wn+2P+3+bUn+2P+3)}

1
(n+2)!(2p)! [-(n+2p+2)Pn+2p+2-2np~+2P+l

2 ~
+ I-b {(n+2p+2) v,.+2p+2-b(n+2)Un+2p+2-2bp~+2p+2}

+ (1 2 b) 2 { - ~+2p+ 3 + b(v,.+2p+ 3 + ~+2p+ 3)- b2 Un+2P +3}]

78 M.Isida

b1 P+l = (n+2;'~!P+l)! [(n+2P+3)Pn+2P+3-(n+2)(2P+3)Un+2P+2

+ 12 b {(n+2p+3)~+2p+3-bn~+2P+3-b2(2p+3)Un+2p+3}

+ (1 2bY{ - U +2p +4+b(t:+2p+4+ ~+2P+4)-b2~+2P+4}J

n

- Yn+2P+l n _ Un+2p +2
C 2p +1
-;----,...:-----,--

(n+1)!(2p-1)! ' - (n+1)!(2p)!

d1 p = (n+ 1)\ (2p)! {-Pn+2P+2-2P~+2P+l

2
+ 1 b(t:+2P+2- bUn+2 P+2)}

dZp +1 = (n+ I)! ~2P+ I)! {Pn+2P+3-(2P+3)Un+2P+2

+ 12 b (~+2P+3-bYn+2P+3)} (2.92)

with definition ( - 1) ! = 0 ! = 1. And Pk , 4, Ub ~, ~ are given by the following

integrals:
_ (1_b)2k Ja) m2k-l(e~m+coshbm) dm
2 0 smh m

_ (1_b)2k+ 1 fOO m2k .sinh bm dm

2 0 smh m

- U2k =
(1 - b)2k+ 1
2 f 00

o
m 2k sinh 2bm -
( 1
Al
+-
A2
1)

T2k+ 1 = (1 _ b)2k + 2 JOO m2k + 1 (COSh 2 brn + sinh 2 brn ) drn

o Al A2 .

U2k+ 1 = (1_b)2k+2 fOO rn 2k +1 (sinh 2 brn + cosh 2 brn) drn

.0 Al A2

= (1- b)2k+ 1 fOO m2k (coth m' cosh 2 bm + tanh m' sinh 2 brn) dm
o Al A2
Laurent se ries expansion for internal crack problems 79

W2k + 1 -- (1_tJ)2k+2
2
foo m
2k+1
sm
. h 25: (tanh m
um + coth m)d
m
o Al A2

Al = sinh 2m+2m, A2 = sinh 2m-2m. (2.93)

These integrals can be evaluated by numerical integration with sufficient
accuracy using the Laguerre-Gauss formulae [5J.
F or the case of a central crack (tJ = 0) the above relations can be shown to
agree with the results obtained by R. C. J. Howland [6]. In another special
case when d 2 approaches infinity, which corresponds to a cracked semiinfinite
plate, the following simple relations hold:
k' (2.94)
lim (Pk+ l' 1k, Ub ~, ~) = 2k ; 1
ö-l

and the resulting forms of c; and a;, b;, d;

again agree with the author's
previous results for this case [7J.
Equations (2.90) and (2.91) give simultaneous equations to determine the
unknowns. For convenience let

Ko,o+Mo,o = Ho,o,
(2.95)

and hence
00

Dn = H 0,0 p n0 An + 2 + L..
" Hp pnp An + p + 2
p=O
00

Fn = -H0,0 Qn0 An + 2 _ "

L.. Hp Qnp An + p + 2 (2.96)
p=O
00

Hn = I
p=O
(e;D p + f;Fp ).

The unknown coefficients D n , Fn and H n in equations (2.96) may be solved

with the aid of aperturbation technique. Assume that all the unknowns can
be expressed as the following power series:
80 M.Isida

00 00 00

H=
n
p=l
L H(2p) )2p
n " , D 2n =
p=n+l
L D(2p) A 2p
2n , F 2n = L
p=n+l
F(2p) A 2p
2n

00 00 (2.97)
D 2n + 1 =
p=n+3
L D(2p) A 2p
2n+ 1 , F 2n + 1 = L
p=n+3
F(2p) ) 2p
2n+ l ' .

Put these into equations (2.96), rearrange the righthand-side in ascending

power series of A and equate the coefficients of the same powers in the both
sides. The results are
D(2n+2)
2n
= p 02n Ho,o, F(2n + 2)
2n
= _ Q2n H
0 0,0'
H(2) -
n -
e n D(2)
0 0
+ f'n0 F(2)
0

q-l q-l
D(2n+2q+2)= " p 2 n H(2q-2p) F(2n+2q+2)= _ " Q2nH(2q-2p)
2n ~ 2p 2p , 2n ~ 2p 2p
p=o p=O

q-2 q-2
D(2n+ 2q+ 2)_ " p2n+ 1 H(2q-2p- 2) F(2n+ 2q+ 2) _ _ " Q2n+ 1 H(2q- 2p- 2)
2n+1 - ~ 2p+1 2p+1 '2n+1 - ~ 2p+l 2p+l
p=O p=O

2q
H~2q+2) = L (e;D~2q+2) + f;F~2q+2» (q = 1,2, ... ) (2.98)
p=O

Successive calculation of the expansion coefficients in equations (2.97) may

now be carried by taking as many terms as required.
The stress intensity factor at the crack tip on the minimum section is
given by the formula [8J
k1 = 2cr(2d)-!- lim {(z - }.)+ 4>' (z)} . (2.99)
Z-A
Combining equations (2.89) and (2.97), rearranging the result in power
series of A and dropping trivial terms, q/ (z) is expressed as folIows:

L L L
00 q CfJ

4/(z) = A 2q H~2i-2p) (2n+ 1)Q~;Z-(2n+2)

q=O p=o n=O

q 00
+A 2q + 1 " H(2q-2p) " (2n+2)Q2n+l Z-(2n+3) (2.100)
~ 2p+l ~ 2p+l
p= 0 n=O
where
z
Z =-. (2.101)
a

The infinite se ries inc1uding Q~;, Q~;ti are summed up in c10sed forms by
the definitions (2.78) and the previous relations (2.49).
Finally the stress intensity factors are given as the following power series
whose coefficients are evaluated exactly:
Laurent se ries expansion for internal crack problems 81

(2.102)
M M
F1,A (b, A) = 1 + L cn)·n, F1,B(b, A) = 1 + L Cn ( - ),t .
n=2 n=2

Numerical calculations are performed for various values of band the series
are obtained up to the term in A19. For the two special cases, centrally
cracked strip (b =0) and cracked half plane (b~ 1), special computing
programs have been prepared and the series are computed up to the term
in A70. Numerical results of this section are summarized in Appendix In.

y
y
ya_-1
d

0
x
d
l Q a J

Figure 2.7. Infinite strip with longitudinal crack.

Other problems of finite plates [9]. An infinite strip with a longitudinal

crack as shown in Figure 2.7 is treated under the following six boundary
conditions along the straight edges Y = + d:
(1) Tension
(l.a) Uniform stress (a y = ao, T xy = 0)
(l.b) Uniform displacement (v = + vo, T xy = 0) (2.103a)
without shear
(l.c) Uniform displacements
(2) In-plane bending
(2.a) Linear stress

(2.b) Rotation without shear (v = +vo~, L xy = 0) (2.103b)

(2.c) Rotation by c1amped ends (v = + V o~ , u= 0 ).

82 M.Isida

It is noteworthy that cases (l.b) and (2.b) correspond exact1y to the tension
and in-plane bending of infinite plates containing periodic parallel cracks as
shown in Figure 2.8.

ti1 (1.b)

2d

2a 1
2d I~ ·1
I 1
I

2d

(2.b )

---L..---l-..t.=""'I-o:::::::r-l--f- cr ~
o d

Figure 2.8. Equal parallel cracks as special cases.

For tension cases equations (2.86) to (2.90) also apply except that d 1 =d
in (2.86) and the following definitions

(l.a) Ko,o = Mo,o = i, u = Uo

Evo
(l.b) Ko,o = Mo,Q = i, U=-
d
(2.104)

I-v l+v Evo

(l.c) Ko,o = 4 ' Mo,o = -4-' u = (1- v 2 )d

are used. For in-plane bending equations (2.88) are replaced by

cf>o(z) = M 1 ,oZ2, I/to(z) = K 1 .o z
3 (2.105)
with K1,o, M1,o being defined for each case as
Laurent se ries expansion for internal crack problems 83

(2.a) K1,o = 14, M 1,0 -- "8,

1 (J = (Jo

Evo
(2.b) K 1 ,o= 2
1
4' M1,0 = -§-, (J=-
d
(2.106)

1-3v l+v Ev o
(2.c) K1,o = ----U:-' Mt,o= -8-' (J= (1-v 2 )d
and equations (2.90) are replaced by the relations
00

Dn = An+3 pn0 (K 1,0 +M1,0) + ~

~
An+p+2 pn(K
p p
+M)
p
p=O
(2.107)
I
00

Fn = -An+3 Qö(K 1 ,0+M1 ,0) - An+p+2Q;(Kp+Mp).

p=O

The stress function Xo is chosen so as to give the assigned boundary stresses

or displacements (2.103). Therefore the second function Xl should satisfy
the following conditions along Y = + d.
Cases (l.a) and (2.a): (Jy =0, '!xy =0
Cases (l.b) and (2.b): v = 0, '!xy =0 (2.108)
Cases (l.c) and (2.c): v = 0, u= 0
and they require that some relations exist among the coefficients of equations
(2.89). Following the procedure outlined in a paper by R. C. J. Howland [6J,
the results are given for the foregoing six cases:
00

Hn = Kn+Mn = I (e;D p+ f;Fp ) (2.109)

p=O

in which für Cases (l.a) and (2.a), e; and f; are given by

en =
8
n,p
fOO mn + p + 1 (se - m + m) dm
p (n+2)!(p-1)! 0 sc+m
(2. 110a)
fn = 28
n,p Joo mn + p +1 {- m 2 +p(se- m + m)} dm
p (n+2)!p! 0 sc+m
For Cases (l.b) and (2.b), the results are
8 fOO e-mmn + p + 1 .
~=-~ ~
p (n+2)!(p-1)! 0 s
(2.110b)
fn = 28
n,p
foo mn+ p + 1 (m - ps e - m)
dm
p (n + 2) ! p ! 0 S2
84 M.Isida

Finally, the following results

n 8n p f'X> e-mmT/+P+ l[{I-v-(1 +v)m}s-{2+(1 +v)m}cJ

e = ' dm
p (n+2)!(p-l)! -0 (3-v)cs-(I+v)m

fn -
28 n,p j~'X> e- m mn + p + 1 dm [ 'ms(1+v)+2c\ (
-I --+V )
m-p
p- (n+2)!p! 0 (3-v)cs-,(I+v)m ( j l+v

+ {mc(l+v)-(I-v)s} (- I!V + m- p) ] (2. 110c)

pertain to Cases (1.c) and (2.c). Adopted in the above equations are the
notations
( - 1)-!(n + p) (tension)
s = sinh m, c = cosh m, O! = (-I)! = 1, (:;n,p = {
( _ 1)t(n + p) - 1 (bending)
(2.111)
The simultaneous relations (2.9_0) or (2.107) and (2.109) corresponding to
the given boundary conditions are solved by aperturbation procedure
similar to that in the preceding section. The stress intensity factors are then
ealculated from the power series formulae.
Thus far only the problems of the eraeked strip have been treated. In the
cases of reetangular plates having finite length and width, it is diffieult to
satisfy the boundary eonditions of the outer edge analytieally. However, a
number of approximate methods are available for obtaining reasonably
aeeurate solutions. Analyses have been done for the three boundary eondi-
tions by determining the eoeffieients of the Laurent series with a boundary
collocation procedure based on the stress resultants and mean displacements.
The Iiumerieal results of the stress intensity faetors in this seetion are
displayed in Figures 2.16 to 2.18 of Appendix IV. Additional results may be
found elsewhere [9J.

Stiffened panels. Consider the panels made by joining two different plates
and with stringers along their eonneeting boundaries. Figure 2.9a shows the
symmetrie case where two kinds of strips of the same width 2d are bonded
alternatively, and Figure 2.9b is the unsymmetric case where two half planes
are bonded together. In the following they are simply termed as "Case (at
and "Case (b)" respeetively.
Laurent series expansion Jor internal crack problems 85

S.I s h h'
:::f] 0
Es
0 t 0 f 0 ~

I '
er (J'I er (J' (J'

iii ttt ti i tt, iit

(1) (U) (I) ( II ) (I )

Yt
2a
I I I!L°,
X
°
d d d d
Y,
E,'J E~VI

Figure 2.9a. Joined strips stiffened by stringers along boundaries.

h S,l s h'

t 0 t
Es
(]' (]'I

ttt tt t
(I) ( II )

Vi
2a
BI Al X, 0,

°
X
d d

V,
E,v E~V'

~ ~ ~ +~ ~
Figure 2.9b. Joined half planes stiffened by stringer along boundary.
86 M.1sida

In both cases, plate (I) whose thickness and elastic constants are h, E, v
contains a central crack of length 2a, while plate (II) whoseparameters are
h', E', Vi does not inc1ude a crack. The longitudinal modulus, area and
moment of inertia for in-plane bending of the stringer section are denoted by
Es, Sand Is respectively.
The coordinate axes X, Y and Xl' Y1 are chosen as in the figure. The
following dimensionless variables and parameters are defined:

(2.112)

It is noteworthy that this problem inc1udes various important cases when

proper choice of the parameters is made. To begin with the stress functions
X and X' for regions (I) and (II) are taken as
X = Xo + Xl + X2, X' = X~ + X;

Xk= (}"d 2 Re{z4>k(z)+lh(zn (k = 0, 1,2) (2.113)

Xk = ()"' d2Re {Zl <Pk (z) + ~l\(Zl)} (k = 0, 2)

where
()" ()"'

E = E' = 8<X!
(2.114)

with 8<X! being the uniform strain at infinity. In equations (2.113), Xo and X~
correspond to the stress state at infinity and

(2.115)

Moreover, Xl is the stress functions having singularities within the crack and
may be written as

L
<X!

4>1 (z) = Fnz-(n+ 1)

n=O
<X!

1/11 (Z) = - D o log z + L Dnz- n (2.116)

n=l
Laurent se ries expansion Jor internal crack problems 87

where D n and F n are real coefficients. Here and in the following, terms in
D n and Fn with odd subscripts are missing in Case (a).
The third type of the stress functions X2 and X~ are introduced in order to
satisfy the boundary conditions, together with Xo, Xo, Xl ' and are assumed to
take the integral forms

cf>2(Z) = ! f~ B(m)S(mz)dm

1/12(Z) = f~ {A(m)C(mz) + B~m) zS(mz) }dm

1'00

4>2(zd = ! \ H(m)S(mz 1)dm

.0

P2(Z1)= f~ {G(m)c(mz 1) + H~m) Z1 s(mz 1)} dm (2.117)

where S(mz), C(mz) etc. are known functions defined by

Case (a): S(X) = sinh X, C(X) = cosh X

Case (b): S(X) = C(X) = e X (2.118)

The unknown coefficients D n , Fn in equations (2.116) and functions A{m),

B(m), G(m), H(m) in equations (2.117) will be determined from the boundary
conditions along the crack edge and plate boundaries.
If the stringer thickness is assumed to be smaller in comparison with d,
then the following boundary conditions prevail along plate edges:
(U)x=1,y=y= -(U')Xl=l,Yl=-Y
(v)x= l,y=y = (V')Xl = l,Yl =-Y (2. 119a)
which describe continuity of displacement.
Equilibrium of stringer element (Figure 2.10) requires

(2. 119b)

In equations (2.119b) Us is replaced by (u)x= 1,y=y' and

88 M.Isida

der:
0"15 + .:::..::.:t.L d Y
dy

'-._._-_
o
.....X +._._._.~

Xl 01 ".

'.
Fig. 2.10. Equilibrium of stringer element.
" VI

erys = E s 8 s = E s (8 Y )X=l,y=y = ~s (<Jy-V<Jx)x=l,y=y

where the subscript "s" denotes the corresponding quantities of the stringer.
The boundary conditions (2.119) are expressed by stresses and displacements
of plate (I) at x = 1 and plate (Ir) at Xl = 1. Using equations (2.65), (2.66),
and (2.114) to (2.118), boundary conditions (2.119) are reduced to the follow-
ing integrals:

J~ [(1 + v)msA + {(v-1)s+(1 +v)mc} B+(l +v')msG

+ {(v' -l)s+(l + v')mc} H] cos mydm = E:1d Y)

1'00 [(1 + v)mcA + {2c+(1 + v)ms} B-(l +v')mcG

.0

- {2c+(1 +v')ms} H] sin mydm = - E;dY)

J~ [m {s+(l + v) ßmc} A + {s+mc+ ßm(2c+(1 +v)ms)} B
+ er: {msG+(mc+s)H}]
x m sin my dm = ~ [- Tl (y) + ß :y {er 2 (y) - V<J 1 (y) }]

J~ [
{c+(1 + v)ym 3 s} A + {s+ym 2 ((1 + v)mc- (1- v)s)} B
{Eu dy )}]
1 [
+ clY d
4
- er:(cG+sH)]m 2 cos mydm = ~ <Jl(Y) d y4, • (2.120)
Laurent series expansion for internal crack problems 89

where
s=S{m), c=C(m) (2.121)
and A(m), B(m), G(m), H(m) are simply written as A, B, G, H. With the
stress components 0"1 (y), 0"2(Y), T1(Y), u1(y), v1(Y) denoting the values of
(J'x' O"y' T xy ' U, v at x= 1, the stresses and displacements corresponding to the
function Xl are

_() __ [D o+2Fo 28 ~ {(n+ 1)(nDn+2Fn)

0" 1(Y) - 0" x x= 1 - 0" 1 2 COS + i..J (1 2)tn + 1
+Y n=1 +Y

+
n(n - 1)Fn -
{1+y2)tn
2 }
COS
( )
n+2 8
J

n(n-1)Fn- 2} ( ) ~
+ (1 + y2)tn COS n+2 8J

n(n-1)Fn- 2} . ( 2)8]
+ (1 + y2)tn sm n+

U1
()
y =
()
U x= 1
_
-
O"d
E
nl 1+ v)D(1 o++(3-v)F
y2)t
o 8
cos +
~ {(1+v)nD n+(3-.V)Fn
n~l (1 + y2)t(n+ 1)

(1+v)(n-1)Fn- 2} ]
+ (1+y2)t(n 1) cos(n+1)8

+
(1+v)(n-1)Fn_2} . (
(1 + y2)t(n 1) sm n + 1
)8] (2.122)

in which 8 = tan - 1 y. In order to give A (m) etc. in explicit forms, apply

Fourier transformation to equations (2.120). For instance the first relation
becomes
90 M.Isida

(1 +v)msA+ {(v-1)s+(1 +v)mc} B+(1 +v')msG

2E
+{(v'-1)s+{1+v')mc}H = -d
fco Ul(Y) cos mydy.
nO' 0

U se is also made of the integral formulae [6J

[co cos n8 cos mydy = [CO sin n8 sin mydy = ne-mmn- 1

J0 (1 + y2)tn J0 (1 + y2)tn 2(n-1) !

[CO cos{n+2)8 cos mydy = Jco sin(n+2)8 sin mydy
J0 (1 + y2}t n 0 (1 + y2)t n
ne- mmn- 1 (2m-n)
(2.123)
2n!
All the relations of (2.120) can be treated in the same way and four linear
equations are obtained, from which the unknown functions A (m) etc. can
be determined as linear combinations of unknown coefficients Dn and Fn •
The resulting expressions can be substituted into equations (2.117) and
the latter are expanded into power series of z or z 1 by using the relations
CO x2n+ 1 co X2n
Case (a) S(X) = n~o (2n+ 1)!' C(X) = n~o (2n)!
(2.124)
co xn
Case (b) S(X) = C(X) =
n=O n.
L -,
Combining the resulting expressions with (2.115) and (2.116), the usual forms
of the stress functions are obtained:
(2.125)
co
cp{z) = iz + L (Fnz-(n+l)+Mnzn+ 1 )
n=O
CO 00
I/I(z) = iz 2 -D o log z + L Dnz- n + L K nz n+2 (2.126)
n= 1 n=O
CO ... co
Kn = L (a~Dp+b~Fp),
p=O
Mn = L (c~Dp+d~Fp).
p=O
(2.127)

Similar expression for X' can be found. Further analyses can be proceeded
in the same way as previously for the strip, equations (2.95) to (2.102).
Note that the present problems inc1ude the following important cases
according to special choice of the parameters:
Laurent series expansion jor interna 1 crack problems 91

(1) Strip and half plane reinforced by stringers along edges (a=O)
(2) Strip and half plane with free edges (a = ß= y = 0)
(3) Periodic colinear cracks (a= 1, ß=y=O)
(4) Stiffened panels with a crack in each region (I) and (11) (a = 1, y = (0)
(5) Unstiffened plates with periodic colinear cracks or a pair of cracks
(a=1,ß=0,y=00).
Figures 2.19 to 2.24 of Appendix IV show some numerical results of joined
plates and stiffened strips.

Random elliptical holes and cracks in wide plate. Consider a wide plate
containing an arbitrary distribution of stress free elliptical holes, some of
which may be circular holes or cracks. The analysis is rather complicated
but similar to that of an infinite body. The same notations are used unless
otherwise specified.
The plate is assumed to be subjected to the following stresses at infinity.

(jx
00
=
/
(j "C>:
<5Y) ' (jy
+d dj1X) ' 't' = (jY
00
= (j ß +
( 00
(2.128)

where (j is a reference stress and a, ß, y, <5, j1 are constants as shown in Figure

2.11. First the stress function is written as the following sum
N

X = Xo + I Xk (2.129)
k=l

in which Xo corresponds to the stress at infinity

Xo = (jd 2 Re {z <Po (z) + t/I 0 (z) }
and
<Po(z) = i(ß +a)z+t(j1-i<5)z2 (2.130)
t/lo(z) = i(ß -C>: +2i Y)Z2 + i4(;U+i<5)Z3 .
The stress functions Xk (k = 1, 2, ... , N) possess singularities within the holes
and can be expanded in the following Laurent series:
Xk = (jd 2 Re {Zk<Pk(Zk)+t/lk(Zk)}
and
I
00

<Pk(Zk) = (F;,k+iF~,k)Z;(n+ 1) (2.131)

n=O
00

t/lk(Zk) = -DÖ,k log Zk + I (D;,k+iD'n,k)Z;n.

n=l
92 M: Isida

The function (2.129) is chosen so as to satisfy the boundary conditions at

infinity, and thus only those along the hole edges will have to be considered.
To discuss the j-th crack the total stress function is expressed with the

p.o-

ßo-

X,X
Figure 2.11. Random elliptical holes in wide plate.

only variable Zj' by using relations (2.36), together with (2.129) to (2.131).
The results are written as folIows:

00
"" j (Z j ) --
'l!' ~
L.. • +'1 F'n,j) Z j- (n + 1) + (M'n,j +'1 M'n,j) Z nj + 1 \j
{(F n,j (2.132)
n=Q
00 00

lfIj(Zj) = -Dö,j log Zj + L (D;,j+iD~)z;n + L (K;,j+iK~)zj+2.

n=l n=Q
The following relations among the coefficients have been adopted :
Laurent series expansion for internal crack problems 93

00 N
+ L L (e~:j F;,k+ f~:j F~,k)
p=O k=l=j

00 N
+ "" ""
L.. L.. (-fP,~ p,k + eP'~
n,J F' n,J F p,k
I )

p=O k=l=j

+ ~l (/1 cos 3aj - b sin 3aJ

00 N
+ L..
"" L..
"" p,k + bP'~
n,J D'
(aP,~ n,J D'p,k + cP'~ p,k + dP'~
n,J F' n,J F p,k I )

p=o k=l=j

K ~,j = ~Ö{(ß - a) sin 2aj + 2( cos 2aj + r j sin 2aA/1 cos ßj - b sin ß j)}

+ ~l (/1 sin 3aj + b cos 3aj)

(2,133)

{COS} {(p + + (n + p + J}
{j~:j
e~:1} = (_ l)P + 1 (n +n+l)
p
2)(a j - a k )
+ 1\ --=-si_n_ _ _ _ _ _-:---:-::-_ _ _ _ __
(r t+ + p 2
2)(ßjk- a

jk
(2.134)
94 M.Isida

The stress function is thus reduced to the same forms as equations (2.76)
and the free hole relations can be written down, just by adding the subscripts
"j" to the necessary quantities in equations (2.77) and (2.78). The relations
from (2.77) and (2.133) for j= 1,2, ... , N are then treated with a perturbation
procedure, and further analysis is performed in the same way as for the strip.
The stress intensity factors of the crack tip X = a j are given by the following
power series

(k 1 -ik 2 )Aj = 2(2d)t lim [(Zj-A}l-<jJj(Zj)] = (J"(aJt(F1 ,j-iF2 )

Zj-+ Äj

with
M M
F1 ,j = L
n=O
C~:] A'], F2j = L
n=O
C~:] Ai· (2.135)

The corresponding values for the opposite crack tip x j = -Aj may be
obtained upon replacing <jJj(zJ by <jJj( -z) and Aj by (- A) in equations
(2.135). The coefficients Cn,j are evaluated exactly by c10sed form ex-
pressions.
Typical results of stress intensity factors based on the above analysis are
given in Figures 2.25 to 2.33 of Appendix IV. Other results may be found in
Ref. [10].

Infinite row of periodic cracks. The analysis is simplified in the special case
of periodic cracks. Consider a wide plate containing an infinite row of equal
parallel cracks subjected to stresses at infinity
(2.136)
The complex potentials are then expressed in the forms which inc1ude
singularities within all the cracks in accordance with the periodicity of the
problem. Reexpanding them as in the case of longitudinal shear, the follow-
ing results are obtained:

00
"'(z)=
'f/ 0
"~ {F2n z-(2n+l)+M
0
z2n+l'l.I
2n 0
n=O

L
00 00

ljJ(zo) = -D o log Zo + I D2nZü2n + K2nZ~n+2 (2.137)

n= 1 n=O
with
Laurent series expansion for interna I crack problems 95

_ TOO

T OO _

Figure 2.12. Infinite row of equal parallel cracks.

00

Kin = !ßß~ + L (a~;Dip+b~;D~p+d;Fip+d~;F~p)

p=O
00
' --
K Zn 1 ,j0
2YLJ n + ~
L.. ( - b2n
2p D·Zp + a2p 2p F·2p + C Zp
2nD'Zp - d2n ZnF'Zp)
p=O
00

Min = !ßß~ - L (e~;Fip+ f~;F~p)

p=O
00

M~n = L
p=O
(f~;Fip-e~;F~p) (2.138)
and
ön
{ a n } = S2n+2 {COS}
(2n+2)8
b5 (2n+2) sin

{ a~;}
b~; =
(2n + 2p +
2p-1
1) S2n+Zp+Z {COS}
sin (2n+2p+2)8 (p ~ 1)

{d; } (2n +2p2p + 2) S2n+2p+Z {COS}

d~; = sin (2n+2p+4)8

e~; } (2n + 2p + 1)
{ f~; {COS} (2.139)
= 2p SZn+2p+2 sin (2n+2p+2)8
96 M.lsida

Other quantities are defined in equations (2.55) and (2.56).

The stress free crack conditions are obtained from equations (2.77) and
(2.79) as
00 00
D'2n = "L.. ),2n+2p+2 p2n(K' +M')
2p 2p 2p'
F'2n = - L..'
" ) 2n+ 2 P +2Q2n(K'
2p 2p
+M'2p)
p=O p=O

00

F'2n = -D'2n = "L.. ),2n+2 p +2(Q2n K'

2p 2p
+ W 2n
2p
M'2p'
) (2.140)
p=o

As before the simultaneous equations (2.138) and (2.140) are then solved by
aperturbation technique, and the stress intensity factor is calculated from a
power series formula The numerical results are given in Figures 2.34 and
2.35 of Appendix IV.

2.4 Plate bending

Basic formulae. In the classical theory of plate bending, displacement,

components of moment and shearing force are given in terms of two complex
potentials as follows [11]:

Eh 3
Dw = Tod Re {zcf>(z)+ ljt(z)} ,
2
D = 12(1- v2 )

Tx + Ty = -4(1 +v) To Re {4>'(z)}

(2.141)
Tx - Ty - 2i Txy = - 2(1- v) To {z cf>" (z)+ 1//' (z)}

.
Q x-1Qy 4To A."(z )
= - d'f'
where
T;.. =f -t h

-th
O"x tdt ,
(2.142)
=f
-t h
Qx 1: xt dt,
--th

and To is a reference moment.

Corresponding quantities with respect to the new axes which are taken
along the normal and tangent to the hole edge as shown in Figure 2.2 of
section 2.2, are related to the above Cartesian components by the formulae
Laurent series expansion for interna I crack problems 97

Yn+7;= Yx+Ty
Yn-~-2i Yns= e 2i <Z(Yx-Ty-2i Txy ) (2.143)

in which 0: is the angle between the normal n and the x-axis. For free hole
problems, the moment Yn and effective shearing force Qn + (8Yns/8s) should
vanish on the hole edge. This requires the following relation

Yn-i (Yns + { Qns dS )

= -[(v-1)</>'(z)+(3+v)$'(z)+(1-v)e 2i <Z{z</>"(z)+I//'(z)}] = 0
(2.144)
Free erack in symmetrie problems. The general forms of the complex
potentials for free elliptical holes can be derived in the same way as in
section 2.3 for plane problems. Laurent expansions (2.69) are assumed first.
Substituting them in equations (2.144) together with (2.13) and (2.72), and
replacing ~ by (- 1, the results are in terms of apower series in (. The potentials
can then be transformed into the ~-plane by using equations (2.75) and (2.15).
The final expressions for the case of a free crack in symmetrie problems
are given by

I
00

</>(z)= (Fn z-(n+l)+Mn z n + 1 )

n=O
(2.145)
00 00

ljJ(z) = -Do log z + I Dnz- n + I K nz n+ 2 .

n=l n=O

Here, all the coefficients are real and related to each other by the equations:

D 2n ="L...00
22n+2p+2(p2nK
2p 2p +R 2p M 2p)
2n
p=O

F2n ="L...00
22n+2p+2(Q2nK
2p 2p
+s2n
2p
M 2p)
p=o
00
"12n+2 p +4(p2n+1K +R 2n + 1 M
D 2n+l = L... I\, 2p+l 2p+l 2p+l 2p+l
)
p=O
00

F2n+l = "12n+2 p +4(Q2n+1K

L... I\, 2p+l 2p+l
+s2n+l
2p+l
M 2p+l ) (2.146)
p=O
98 M.Isida

where
o = ( _~) 2p-t:,2 (2 +
PZp 1 2zp +z
P 1)
f.l P

pZn _ 2p+2 {In,p (

Zp - 2Zp+ 1 2n m"'fo 1 -
2m+
f.l
1) (2p-m
P+ 1) A n- m, Zm+ 1

I n- l ,P2m+l(2P+l) }
- -;;, m"'f o 2m+2 p-m An-m-l,Zm+Z

Zn 2p+l [(
R zp = 2zp+z
1)
(2 P) 4 n-1,p 2m ( 2p )
1 - -;;, 2 p An,l - -;;, m"'fo 2m+2 p-m A n- m- 1,Zm+Z

+ -n1 { - (1- f.l)Z (2 P) An 1

f.l p ,

n,p - 1 (f.l
+ m"'fo 2m+ 1 -
2m +
f.l
1) (p-2pm-l ) A n- m, Zm+ 1

n,p (f.l 6m-l) ( 2p ) }] (n ~ 1)

m"'f 12m+l + f.l p-m A n- m,Zm+l

Zn 2p+2 n,p (2 +
Qzp = 2Zp +1
f.l m=O p-m
L P 1) A n- m, Zm+ 1

2 n+l,p ( 2m-l)( 2p ) }
+ 2 1 L 1 + _ An - m + 1, Zm
n+ m=1 f.l P m

2p+3 { 1 n,p+l 2m ( 2p+2 )

P~;~i = 2zp+z - -;;, m"'f1 2m+l p-m+l A n- m,zm+l

1 n,p ( 2m+2) (2P +2) }

+ 2n+ 1 L 1 - _ An-m,zm+z
m=O f.l P m
Laurent series expansion Jor interna I crack problems 99

2p+2 [(2 P +l) 2 n,p+12m-l ( 2p+l )

R~;~ 1= 22p+2 p A n,l - ~ m"f 1 2m+ 1 p-m+ 1 A n- m,2m+ 1

- "
1 n,p 1 (2P+ 1) { ,Li + -1 ((8m+4)p
2n+ 1 m~o p+m+2 p-m ,Li

+4(m 2+3m+ 1))} A n- m, 2m+2 ]

2p+3 n,p (2 P +2)

Q~;~i = 2 2P +2 L A n- m,2m+2
,Li" m=O p-m

2n+l 2p+2 [
S2P+l = 22p +2 -
(2 P +
P
1) (1 + n+l1) A n+1,l
2 n+l,p ( 2m) ( 2p )
+ 2 2
n+ m=O
L1 + -,Li _ A n- m+1 ,2m+l
P m
1n,p 4m+2 (2 + 1) A n- m,2m+2 ].
L 2m+ 2
+ -,Li m=O
P
(2.147)
p-m
The notation
3+v
,Li = - - (2.148)
I-v
has been used.
Various symmetrie crack problems can be treated by using the Laurent
expansions (2.145) in a manner analogous to the plane problems, since the
basic structure of the equations (2.64) to (2.67) for plane extension is similar
to that of equations (2.141) to (2.143) applied to bending. Finally, the stress
intensity factor kB is calculated from the limiting expression

kB = -12(2d~}3+V)To lim [(Z-A)t<t>'(Z)]. (2.149)

z~Ä.

The dashed line in Figure 2.34 of Appendix IV shows the dimensionless

factor FB (= kB ' h2 j(6T; at )) for infinite parallel cracks in a wide plate
subjected to r;, at infinity.

2.5 Applicability of the method

In the foregoing analyses the stress intensity factors o~their dimensionless
factors F(A) have been given by power series of a relative crack length A,
100 M.Isida

and their coefficients have been evaluated from elosed form expressions.
Therefore they must agree with the Maelaurin's expansions which should
exist uniquely. Actually the results of F(A) agree with the expansions of the
elosed form solutions for se ver al special cases such as problems (a) and (b)
of Appendix 11.
Thus the only source ofthe numerical errors is the truncation ofthe infinite
series, but no practical way is available for estimating the upper bounds of
these errors at the present time. However, according to the author's ex-
perience in various problems treated in this paper as weIl as previous works
based on the perturbation technique, it appears reasonable to estimate
upper bounds of the numerical errors by assuming some geometric series for
the uncalculated terms of higher orders.
On this basis the proposed method seems to give practically exact values
as long as the smallest cireles enclosing each hole or crack are not too elose
to each other and to the other boundaries. More precisely the method seems
to be valid if the relative crack length )v is less than 0.9 with few exceptions,
as suggested by several examples in Appendix 11. This condition is sufficient
for some cases treated in section 2.3. In the cases of parallel cracks, A may
take any large values and hence the present analysis will no longer apply. The
situation may be improved if the perturbation procedure is replaced by a
direct solution of simultaneous equations, but it will be inevitably accom-
panied by the loss of wide applicability and other difficulties such as the
error estimation, increase of necessary computer capacity and so on.
A few comments with regard to the extension of the proposed method
will be made. Effect of body forces which has been neglected here can be
easily taken into consideration. Expressions of the complex potentials for
free elliptical holes in the presence of in-plane gravitational forces can be
derived. This was done for the problem of an elliptic-sectioned tunnel under
a horizontal surface [12]. Further applications could be made for problems
such as the cracked rotating disks.
The present method of solution mayaIso be applied to solve crack
problems involving surface tractions such as the Dugdale crack modeL
With certain modifications, problems with multi-valued displacement fields
may be treated. An example of this is the case of cracks in initially stressed
fields.
Laurent series expansion for internal crack problems 101

2.6 Appendix I

Coefficients of free crack relations (2.21), (2.77) and (2.146).

TABLE I - Q~; (longitudinal shear)

Po 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n

o 0.500000 0.375000 0.312500 0.273438 0.246094 0.225586 0.209473 0.196381 0.185471

1 0.125000 0.125000 0.117188 0.109375 0.102539 0.096680 0.091644 0.087280
2 0.062500 0.070313 0.070313 0.068359 0.065918 0.063446 0.061096
3 0.039062 0.046875 0.048828 0.048828 0.048065 0.046997
4 0.027344 0.034180 0.036621 0.037384 0.037384
5 0.020508 0.026367 0.028839 0.029907
6 0.016113 0.021149 0.023499
7 0.013092 0.017456
8 0.010910

TABLE II - Q~;~ i (longitudinal shear)

p 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n

o 0.125000 0.125000 0.117188 0.109375 0.102539 0.096680 0.091644 0.087280 0.083462

1 0.062500 0.070313 0.070313 0.068359 0.065918 0.063446 0.061096 0.058914
2 0.039063 0.046875 0.048828 0.048828 0.048065 0.046997 0.045822
3 0.027344 0.034180 0.036621 0.037384 0.037384 0.037010
4 0.020508 0.026367 0.028839 0.029907 0.030281
5 0.016113 0.021149 0.023499 0.024673
6 0.013092 0.017456 0.019638
7 0.010910 0.014729
8 0.009274
TABLE III - p~; (plane problem)

p 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n

o 1.000000 1.500000 1.875000 2.187500 2.460938 2.707032 2.932618 3.142090 3.338470

1 0.250000 0.500000 0.703125 0.875000 1.025391 1.160156 1.283020 1.396485
2 0.093750 0.210938 0.316406 0.410156 0.494385 0.571015 0.641510
3 0.052083 0.125000 0.195313 0.260417 0.320435 0.375977
4 0.034180 0.085449 0.137329 0.186920 0.233650
5 0.024609 0.063281 0.103821 0.143555
6 0.018799 0.049347 0.082245
7 0.014962 0.039900
8 0.012274

TABLE IV - p~;ti (plane problem)

p 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n

o 0.562500 0.937500 1.230469 1.476563 1.691895 1.885254 2.061997 2.225646 0.000000

1 0.156250 0.292969 0.410156 0.512696 0.604248 0.687332 0.763703 0.834618
2 0.082031 0.164063 0.239258 0.307617 0.370102 0.427673 0.481133
3 0.052734 0.109863 0.164795 0.216293 0.264359 0.309300
4 0.037598 0.080566 0.123367 0.164490 0.203556
5 0.028564 0.062485 0.097199 0.131218
6 0.022659 0.050354 0.079308
7 0.018547 0.041731
8 0.015547

TABLE V - Q~; (plane problem)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n

o 0.500000 0.750000 0.937500 1.093750 1.230469 1.353516 1.466309 1.571045 1.669235

1 0.125000 0.250000 0.351563 0.437500 0.512696 0.580078 0.641510 0.698243
2 0.062500 0.140625 0.210938 0.273438 0.329590 0.380676 0.427673
3 0.039063 0.093750 0.146484 0.195313 0.240326 0.281983
4 0.027344 0.068359 0.109863 0.149536 0.186920
5 0.020508 0.052734 0.086517 0.119629
6 0.016113 0.042297 0.070496
7 0.013092 0.034912
8 0.010910

102
TABLE VI - Q~;t i (plane problem)

p 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n

o 0.187500 0.312500 0.410156 0.492188 0.563965 0.628418 0.687332 0.741882 0.792887

1 0.093750 0.175781 0.246094 0.307617 0.362549 0.412399 0.458222 0.500771
2 0.058594 0.117188 0.170898 0.219727 0.264359 0.305481 0.343666
3 0.041016 0.085449 0.128174 0.168228 0.205612 0.240566
4 0.030762 0.065918 0.100937 0.134583 0.166546
5 0.024170 0.052872 0.082245 0.111031
6 0.019638 0.043640 0.068733
7 0.016365 0.036821
8 0.013910

TABLE VII - W~; (plane problem)

p 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n

o 0.000000 0.375000 0.625000 0.820313 0.984375 1.127930 1.256836 1.374665 1.483765

1 0.000000 0.125000 0.234375 0.328125 0.410156 0.483399 0.549866 0.610962
2 0.000000 0.070313 0.140625 0.205078 0.263672 0.317230 0.366577
3 0.000000 0.046875 0.097656 0.146484 0.192261 0.234985
4 0.000000 0.034180 0.073242 0.112152 0.149536
5 0.000000 0.026367 0.057678 0.089722
6 0.000000 0.021149 0.046997
7 0.000000 0.017456
8 0.000000

TABLE VIII - w~;t i (plane problem)

p 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n

o 0.062500 0.187500 0.292969 0.382813 0.461426 0.531738 0.595688 0.654602 0.709425

1 0.031250 0.105469 0.175781 0.239258 0.296631 0.348953 0.397125 0.441857
2 0.019531 0.070313 0.122070 0.170898 0.216293 0.258484 0.297844
3 0.013672 0.051270 0.091553 0.130844 0.168228 0.203556
4 0.010254 0.039551 0.072098 0.104675 0.136265
5 0.008057 0.031723 0.058746 0.086357
6 0.006546 0.026184 0.049095
7 0.005455 0.022093
8 0.004637

103
 ,.....
TABLE IX - p~~ (plate bending, v=0.3) 0
..j:>.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n

0 0.393939 0.590909 0.738636 0.861743 0.969460 1.066406 1.155274 1.237793 1.315155

1. 0.022727 0.045455 0.063920 0.079545 0.093217 0.105469 0.116638 0.126953
2 -0.000947 -0.002131 -0.003196 -0.004143 -0.004994 -0.005768 -0.006480
3 -0.003157 -0.007576 -0.011837 -0.015783 -0.019420 -0.022786
4 -0.003107 -0.007768 -0.012484 -0.016993 -0.021241
5 -0.002734 -0.007031 -0.011536 -0.015951
6 -0.002360 -0.006195 -0.010325
7 -0.002040 -0.005441
8 -0.001777

TABLE X -- P~~~i (plate bending, v=O.3)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0.107955 0.179924 0.236151 0.283381 0.324707 0.361817 0.395737 0.427144 0.456510

"-1-------
o
0.004735 0.008878 0.012429 0.015536 0.018311 0.020828 0.023143 0.025291
2 -0.003196 -0.006392 -0.009322 -0.011985 -0.014420 -0.016663 -0.018745
3 -0.004084 -0.008508 -0.012762 -0.016750 -0.020472 -0.023952
4 -0.003832 -0.008212 -0.012575 -0.016766 -0.020748
5 -0.003396 -0.007428 -0.011555 -0.015599
6 -0.002975 -0.006612 -0.010414
-0.002612 -0.005877
~
7 ......
v:.
.....
8 -0.002306 ~
I::l
TABLE XI - R~; (plate bending, v=0.3) t-<
~
:;::
-..:
~
;:::
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ....
n \ 1 cn
~
-..:
.....
~
0 -0.731602 -0.253247 0.035173 0.246212 0.415483 0.558594 0.683733 0.795724 0.897645 cn
~
-0.042208 -0.019481 0.003044 0.022727 0.039950 0.055246 0.069031 0.081613 ~
~
2 0.001759 0.000913 -0.000152 -0.001184 -0.002140 -0.003021 -0.003835 ~
;:::
3 0.005862 0.003247 -0.000564 -0.004509 -0.008323 -0.011936 r..,

4 0.005771 0.003329 -0.000594 -0.004855 -0.009103 ö'

;:::
5 0.005078 0.003013 -0.000549 -0.004557 'c-..:>
6 0.004383 0.002655 -0.000492 .....
;:::
7 0.003789 0.002332 ....
~
8 0.003300 -..:
;:::
~
-.
~
-..:
TABLE XII - R~;t l (plate bending, v = 0.3) ~
~
~
~
-..:
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 . C)
n \ I0 ~
"-
~
::i
r..,
0 -0.316423 -0.385078 -0.415610 -0.436583 -0.454080 -0.469953 -0.484901 -0.499228 -0.513085
1 -0.051159 -0.087206 -0.110022 -0.127629 -0.142447 -0.155502 -0.167326 -0.178227
2 -0.018593 -0.041079 -0.057254 -0.070599 -0.082231 -0.092674 -0.102226
3 -0.009000 -0.024663 -0.036829 -0.047344 -0.056781 -0.065414
4 -0.005078 -0.016771 -0.026342 -0.034907 -0.042774
5 -0.003153 -0.012306 -0.020090 -0.027244
6 -0.002092 -0.009504 -0.015996
7 -0.001455 -0.007616
8 -0.001050 I-'-
0
Vl
106 M.Isida

TABLE XIII - Q~; (plate bending, v = 0.3)

p 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n

o 0.106061 0.159091 0.198864 0.232008 0.261009 0.287109 0.311035 0.333252 0.354080

1 0.026515 0.053030 0.074574 0.092803 0.108754 0.123047 0.136078 0.148112
2 0.013258 0.029830 0.044744 0.058002 0.069913 0.080750 0.090719
3 0.008286 0.019886 0.031072 0.041430 0.050978 0.059814
4 0.005800 0.014500 0.023304 0.031720 0.039650
5 0.004350 0.011186 0.018352 0.025376
6 0.003418 0.008972 0.014954
7 0.002777 0.007406
8 0.002314

TABLE XIV - Q~;tl (plate bending, v=O.3)

p 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n

o 0.039773 0.066288 0.087003 0.104403 0.119629 0.133301 0.145798 0.157369 0.168188

1 0.019886 0.037287 0.052202 0.065252 0.076904 0.087479 0.097199 0.106224
2 0.012429 0.024858 0.036251 0.046609 0.056076 0.064799 0.072899
3 0.008700 0.018126 0.027188 0.035685 0.043615 0.051029
4 0.006525 0.013983 0.021411 0.028548 0.035328
5 0.005127 0.011215 0.017446 0.023552
6 0.004166 0.009257 0.014580
7 0.003471 0.007811
8 0.002951
TABLE XV - S~: (plate bending, v=O.3)
~
~
""I
~
;:::
,...
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
n \ I0 tn
~
""I
....
~
0 -0.196970 -0.068182 0.009470 0.066288 0.111861 0.150391 0.184082 0.214234 0.241674 tn
~
-0.049242 -0.022727 0.003551 0.026515 0.046609 0.064453 0.080536 0.095215 ><
'l::;j
2 -0.024621 -0.012784 0.002131 0.016572 0.029963 0.042297 0.053691 I:l
3 -0.015388 -0.008523 0.001480 0.011837 0.021848 0.031331 tn
....;:::
~
4 -0.010772 -0.006214 0.001110 0.009063 0.016993 ;:::
5 -0.008079 -0.004794 0.000874 0.007250 ~
""I
6 -0.006348 -0.003845 0.000712 ....
;:::
,...
7 -0.005157 -0.003174
~
""I
8 -0.004298 ;:::
I:l
.....
("")
""I
TABLE XVI - s~:~.l (plate bending, v=O.3) I:l
("")
..,.
'l::;j
""I
1 2 3 4 . 5 6 7 8 ~
n \ I0 c:t'
.....
~
~
tn
0 -0.035985 -0.009470 0.015980 0.038116 0.057484 0.074707 0.090256 0.104472 -0.372801
1 -0.017992 -0.005327 0.009588 0.023822 0.036954 0.049026 0.060170 - 0.129234
2 -0.011245 -0.003551 0.006658 0.017016 0.026946 0.036316 -0.066013
3 -0.007872 -0.002589 0.004994 0.013028 0.020958 -0.039349
4 -0.005904 -0.001998 0.003933 0.010422 -0.025252
5 -0.004639 -0.001602 0.003204 -0.016693
6 -0.003769 -0.001322 -0.010934
7 -0.003141 -0.009205
8 -0.005152 .....
0
-.l
100 M.I~da

2. 7 Appendix II
Comparison of the present results with closed form solutions. To know the
general trend of the obtained series F().) consider the two special cases
whose exact solutions are given by the following expressions :
(a) A pair of equal colinear cracks in infinite bodies.
The dimensionless factors F (A) are the same for tension, in-plane shear,
longitudinal shear and plate bending, and the common results are [13J

(1+).)2 E(m) _ (1-).)2

K(m)
FA = ---2-}.--='(1----'-).-:-)-'-t- - (inner crack tip)

(1+).)t{1 _ E(m)}
K(m)
FB - ------~~--~- (outer crack tip) (2.150)
2),

2(J}) , crack length

m=I+},' A = ---------
crack spacing

where K(m) and E(m) are complete elliptical integrals ofthe first and second
kinds.
(b) Infinite row of equal colinear cracks [14J

F().) = (~, tan ~).)t (2.151)

Series of F().) for those cases obtained by the above analyses have agreed
with the expansions of equations (2.150) and (2.151). The magnitudes of the
series coefficients 'are generally found to decrease with higher powers of ).,
and the numerical results by the present analyses are assumed to give
practically exact values unless ). is less than and not so elose to one in most
cases.
For rough estimation of the numerical errors it is also convenient to
examine the partial sums of the series. Table XVII shows the partial sums
for the above two cases together with those for other three problems below.
Wide plate containing infinite row of equal parallel cracks.
(c) Tension
(d) In-plane shear
(e) Plate bending.
Laurent series expansion for interna 1 crack problems 109

TABLE XVII - Partial sums of F(A.)

I~
exact
Case 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
solution

(a) 0.7 1.1308 1.1332 1.1333 1.1333 1.1333 1.1333 1.1333 1.1333
0.8 1.2133 1.2277 1.2288 1.2289 1.2289 1.2289 1.2289 1.2289
0.9 1.3522 1.4269 1.4460 1.4515 1.4531 1.4536 1.4538 1.4539
0.95 1.4555 1.6199 1.6927 1.7285 1.7470 1.7569 1.7622 1.7689

(b) 0.7 1.3247 1.3358 1.3360 1.3360 1.3360 1.3360 1.3360 1.3360
0.8 1.5069 1.5603 1.5646 1.5649 1.5650 1.5650 1.5650 1.5650
0.9 1.7930 2.0258 2.0873 2.1053 2.1108 2.1125 2.1130 2.1133
0.95 1.9938 2.4669 2.6827 2.7912 2.8483 2.8792 2.8962 2.9180
(c) 0.5 0.7985 0.7895 0.7896 0.7896 0.7896 0.7896 0.7896
0.6 0.7828 0.7294 0.7349 0.7343 0.7344 0.7344 0.7344
0.65 0.8097 0.6855 0.7140 0.7075 0.7090 0.7086 0.7087
0.7 0.8828 0.5889 0.7300 0.6629 0.6948 0.6796 0.6868

(d) 0.7 1.1494 1.1532 1.1532 1.1532 1.1532 1.1532 1.1532

0.8 1.1743 1.1880 1.1877 1.1877 1.1877 1.1877 1.1877
0.9 1.1827 1.2255 1.2236 1.2220 1.2227 1.2225 1.2226
0.95 1.1746 1.2485 1.2449 1.2354 1.2425 1.2388 1.2405
(e) 0.7 0.9003 0.9019 0.9019 0.9019 0.9019 0.9019 0.9019
0.8 0.8728 0.8788 0.8778 0.8779 0.8779 0.8779 0.8779
0.9 0.8388 0.8622 0.8509 0.8542 0.8534 0.8535 0.8535
0.95 0.8175 0.8657 0.8288 0.8468 0.8390 0.8421 0.8410

The table suggests that the F-series calculated up to A. 70 give practically

exact values if k::::; 0.9", 0.95 with an exception of case (c).

2.8 Appendix III

Stress intensity factor for tension of infinite strip with eccentric internal crack.

Typical numerical results obtained from equation (2.102) truncating at

M = 19 are shown in Figure 2.13. It is noteworthy that F l •A (<5, }.) is almost
independent ofthe eccentricity for <5 :::::; 0.4. In other words, the stress intensity
factor is dose to that of a cent rally cracked strip whose width is 2d l . Their
numerical values and further discussions appear in [15].
110 M.Isida

Cf

2.0 tttt
d d
I
I 2a
1.8 I! IA
B I.L
d2 I d,
~ 1.6

--
b

• Westergaard

- - - - F',A
1.2
- - - - F',B

lDO~~~~~=--L----~------L---~
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
a/d,
Figure 2.13. Tension of long strip with eccentric crack.

For the important ca se of a central crack (<5 =0), the following empirical
formulae are proposed on the basis of the above results [16J:
(1) Polynomial F(A) = 1 +0.128A-0.288A 2 + 1.525A 3 (2.152)
(2) Secant formula F(A) = (sec !TCA)t . (2.153)
Equation (2.152) has been derived by least square curve fitting, while equation
(2.153) has been assumed by simple analogy of the tangent formula for
periodic colinear cracks given by equations (2.151) of Appendix H. The
remarkable accuracy of equation (2.153) suggests the possibility of a similar
formula for general eccentric cracks.
The following expressions are recommended for their simplicity and
reasonable accuracy:
A ~ 0.8-2<5 for <5 ~ 0.2)
(
), ~ 0.4 for <5 > 0.2

(2) FA(<5' A) = ( sec TCA

2
2A<5)t
. sin2A<5 (A ~ 0.7", 0.8 for all <5) . (2.154)
Laurent series expansion Jor interna I crack problems 111

TABLE XVIII - Values of F().) for centrally cracked strip

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Author (up to ).70) 1.0060 1.0246 1.0577 1.1094 1.1867 1.3033 1.4882 1.8160 2.58
Author (up to ).19) [15J 1.0060 1.0246 1.0577 1.1094 1.1867 1.3033 1.4881 1.811 2.47
Eq. (2.153) 1.0062 1.0254 1.0594 1.1118 1.1892 1.3043 1.4841 1.799 2.53
Eq. (2.152) 1.006 1.026 1.054 1.109 1.183 1.303 1.472 1.70 2.0

Errors of these formulae will be less than one per cent within the range shown
in parentheses.
Further ca1culations have been made for the two special cases, centrally
cracked strip (~=O) and cracked half plane (~-1), and the series (2.102)
were obtained up to the term in ;'70. Table XVIII shows the comparison of
F-values from various sources.
2.9 Appendix IV
Other numerical results oJ F (;').
1.8

1.6

~
.t: 1.4
'"
.::.:
D

'"
l.L

1.2

2a/d
Figure 2.14. A pair of equal parallel cracks.
112

2.0

1.8

~ ~t;J I' 20

001 ~ I-:=:;! d • 1

0"[

1.4

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

2a/d
Figure 2.15. Crack between two elliptical holes.

1. 8 r----y------,---,.-------,;----,

1.6 1----+-----+-----+----17'----1

rP~
~ 1.4 I----+----+-~,\<V~./---t------i
b XO~
-~1.2 I - - - t - - -0~ .. L . . - - - - j - - - - + - - - - - - l
r

• <:>'
u.:- \.""
1.0

0.81----+

0.6 0 0.2

Figure 2.16. Strip with longitudinal crack subjected to tension along straight edges.
 113
~
CJ
0.8 ---..
..5!,>f 8!-----r-----r----~
'-9:' 0'
.::y
~ ~~----4---~-----1
0.6 (;'
8_ q:

-- 0.4
.:::t:
.x
~ (tb) k~D EVo
§>
Q?- +-----l----
Vnd
EV
o
J: (1.c) k~. 0
V'nd (1--.1 2 )
0.2 ~·--~----~----~----~------I

°o~--~~--~--~~--~----~
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
ald
Figure 2.17. Fractions of stress intensity factors on the basis of those for semi-infinite crack.

1.8

1.7 cJo - AVERAGE STRESS

1.6 u-o. V-Vo

1.5 c 2a
! !
~ 1.4
b J b
~
--
-; 1.3
c

u:- ~---------'

1.2

1.1

1.0

0.9

0.80
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
alb
Figure 2.18. Rectangular plate subjected to tension by clamped ends.
114 M.Isida

ß ... -E'h'
Eh
t t

d d d d d
1.7

1.6

1.5 E/,v'
E,v E;J

1.4

~1.3r----+----+----+--t-----t----+--+---7\----,#'-r---.;r--t
b

~1.2r----t---r---t---r-----b~~f-:;;--7f--7P
t.C

1.1

0.7 r-----j---+--+---+---1----j---+---C-"k-~:_i

0.6 OL---~-~---'--~---'----'--.J....----'--........
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
2a/d
Figure 2.19. Tension of joined strips.
Laurent series expansion for internal crack problems 115

E'h J
ß=-
Eh

t t t -.1. v~ 0.3
1.7

1.6

1.5

1.4

~ 1.3
b
-;,.
~ 1.2 1---+----+--~-_t_-__t--_+___7<___t_T____f'_t__M...~
I.C

0.9 I----+---+---+--+---+---""'-~_....;:=~:!_"""_~""l"'_~d

0.8 I-----I----+--+---+---+----t-----+---"'I:=-:-"'ot-~~
- - - - plane strain
- - plane stress
O~I-----t---__+--r---t--__t--~--+--~~~

0.2 0.4 . 0.6 O.B

a/d
Figure 2.20. Tension of joined half planes.
116 M.Isida

1
-- d
a
--
---- -
Cf'_ ..... _. r--'-'- ._.- -Cf

a
diI
1

ß=~·2...
E dh,
Figure 2.21. Tension of long strip with stiffened edges.

1.8.r------;----~----.,___---_,_-~-___,

Q2
1.61-------+-----t-----f---+--tf--+---"l

1.41----+------!----

~ 0.4
b
§1.2 I------.-+----_t_
•
t..L

1.0

0.8 1------+-----1------+------".c--~~r-\1.5

2
3
6
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
a/d
Figure 2.22. Results for 'Y = 0, v = 0.3.
Laurent series expansion for internal crack problems 117

1.8.-------,--------.-----,-------r--r----r----.

'( =0.005

1.6 1 - - - - - - + - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - + - - - - - - 1 - + - - - 1 - - - - - - 4

1.4 f-------+-------+-----+---+-~+-___:.~==_1
0.2

~
--
b
~1.2 1------+--------1------."L-~~'----_".L_-+-----=..:_=_!
11
LC

0.8 f------+-----+------+------=~_*_~~_+____l
1.0
1.5
2
3
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
a/d
Figure 2.23. ResuIts for 'Y = 0.005, v = 0.3.
118 M.Isida

1.8
0.1
i =00

(PERIODIC CRACKS)
1.6 I - - - - - - + - - - - - + - - - - - f - - - - - l / - - - - - + - - - I

&
1.4 I-------+-----+------!--
G
tf- 1---+1--------1
;::: 0.2
~
.:::>
~
b
""-
~1.2 1-------+-----+-------,4-+-~.?_+---~~
n
u:-

0.7
0.81-------+-----+------!--~~~~~~-~

1.5
2
0.6 L-.._ _ _...L..-_ _ _- L_ _ _----1_ _ _ _...L..----3~3

o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

a/d
Figure 2.24. Results for '}' = 00, v = 0.3.
Laurent series expansion Jor internal crack problems 119

--.
2.0
L t
IJ)

L..
o
-
-
~ 1.6
I-'
4:
N
..:.:
"4:
Lf"'1.4 f---+---+----+--I---+----+-----t-J--J.I-.I-,I---4----I
....
o

~
b
""'< 1.2 f---+---+----+-----,I----+---,4,~---J'---+---+----I
-'
..:.:
'!.:t
u:-"

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

2a/d
Figure 2.25. Equal colinear cracks.
120 M.Isida

t cr I a-OoJ/
1.4

h
,
~

'10- ~ .?q 10=10°

- °d

<ö
,
illa-20i
W/
!
1.2 ~

~cr jo.;oo
-:=:::-::::: ~ 0--
.- - /;t, '- -- ;::10°
~ 1.0 -
-- --- --'==7
b ./'
5 b-:::::":: ~
..::t:
" I V1~30°
- :-- -----
ID
I
-
LL' '/
0.8
--

---
f--~
"'0 !
c: ,, I
Cl
k
F .--..1A... V
j,.A O"Va k:40°
;-

iI
\ F -~
~
!
'.S- crlfa
! 4-
a-SO°
0.4 ,
i ,
j
I ]
,-
I i a-60°
-
0.2
!
!
r '1-
I

I , aoo:70°
.1 0 - 80 °
-, ';\a-90°
0.2 0.4 0,6 0.8 1.0
2a/d
Figure 2.26. A pair of equal cracks inclined to each other.
Laurent series expansion for interna I crack problems 121

1.8
t cr

1.6 A

1.4

~
-
b
<I:
~-"2
ft
~cr
3
2.5
~
tL 2

1.0 1.5

0.81------jf---f---f---+---+---+- f=0.3

o 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0

2a/d
Figure 2.27. Tension of wide plate with two equal parallel cracks.
122 M.Isida

1.6 -

-
A
Y,
20
I
-1:

t
/If
flJ/..... f -

/
1.4 -
2~
- +
1: _
!
;
// I' 20

~
~15
/
Ii
I
~ ~~7
10

, ...d ~ 0.5~~ !t·O

...., f
~
r-.... 1 -
1.0
t:-..::3 15"""'" -5
0.5 7/
, V
2 - 2.5 1-

Q.8

o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

20/d
Figure 2.28. Shear of wide plate with two equal parallel cracks.
Laurent se ries expansion for interna I crack problems 123

_1:

t
1.20 ;-
(1
_Ci
cr"- N

- l -- - -- --

~
1:_

N-Y
1.10 V N=5
I~
c~
';>..,.~/ b ~ t--- ~ :.---
N=3

~~~~ V

1.00
I
....,~
- N=l
~'~ ~..rr
,~

'~~, ~ 1?~A1,
" ~
~ """ .~~
~ Our,~I?
~
~ 0.90
%. ' ~, "
',",
t::---.. CI?..q ('I(
~ ""
\" , ~~ I
~ \~~,'-, ~~I I
g:. \ \,'I' N-7 ....... N-5
,\, "" " ' , I
I
0.80 i , ", " , I
"\. " ' " , N=3

, ".'----: ',N=5"
N= oo,,~~7
I ,
0.70 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
2 a/d
Figure 2.29. Equal parallel cracks.
124 M.Isida

2.0 1-+--+-1----/-4.--1--

~
b 1.8

1.6 "'--~--l-
ü
c
o
~
~ ~
~.4~~+-~~-r~~--~--~--~--~++---c
.:.:
ft
~
u...-'

0.2 0.4 0.6

a/d

Figure 2.30. Crack approaching circuJar hole.

Laurent series expansion Jor internal crack problems 125

3.4 r - - - r - - - - , r - - - - - r - -

tcr

ce
2a

EV
3.0 1--4+---""-"-'--1--
"j
d J d

~cr
Lg
0 / .
U)I +
eil
..:: 2.2 I--_~L---+:--I- I
I
.x I
11 I
LL

1.8 F---t-r--b"--t+--1{

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

a/d
Figure 2.31. Crack between two circular holes.
126 M.Isida

RIGID INCLUSIONS (v:V,=0.3)

~O.6
b
~
n
u:-
0.4 f---p...,---+-'\---t\---\

, ,
to'
2a
'l
J
0.2 """,,,,--+:
d d

t
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
a/d
Figure 2.32. Crack between two rigid circular inclusions.
Laurent series expansion for internat crack problems 127

1.4

,.
...
1.2 I--+---+--+--+--~~--."f<~--il-------::,.+c:.:--=--+--I
/

"0
C
C
~ 0.8 t---+---+--'t----+"o.:--""'~~+-~,_______+-_+-___+______l

b
.......
<.
~

2a/b
Figure 2.33. Crack approaching two circular holes.
128 M.Isida

t t t er
2.0 . - - - - - - -

1.8

"6

1.4
~
--
o
~
It

tL"2

1.2

1.0 1--1IIiiI..

0.8 t---+----+---+--+-----"'o,d-""-=----P~

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

2a/d
Figure 2.34. Tension of plate with infinite row of equal parallel cracks.
Laurent series expansion for internal crack problems 129

2.0

-- t 1:

AI
1.8

r
16 Ä!/ / / I f!
I 1
g~e.i
, /

s:
!
l-' 20 i

r
~1.4

-
~
11
LLN 1:

! t---
I
1.2
i

1.:::.05
e , .
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
20/d
Figure 2.35. In-plane shear of plate with infinite row of equal parallel cracks.
130 M.Isida

References
[lJ Isida, M., Trans. JSME, 21, No. 107, p. 502 (1955); Sei. Papers, Fac. Engg. Tokushima
Univ., 4, No. 1, p. 35 (1953).
[2J Hayashi, T., Trans. JSME, 25, No. 159, p. 1133, Ref. (8) (1959).
[3J Sill. G. c., et al., J. Appl. Mech., Trans. ASME, Sero E, 32, No. 1, p. 51 (1965).
[4J Ling, C. B., J. Appl. Mech., Trans. ASME, 24, p. 365 (1957).
[5J Rabinowitz, P., et al., Math. Tables Other Aids Comp., 13, p. 285 (1959).
[6J Howlanci, R. C. J., et al., Phi!. Trans. Roy. Soe. London, Sero A, 232, p. 155 (1933).
[7J Isida, M., Trans. JSME, 22, No. 123, p. 804 (1956); Sei. Papers Fae. Engg., Tokushima
Univ., 5, No. 1, p. 83 (1955).
[8J Sih, G. c., et al., J. Appl. Meeh., Trans. ASME, Sero E, 30, p. 528 (1963).
[9J Isida, M., Intern. J. Frac. Mech., 7, No. 3, p. 301 (1971).
[10J Isida, M., Bulletin JSME, 13, No. 59, p. 635 (1970).
[l1J Washizu, K., Trans. JSME, 18, No. 68, p. 41 (1952).
[12J Isida, M., Trans. JSME, 23, No. 131, p. 474 (1957).
[13J Erdogan, F., Proc. 4th U. S. Nat. Congr. Appl. Mech., p. 547 (1962).
[14J Westergaard, F. M., J. Appl. Meeh., 6, p. A-49 (1939).
[15J Isida, M., J. Appl. Meeh., Trans. ASME, Sero E, 33, p. 674 (1966).
[16J Brown, Jr., W. F., et al., ASTM Special Tech. Phb., No. 410, pp. 11, 77 (1966).
 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

3 Asymptotic approximations to crack

problems

3.1 Introduction

Asymptotic methods play an important role in all branches of applied

mathematics in the evaluation of the solutions of problems depending on a
parameter with a certain range. Usually the solution is obtained first in a
more or less explicit form, and is then simplified by the appropriate asymp-
totic expansions when the parameter tends to one or both limiting values
ofits interval. On the other hand, in elasticity one often encounters problems
for which no explicit solution is available for arbitrary values of the param-
eter. Numerical techniques may enable us to obtain accurate numerical
solutions for specific values of the parameter. Such numerical methods,
however, are often less convenient to discuss the asymptotic behaviour of
the solution when the parameter tends to a limiting value of its range.
In some problems it has proved advantageous to consider from the outset
the cases of the limiting values of the parameter. This advantage occurs
only, of course, if the problem takes a simpler form for both limiting values
ofthe parameter, although these forms are naturally quite different. The more
difficult problem of a complete solution is evaded, and it is hoped that the
solutions for both ends of the range of the parameter are each valid in a
sufficiently wide neighbourhood, thus enabling a satisfactory interpolation
for intermediate values of the parameter. This approach has been advocated
strongly in [33J and supported with evidence of its application in four
widely different problems, but apart from [6J it does not seem to have been
applied to crack problems.
In some cases accurate (numerical) solutions of the problem for inter-
mediate values of the parameter will remain highly desirable, or even
indispensable, but even then the asymptotic solutions at the ends of the
132 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

range are extremely useful to complete the picture, the more so because the
numerical techniques often become awkward at these end points. The present
article has as its main purpose the encouragement of the fuHest possible use
of asymptotic methods in the analysis of cracks.
The procedure of interpolation between the asymptotic solutions at the
ends of the interval is often facilitated, if the variable parameter is chosen
in such a way that it varies from zero to unity in its range, and if the results
are presented in such a form that they are of order unity throughout the
range. The particular choice of interpolation procedure is to a large extent
a matter of taste. Engineers are likely to favour curve fitting by hand after
the asymptotic solutions have been drawn [33]. Numerical interpolation
can often be achieved by polynomials, provided the available data at the
ends are sufficiently well-behaved. In some ca ses, where steep slopes occur
at one end of the range, an interpolation by a conic section fitting of the
available data has been preferred (Section 3.5) and in one case the result of
the polynomial interpolation is compared with the asymptotic solution ne ar
the ends in a diagram with a transformed parameter in an attempt to obtain
a better picture of the accuracy achieved (Section 3.6). Wherever possible
the results have beenchecked against available numerical data in the litera-
ture, and in one case an exact solution serves as a check on the interpolation
procedure (Section 3.6).
The interpolation procedure is based on the simplified form ofthe problem
in question for the end values of the parameter, and a summary of available
information on these simplified basic problems is presented in Sections
3.2-3.4. This summary is concise where the information is easily accessible
in the literature, but more explanation is offered where this appears necessary
or helpful to the reader. All results are presented in the form of interpolation
formulae in Sections 3.5-3.7 and in Figures 3.4-3.12. Each figure is self-
explanatory, and for practical applications it is recommended to use these
graphs.
In order to keep the Chapter within reasonable bounds attention is
concentrated on the stress intensity factor which is defined, for the various
loading cases somewhat unconventionally, in order to keep it of order unity.
Information on the energy release due to a crack is not included. This
preference of the stress intensity factor is based on the argument that this
local property is less amenable to approximate analysis than the global
energy release. Satisfactory results for the more sensitive property ensure
a fortiori that the energy release problem will yield to the same treatment.
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 133

Moreover, quite a few energy problems have already been discussed in the
literature [4, 7, 12, 24, 30], some of them by asymptotic approximations.
Finally, reference can be made to Irwin's well-known general formulae for
the energy release rate associated with a crack growth rate. The total energy
release due to the cracks may thus be obtained by integration of Irwin's
formulae with respect to the crack length.

3.2 Basic plane problems

Single crack in infinite plane. The stresses Clx' Cl y' T xy = T and the displacement
components u, v in the x-y plane are represented by the complex stress
functions </> (z) and t/J (z) of Kolosov and Muskhelishvili [3, §32], where
z=x+iy. Denoting the shear modulus by G, Poisson's ratio by v, and
introducing the number K=3-4v in the case ofplane strain, and K=(3-v)j
(1 + v) in the case of generalized plane stress,

Clx+Cly = 2 [</>'(z) + </>'(z)] ,

Cly-Clx +2iT = 2[z</>"(z)+t/J'(z)] , (3.1)

2G(u+iv) = K</>{Z)-Z</>'{z)-t/J{z) ,

where primes and bars denote derivatives and conjugate values respectively.
Let the crack lie along the real axis from x = - c to x = c. The complex
plane is cut along this segment and all square roots will represent their
principal branches. Consider the disturbance of the state of stress due to
the removal from the edges of the crack of the tractions occurring in the
solid infinite plane.
In the case of uniform tension (Mode I) parallel to the y-axis at infinity
(Cly-+p for Izl-+oo) the disturbed state of stress is described by
</>{z) = tp(Z2_ C2)"t_tpz,
(3.2)
t/J{z) = </>{z)-z</>'(z).
Along the real axis
lxi< c: Cly = - p ,
(3.3)
lxi
lxi> c: Cl y = P (2
x -c 2)1: - p,
134 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

and the dimensionless stress intensity factor K, defined by

ct
(Jy~Kp (2r)!' (k 1 = Kpc!), (3.4)

has the value K = 1.

For large values oflzl all stresses tend to zero as pc 2 Izl- 2 • On the real axis
in particular

(3.5)

and on the imaginary axis

c2
(Jy ~ -!p 2 for Iyl~oo . (3.6)
y
In the case of bending the undisturbed state of stress in the infinite plane is
assumed in the form (Jy= pxjc. The disturbed state of stress in this case is
described by

4>(z) = :c [Z{Z2_ C2)!_Z2],

(3.7)
I/I{z) = 4>{z)-z4>'(z).
Along the real axis
x
lxi< c: (J y = -p-
c
(3.8)
lxi> c: (J
y
= l!..- [ 2xlxl 2 + ~ (X 2 _C 2
2c (x _c )! x
)!] - P ~,c
and the dimensionless stress intensity factor K, defined by
c!
(Jy ~ Kp (2r)t ' (3.9)

has the value K = t. F or large values of Izl all stresses te nd to zero as pc 3 zl- 3.
1

Strictly speaking, the bending case can only occur in combination with
tension (or in cracks with a small radius of curvature at the tips) because a
mutual penetration of the crack edges in the range - c< x< 0 is not per-
mitted.
In the case of uniform shear (Mode Ir) at infinity (-r~t for Izl~oo) the
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 135

disturbed state of stress is described by

cj>(z) = -!it{Z2_ C2)f+!itz,
(3.10)
ljJ(z) = -cj>(z)-zcj>'(z).
Along the real axis
lxi< c: T = -t,
(3.11)

The dimensionless stress intensity factor K, defined by

cf
T -+ Kt (2r)+ ' (3.12)

has the value K = l.

For large values of Izl all stresses tend to zero as tc 2 lzl- 2. On the real axis
in particular

(3.13)

and on the imaginary axis

c2
T -+!t 2 for I yl-+ co . (3.14)
y
The reader's attention is drawn to the fact that the alternative solution in
[1, pages 35-37J does not apply to the present shear problem. The reason is
the imposition of the boundary condition v (x, 0) = 0 for y = 0, lxi> c,
instead of the correct condition (J" y = O. Analogous statements for the penny-
shaped crack in the case of uniform shear [1, pages 156, 157J can be made.

Dam between two half-planes. Adam of length 2a between two half-planes

is obtained by cutting the infinite plane along the real axis from x = - co
to x = - a and from x = a to x = co. The stress distribution is again described
by equations (3.1).
The stress distribution in the case of a central normal force N per unit
thickness coincides with Sadowsky's solution for a smooth rigid stamp on
a half-plane [2J (cf also [3, §116J). The stress distribution is given by the
principal branch of the functions
136 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

</>(z) = 2N arc sin:',

n a
(3.15)
I/I{z) = </>(z)-z</>'{z).
The stress distribution in the dam is given by
N
(3.16)

and the dimensionless stress intensity Jactor K, defined by

(3.17)

has the value K = 2/n. For large values of Izi all stresses tend to zero as
Nlzl- 1.

In the case of bending [3, §116] let M denote the bending moment trans-
mitted by the dam per unit thickness. The stress distribution is again given
by equations (3.1) where </>(z) and I/I(z) are the principal branches of

</>(z) = M [-(a2-z2)~+iz],
na 2
(3.18)
I/I(z) = </>(z)-z</>'{z).
The stress distribution in the dam is given by
2M x
(5)1 = na2 (a2 _ x 2 )-t ' (3.19)

and the dimensionless stress intensity Jactor K, defined by

(k 1
3KM)
= 2a(a-t) , (3.20)

has the value K =4/3n. For large values of Izl all stresses tend to zero as
Mlzl- 2 •
In the ca se of shear let S denote the shear force transmitted by the dam
per unit thickness. The complex stress functions in equations (3.1) are now
specified by the principal branches of
A..(z) = - -iS arc SIn
.,., . -z ,
2n a
(3.21)
I/I(z) = -</>(z)-z</>'(z).
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 137

The stress distribution in the dam is given by

S
=. (3.22)
T
n (2
a -x 2)-"- ,
2

and the dimensianless stress intensity factar K, defined by

(3.23)

has the value K = 2/n. For large values of Izl all stresses tend to zero as
Slzl- 1 •

Edge crack in half-plane. [4, 5J Consider a half-plane x > 0 with an edge

crack 0< x< c along the x-axis and perpendicular to the edge (Figure 3.1).

yt
I

-- x

Figure 3.1. Edge-crack in a half-plane with linear load distribution Oy=p+q(c-x)/c.

There is a linear distribution of tensile stresses O'y=p+q(c-x)/c in the

solid half-plane, and the tractions along the crack edges are removed by a
linear load distribution of opposite sign. The disturbance due to the crack is
now governed by a discontinuous boundary value problem of the quarter-
plane x >0, y>O
138 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

x = 0: (J x = 1:xy =0;
o<x<c: (Jy= -p-q(c-x)/c,
y =0: { (3.24)
x > c: v=0, 1: xy =0.
Introduce polar coordinates cp, () (Figure 3.1), and express the stresses in
terms of an Airy stress function f(p, ())
1 0 2f 1 of 0 2f 1 of 1 02f
P P
2 2 2
c (Jp = p2 0()2 + op' C (J6 = Op2' C 1: p 6 = p2 o() - opo()' (3.25)

f:
The Mellin transforms of the stress function

F(s, ()) = f(p, ())pS-2dp, (3.26)

of the (unknown) stresses (J y (x > C, Y = 0) = (J6 (p > 1, () = n12)

P - (s) = J~ (Je(P, nl2)p Sdp , (3.27)

regular in a half-plane Re (s) < /11 (where /11> 1) are introduced, and a
solution of the transformed (biharmonic) boundary value problem 1S
obtained in a form which still contains the unknown function P _ (s)

F(s, ())= c
2 [p+q q
- - 1 + - 2 + P_(s)
] s+ 1
2 1·
s+ s+ cos ns + s 2 -

n [Sin(s-1)() sin(s+ 1)() ]

. { -cos-s - +
2 s-1 s+1

+ ~sinis [COS(S-1)()-COS(S+1)()J}. (3.28)

The Mellin transform of the displacement component - v (x, 0) = V6 (p, n12)

(3.29)

regular in a half-plane Re (s) > 0, may now be evaluated in terms of the

transformed stress function, and there results the Wiener-Hopf equation [4J

sin ns
= 2c s(cos ns+2s q + -q- + P s ]
[ p +- (3.30)
EV+ S
() 2 -1) - -
s+1 s+2 -(),
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 139

holding in a strip 0< Re (s) < Jlt of the complex s-plane, where E is Y oung's
modulus in the case of generalized plane stress.
In order to solve equation (3.30), with a number B > 1, conveniently
se1ected at B=2nj(n 2 -4)= 1.0705, write
-s sin ns
H (s) = -;--;:;--=-;--:,.----~--:- (3.31)
2 2
(B -S }t(cos ns+2s 2 -1)'
This function H(s) is regular and has no zeros in a strip - Jl* < Re (s) < Jl*,
where Jl*= Min (Jlt, B) > 1, and it tends to unity for Isl-HYJ in this strip.
Let H(s)=H+(s)jH_(s) where

10gH+(s) = __1_ ll+icologH(z) dz -Jl*<.u<Re(s) (3.32)

log H _ (s)
2ni
ll-lCO
z-s f. '
Jl* > J.i > Re (s)

and the solution of the Wiener-Hopf equation, regular for Re (s) < J.i*, is
given by
P_(s) = p+q
s+ 1
[1H_ (-1) (B-s)+ s+2
[1
+ (B+l)t SH_(S)] _ _ q_ + (B+2)± SH_(S)].
2H_ (-2) (B-s)±
(3.33)
The stresses may now be evaluated by means of the inverse Mellin transforms
associated with equations (3.25)

c2up = 2~i f:::: [::2 F(s, 8)-(s-1)F(s, 8)] p-s-lds,

1 fll+iCO
C2U6 = -2. s(s-1)F(s, 8)p-S-lds, (3.34)
nl Il-ico

1 fll+iCO d
C2T p 6 = -2' . s d8 F(s, 8)p-s-lds,
nl li-lCO

where -J.i*< J.i< J.i*.

The stress component u y (x >c, y=O) is obtained by the inverse trans-
formation of equation (3.27)

1 fli+iCO
uy(x >C, y=O) = -2. P_(s)p-S-lds, (3.35)
nl Il-ico

where p > 1 and Jl< J.i*. Equation (3.33) can be rewritten in the form
140 J. P. Benthem and W. T. KoUer

(3.36)

where only the first line contributes to the singular behaviour near p = 1.
This singular part is easily evaluated in closed form by the formula

-1.
2m
f
Jl
+ iOO
Jl-ioo (B
_1 -t p-s-lds
s)
= n- t p-B-l(1og pt! , p >1.

With the numerical values B= 1.0705, log H_ (-1)=0.0234, log H_ (-2)=

0.0235 [4], the singular behaviour of O"y{x, 0) for x=cp=c+r, r~O, is
described by

(3.37)

In the case of pure tension (q = 0) the dimensionless stress intensity factor K,

defined by
Ä
C2
O"y ~ Kp (2r)t' (k 1 = Kpc t ) , (3.38)

has the value K=[2(B+1)jn}tjH_(-1)=1.122.

Since P _ (s) is regular for Re (s) < fl*, where fl* > 1, the stresses in the far
field p~ Cl) are governed by the simple pole, of equation (3.28) at s= 1, and
these stresses therefore tend to zero proportional to p - 2. The stress compo-
nent O"y(x=O, y~Cl))=O"p(p~Cl), 61=0) in the case of pure tension will be
needed. From equations (3.28), (3.33), and (3.34)
c2 (B+1)+ H_(1) c 2
O"y(O, y) ~ [p-2P_(1)] y2 = -p H_(-l) (B-1)t y2

c2
- - 2.516p 2: for I'yl ~ Cl) . (3.39)
Y

Edge dam between two quarter-planes. [6]Consider ahalf-plane x> 0 with

a semi-infinite crack x > a perpendicular to the edge (Figure 3.2), in which
the dam transmits per unit thickness' a normal force N and a moment M
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 141

N = f: O"y(x, O)dx , M = f: xO"y(x, O)dx . (3.40)

In view of the symmetry of the problem with respect to the x-axis the shear
stress 'T xy vanishes for y=O, and the dam 0< x< a between the upper and
lower quarter-planes will remain straight. The relative rotation of the dam
with respect to the point at infinity ofthe upper quarter-plane (in a clockwise
sense) is denoted by (X,*.
yt
I

- - - - - - - - - - -x
a

Figure 3.2. Edge-dam between two quarter-planes.

Introducing polar coordinates ap, 8 (Figure 3.2), the stresses are given by
equations (3.25), where c is now replaced by a. The Mellin transform of the
(unknown) stresses O"y(O< x< a, y=O)=O"o(p< 1, ().:.....n/2)

P+(s) = f: O"o(p, n/2)p S dp (3.41)

is now regular in a half-plane Re (s) > - 1, and the transformed stress function
is now given by the counterpart of equation (3.28)

Ll) _ s+l [_ ~ {Sin(s-l)() _ Sin(s+l)()}

F (S,
2 ()
17 - a P+ s 2 2
cos ns + s - 1
COS 2 s
s-
1
s+
1 +

+ ~ sin ~ s {cos (s-l) 8-cos (s+ 1) ()} J. (3.42)

* Only the case o;=ü has been discussed previously [6].
142 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

The Mellin transform of the displacement component - v(x, 0)= ve(P, n12)
is in this case

aa
= -1 + V_(s) , (3.43)
s+
where V_ (s) is regular in a half-plane Re (s) < 0, and the counterpart of the
Wiener-Hopf equation (3.30) is here
aa ] sin ns
E [ -1
s+
+ V_ (s) = 2a s (cos ns + 2s 2 - 1) P+ (s) . (3.44)

In view of equations (3.40) and (3.41) one must satisfy the additional require-
ments P + (O)=Nla, P + (1)=Mla 2 , and the (unique) solution of(3.44) under
these conditions is
p s _ N BtH+(O)(l-s) + M 2(B+1)tH+(1)s
(3.45)
+() - a (s+l)(B+s)tH+(s) a (s+l)(B+s)tH+(s) ,
2

where B, H(s), H + (s) and H_ (s) have the same meaning as in equations (3.31)
and (3.32). The corresponding value of the (c1ockwise) rotation is

(3.46)

No rotation* occurs, if the line of action of the resulting force N is

B
x = a ( B + 1,
)t HH+(O)(1)
+ = 0.736 a . (3.47)

In this ca se equation (3.45) is reduced to

N B!r H+ (0)
P+(s) = --;; (B+s)tH+(s)' (3.48)

and the singular behaviour of O"y(x, 0) for x=a-r, r~O is described by

O"y~ n-tBtH+(O) --;;

N (a)t
r = 2 N a+
(n 2 -4)t --;; (2r)+· (3.49)

The nondimensional stress intensity factor K, defined by

* The solution of [25] applies only to this case.
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 143

N 1
(Jy --+ K ä t (2r)t' (3.50)

has the value K=2/(n 2 -4)t=0.826.

In the ca se of pure bending (N =0) the singular behaviour of O"y{x, 0) is
described by

(3.51)

and the nondimensional stress intensity factor K, defined by

6M a t
O"--+K--- (3.52)
y a 2 {2r)t'
has the value K=t[2(B+ l)ln]t H+ (1)=0.374, exactly one third of the
value in equation (3.38).
In the far field p--+ 00 the stresses are governed by the pole in the half-plane
Re (s) > -1 nearest to this boundary. In the case of a normal force N the
stress component (J p has the slowest decay, proportional to NI ap, and in the
case N = 0 all stresses decay proportional to MI a 2 p2. These statements are
easily verified by inspection of equations (3.34), where c has been replaced by
a, (3.42) and (3.45).

An infinite row of long parallel cracks. The long cracks y = + (~j + 1) b,

0< x< 2c, .i = 1, 2, ... , and clb ~ 1, are parallel to the x-axis (Figure 3.3).
The cases of uniform tension O"y= p and uniform shear L xy = t in the solid
plane will be considered. The disturbance may be obtained by considering
a single strip - b < y< b under uniform loads (0" Y = - p and L xy = - t respec-
tive1y) along the segments of the edges 0< x< 2c. Since the mutual inter-
ference between the crack tips at x = ,0 and those at x = 2c is small of exponential
order, i.e. of order exp ( - J1clb), where the positive number J1 is of order of
magnitude unity, we may consider the edges 0< x< 2c to be semi-injinite
(0< x< (0).
The stresses are expressed in terms of an Airy stress function f(x, y).
The boundary conditions in the case of tension are

x < 0: L xy = 0, v = 0 ;
y= +b (3.53)
- 'x> 0'. .xy = 0 ,V~ y = - p .
-r

In the case of shear the appropriate boundary conditions are

144 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

L
I -
I
( I
J
I 2b
I (

--
'-
1 b
-i -------4-- f-----~
x
I b
I

I 2b
I
I

I
l f
Figure 3.3. An infinite row of semi-infinite parallel cracks in an infinite plane.

x<O: O"y=O, u=O;

y= ±b, (3.54)
x>O: O"y = 0, '!Xy = - t .
Since the bending moment in the strip must vanish at x = c, there is an addi-
tional requirement in this case:

f: rx; '!Xy(x, b)dx = tc . (3.55)

Fourier transforms of the stress function, and of the unknown stresses

<7 y (x< 0, b) in the ca se of tension, !Xy(x< 0, b) in the case of shear are

introduced [4, 7],

F(}c, y) = (2nt+ J: rx; f(x, y)eu.xdx , (3.56)

P_{.IL) = (2nt t f:rx; O"y(x, b)eiAXdx, (3.57)

T_ (,1) = (2nt t f: !Xy(x, b)eiAXdx . (3.58)

The transform (3.56) is regular in a strip 0< Im (l) < ß, the transforms (3.57)
and (3.58) are regular in a lower half-plane Im (,1) < ß. Likewise, introduce the
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 145

Fourier transforms of the unknown dis placement components v (x > 0, y = b)

in the case of tension, and u (x > 0, y = b) in the case of shear

V+ (A) = (2n)-+ J~ v (x, b)eUXdx, (3.59)

U+ ()o) = (2n)-+ J~ u(x, b)eUxdx. (3.60)

These transforms are regular in a half-plane Im (A) > O.

The boundary value problem in generalized plane stress in the ca se of
tension is now reduced to the Wiener-Hopf equation

(3.61)

holding in a strip 0< Im (Jo) < ß. In the case of shear the similarWiener-Hopf
equation reads
i t ] 2 (cosh 2Ab - 1)
EU + (A) = [ T_ (Je) - ),(2n)+ ),(sinh 2Ab _ 2Ab)' (3.62)
..... "".
~ ,

and its solution has to satisfy the additional requirement (3.55), viz. T_ (0)=
tcj(2n)+ .
.[ri the case of tension the function

H * ()
w = (2
w + 4)!..
2
cosh 2w - 1
----;------..,.- (3.63)
w(sinh 2w+2w) '
is regular and non-zero in a strip - y* < Im (w) < y* and tends to unity for
Iwl~co in this strip. Let H*(w)=Ht (w)j H~ (w), where

log Ht(w)

log H~ w
( )
1 iy+cologH(z)
= -2.
n1 ir-co Z-W
J
dz ,
-y*<y<Im(w)
( )
}'* > Y > Im w .
(3.64)

Likewise, in the case of shear the function

**( ) _ ( 2 .2.)+ sinh 2w-2w (3.65)

H w - w +4 w ( cos h 2w- 1) ,
is regular and non-zero in a strip - y** < Im (w) < y** and tends to unity
for Iwl~ co in this strip. Again let H** (w)= Ht*{w)j H~*(w) with definitions
similar to (3.64).
146 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

The unique solution of equation (3.61) in the case of tension is now given by
ip [ p.b - 2i)+ ] (3.66)
P - (A) = A(2n)t 1 - (_ 2i)t H~ (Ab) ,
where the square roots are defined by the principal branch. From the inverse
transform for aAx, b) the stress singularity for x= -r, r--+O is obtained in
the form*
bt
ay --+ Kp (2r)P (k 1 = Kpb t ) , (3.67)

where K = n - t is the nondimensional stress intensity factor in the case of

tension.
The solution of equation (3.62) in the case of shear, under the subsidiary
condition (3.55), is also unique [7J

T (A) = it [1 _ (-ti )t{1+iA(C+0.2865b)}] (3.68)

- A(2n)t (Ab-ti)t H'!*(),b) ,
where the square roots again denote their principal values, and the numerical
coefficient has been obtained from
1 1 fOC>
3" - 2n -00 Z-2 log H**(z)dz = 0. 2855 5 (3.69)

by numerical integration. From the inverse transform for 'tXy(x, b) the stress
singularity in the case of shear for x = - r, r--+O is obtained in the form

't xy --+ (~3)+ (Cb + 0.2865) (2r)t·

t
b"t (3.70)

3.3 Basic anti-plane problems

The anti-plane problem is characterized by a single displacement component

w(x, y) normal to the x-y plane, and independent of the coordinate perpen-
dicular to this plane. The non-vanishing stress components are the shear
stresses 't x and 't y in the x-y plane. The anti-plane state of stress is described
by a single analytic function c{> (z), where z = x + i y
Gw = c{>(z)+c{>(z) ,
(3.71)
'tx-h y = 2c{>'(z).
* The stress singularities have not been discussed previously in [4, 7].
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 147

Crack in infinite space or edge crack in halj-space (Mode III). The crack
extends from x = - c to x = c in the plane y = 0 and extends to infinity in both
directions perpendicular to the x-y plane. In the case of a uniform shear
stress Tx=O, T y= t at infinity, the function cjJ(z) in equations (3.71) is given by
cjJ(z) = -tit(Z2_ C2)t, (3.72)

where the square root has its cut along the segment - c < z< c. Along the
x-aXIS

lxi
Ty= t (2
x -c
2}t for lxi> c , (3.73)

and the nandimensional stress intensity factor K, defined by x = c + r, r~O

and
ct
T y ~ Kt (2r)t '
(3.74)

has the value K = 1. The disturbance of the uniform shear stress field decays
for Izl~oo proportional to tlzl- 2 •
Since the shear stress T x vanishes for x=O, one may cut the space along
the plane x = 0 without disturbing the stress distribution. The solution
(3.72)-(3.74) therefore applies also to the case of a half-space x> 0 with an
edge crack 0< x < c in the plane y = O.

Dam between two halj-spaces ar edge dam between two quarter-spaces. The
dam between the two half-spaces y< 0 and y > 0 extends in the plane y = 0
from x = - a to x = a, and extends to infinity in both directions perpendicular
to the x-y plane. The dam transmits a shear force 2S per unit length in the
direction normal to the plane. The function cjJ(z) in equations (3.71) is now
given by
,,/,( ) .S . Z
'Y Z = - I - are Sin - , (3.75)
n a
where the function has its cuts along - 00 < z< - a and a< z< 00. On the
x-aXIS

2S 1
T
y = -n (a 2 _x 2 )t for lxi< a , (3.76)

and the nondimensional stress intensity factar K, defined by x = a - r, r~O

and
148 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

°
has the value K = 2/n. The stresses decay for Izl ~ co proportional to SIZ!-l.
Here again one may cut the space along the plane x = without disturbing
the stress distribution. The present solution therefore applies also to the case
of a half-space x > 0 with a semi-infinite crack a< x< co in the plane y = 0,
transmitting a force S per unit length through the dam 0< x< a.

3.4 Basic space problems

Penny-shaped crack in infinite space. Cylindrical coordinates p, 4>, z will be

used. The penny-shaped crack is described by the circle p = c in the plane
z = O. The undisturbed state of stress in solid space is described by a single
non-vanishing normal stress component in the cases of tension and bending

(Jz = p (~)n cos n4> , n = 0 or 1 ; (3.77)

the case of torsion is specified by a single non-vanishing shear stress compo-

nent in solid space

P
Tz</> = t -;; . (3.78)

The disturbance due to the crack is obtained by applying a load of opposite

sign to the crack fa ces z = 0, 0< p < c in the infinite solid with vanishing
stresses at infinity*.
The problem is reduced to a problem for a half-space z > 0 under surface
loads in the circle 0< p< c which are the negative of (3.77) or (3.78). In the
cases of tension and bending the purely normal loads (J z are unknown for
p > c, but we have here the alternative boundary condition that the axial
displacement component U z must vanish for z= 0, p > c. In the case of
torsion the surface loads are shear stresses Tz</>, the opposite of (3.78) in the
circle 0< p< c, and unknown for p > c. The alternative boundary condition
is here that the tangential displacement component u</> must vanish for z = 0,
* The tension problem has been discussed by many writers [9J, but we have found no reference
to the bending problem. The torsion case has been dealt with in [lOJ and [30, part Ir]. The
discussion in [1, p. 158J is incorrect since the equilibrium equations are violated by the un-
disturbed field.
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 149

p > c. Both problems are redueed to mixed boundary value problems for a
single harmonie funetion.
The stress distribution in a half-spaee under purely normal surfaee loads
may be deseribed by a single harmonie funetion f(p, C/>, z). The relevant
stress and displaeement components are given by [8, pp. 92, 93J
a3 f a2 f a2 f af
O"z = z -a
z
3 - ~,
cz
2Gu z = z az 2 - 2(1- v) -::;-.
cz
(3.79)

In the loading condition specified by the negative of (3.77) in the circle

0< p< C of the plane z=O
f(p, c/>, z) = f* (p, z) eos nc/> . (3.80)
The Hankel transform

F*(y, z) = f~ pf*(p, z)Jn(yp)dp, (3.81)

is introdueed and the transformed harmonie equation has the solution

F*(y, z)=A(y)exp(-yz). Evaluating the stress and displaeement compo-
nents (3.79) by the inverse Hankel transformation, and substituting the
result in the boundary eonditions at z = 0, a pair of dual integral equations
for the unknown funetion A(y) is obtained

- O"~(p,
- c/>, 0) = fOO y3 A (y) Jn (yp) dy = p (p)n
- for 0< p< c,
eos nc/> 0 c
(3.82)
Guz(p, C/>, 0) - [00 }' 2 A (y) J ( yp ) dy = 0 for p >c.
n
(I-v) eos nc/> .0
The explieit solution of (3.82) in terms of infinite integrals is given in [28,
p. 339J and it may be evaluated by gamma and Bessel funetion formulae
[29, vol. 2, p. 22J

y2 A(y) = pc-&(2y)-+ ~~::~~ Jn+J(Yc). (3.83)

The normal stress 0" z at the plane z = 0 may again be evaluated from equations
(3.82) by means of a Bessel funetion formula [29, vol. 2, p. 48J. F or p < c it is
eonfirmed that this stress is the negative of (3.77), for p > c
p r(n+1) ( c2 )(c)n+3
O"z{p, C/>, 0) = 2(n+) r(n+~) F n+t~; n+~; p2 p eos nc/>, (3.84)
150 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

where F(a, b; c; z) denotes the hypergeometrie funetion. It is noted in

passing that this result holds for all positive integral values of n for loads
speeified by the negative of (3.77) in the eircle 0< p< c of the plane z = O.
In the ease of tension (n = 0) the hypergeometrie funetion may be expressed
in terms of elementary funetions, and after some laborious algebra

(lz(p, cf>, 0) = 2p [( 2 c 2)t - are sin':'] . (3.85)

n p -c P
At infinity the stresses deeay proportional to pc 3 /R 3 , where R 2 =p2+ Z 2
(on the plane z = 0 even as pc 4/ p4). The nondimensional stress intensity Jactor
K, defined by
-Ä-
C2
(lz ~ Kp (2r)t ' (3.86)

for p = c + r, r~O has the well-known value K = 2/n.

In the ease of bending (n= 1) the simplified form of equation (3.84) is

(I z
(p, cf>, 0) -_ -3 c
2p [ p2 + 2
(2 2)t
n p p -c
(2 2)+
+ -2pP - c
3p .
- - are sm -
cp
c] eos cf> ,
(3.87)
and the nondimensional stress intensity Jactor K, defined by equation (3.86),
has the value K = 4/3 n. In this ease the stresses deeay at infinity proportional
to pc 4/R 4, where R 2 =p2+ Z 2 (on the plane z=O as pcs/pS).
In the torsion problem the funetion u",(p, z) eos cf> is harmonie. With the
introduetion of the Hankel transform

U",(y, z) = f~ pu",(p, z)J1 (yp)dp , (3.88)

the solution ofthe transformed harmonie equation is U",(y, z)=B(y) exp( - yz).
Evaluating the stress eomponent 'tz"'(p, z)= Gou",/oz and the displaeement
eomponent u",(p, z) by the inverse Hankel transformation, and substituting
the result in the boundary eonditions at the plane z = 0, a pair of dual integral
equation is again obtained:

for 0< p< c,

(3.89)
for p >c.
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 151

These equations are formally identical to equations (3.82) in the case n = 1, if

GB(y) and tin (3.89) are identified with yA(y) and p in (3.82). It follows that
7: z <l> (p > c, 0) in the case of torsion is also given by equation (3.87) after
replacement of p by t, and suppression of the factor cos <p. The dimensionless
stress intensity Jactor K in the torsion case, defined by

(3.90)

for p = c + r, r-O, has again the value K = 4/3 n, and the stresses decay at
infinity proportional to tc 4 / R 4 , where R 2 = p2 + Z2.

Penny-shaped dam between two half-spaces. The space is cut in the plane
Z = 0 outside the circle p = a, and the half-spaces z< 0 are connected only
through the dam at z = 0, p< a. The cases where the dam transmits a tensile
force N, a bending moment M or a torque Twill be considered. The solutions
to these problems coincide with those of the half-space problems where the
load is applied by a rigid flat circular stamp (in the absence of friction in the
loading conditions of tension and ben ding, and with a bonded stamp in the
torque loading condition). The solutions to the latter problems are well-
known [9, 11, 12, 13, 31], and only the results which are relevant to our
purposes will be listed.
In the case of a tensile load N the stress distribution in the dam is given by
N 1
Uz = 2na (a 2 _ p2)t '
(3.91)

and the nondimensional stress intensity Jactor K, defined by

(k _ na(a
1 -
KN)
t)
(3.92)

for p= a- r, r-O, has the value K =!.At infinity the stresses decay as NR- 2 ,
where R 2 =p2+ Z 2.
In the case of a bending moment M the stress distribution in the dam is
given by
3M p
(3.93)
Uz = -na a -p 2)""" cos <p ,
23 (2 2

and the nondimensional stress intensity Jactor K in

152 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

4M at
(3.94)
(Jz ......
na3 (2 r ).l..'
K - 2

for p = a - r, r ...... O, has the value K = l In this case the stresses decay at
infinity as M R - 3.
In the case of a torque T the stress distribution in the dam is given by
3T P
'Czq, = 4na 3 (a 2 _ p2)t ' (3.95)

and the dimensionless stress intensity factor K in

2T a t
(3.96)
'C zq,
na (2 r ).l.. ,
...... K - 3
2

for p=a-r, r ...... O, has again the value K=i. In this case the stresses decay
again at infinity as TR - 3.

3.5 Strip problems

Strip with central crack. Consider a strip of infinite length and width 2b
with a central crack of width 2c = 2 (b - a), in generalized plane stress or plane
strain, loaded by a central tensile force N or a bending moment M, each per
unit thickness (Figure 3.4).
In the case oftensile loading, the leading term ofthe asymptotic expansion
of the stress singularity for clb ...... O is obtained by substituting p=Nl2b in
equation (3.4). The longitudinal edges ofthe strip in the solution (3.2) for the
infinite plane under a tensile stress p = N 12b at infinity carry tractions of
order pc 2 /b 2 for clb ...... O. The removal of these edge tractions from the strip
(without a central crack) results in an additional (nominal) stress ofthe same
order at the location of the crack. It follows that the second term in the
asymptotic expansion of the stress singularity is of order c 2 /b 2 times the
leading term

(J y ...... ~ (;~t [1 + 0(~: )] (3.97)

At the other end ofthe range ofthe parameter clb, viz. clb ...... 1 or a/b ...... O, the
solution of Section 3.2 applies. From equation (3.49) for a tensile force iN
per dam
2 N at
(Jy ...... (n 2 _ 4)t 2a (2r)-i- for alb ...... O. (3.98)
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 153

It is now convenient to introduce a nondimensional stress intensity Jactor

K (c/b) as a function of the parameter c/b in such a way that it is of order
unity in the entire range 0< c/b< 1 and tends to the limiting values 1 and
1.2 , - - - - - ; - - - - - - - , r - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - ,

1. 0 k : : - - - - - - t

0.826

M~
0.6 I-----f---~~'------t-

K for M.equation (3.106)

0.5
0.4 I-----f------I~----t-

02 I-----f------Ir------t- 2b

_alb
0.8 0.6 0.4 02
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
c/b_
Figure 3.4. K-values for strip with central crack.

2/(n 2 - 4)+ = 0.826 at the ends c/b = 0 and c/b = 1. This purpose is achieved
by writing the stress singularity in the form
N c+ KNct)
(jy~ K(c/b) 2(ab)f (2r)f' ( (3.99)
k 1 = 2(ab)+

where equations (3.97) and (3.98) give

K ~ 1 - ~ ~ + 0 (~: ) for ~ ~ 0, K ~ 0.826 for ~ ~ 1. (3.100)

The simplest possible polynomial interpolation between these asymptotic

results in the tension case is [6J
154 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

(3.101)

and it is represented by the curve in Figure 3.4.

It is ofsome interest to compare our simple interpolation formula (3.101)
with the results ofnumerical calculations in the literature (Table I). According

TABLE I
The K-value (k 1 =tKN(clab)t) of the strip with central crack in tension (Figure 3.4), adapted
from some papers and compared with equation (3.101).

clb [15] [16] [17, 18] [19] equation

(3.101)

0 1.000* 1.000* 1.000* 1.000* 1.000*

0.1 0.954 0.955 0.958 0.955 0.953
0.2 0.916 0.917 0.917 0.918 0.913
0.3 0.885 0.886 0.880 0.886 0.879
0.4 0.859 0.861 0.853 0.863 0.852
0.5 0.839 0.841 0.835 0.844 0.832
0.6 0.824 0.825 0.823 0.828 0.817
0.7 0.815 0.813 0.805 0.822 0.810
0.8 0.810 0.804 0.817 0.809
0.9 0.800 0.816 0.814
1.0 0.798 0.826*

* Exact values.

to Rooke [14J the numerical results of Isida [15J are like1y to be the most
reliable, but also included are Feddersen's "intelligent guess" [16J, which
has been conjectured (erroneously) to represent the exact solution [20J,
theresultsofFormannand Kobayashi [17, 18J,and the results ofthe(possibly
most accurate) recent numerical solution of the basic integral equation by
Sneddon and Srivastav [19J. The authors feel entitled to claim that the simple
interpolation achieves a one percent accuracy and is adequate for all practical
purposes.
In the case ofloading by a bending moment M equation (3.9) may be applied
for c/b---+O by taking p = 3Mc/2b 3 • The solution (3.7) for the infinite plane now
contains tractions along the longitudinal edges of the strip of order pc 3 /b 3 ,
and their removal from the strip (without a central crack) now results in an
additional (nominal) stress at the location of the crack tip of order pc 4 /b 4
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 155

because it vanishes at the crack center. The second term of the asymptotic
expansion ofthe stress singularity for e/b~O is therefore of order e4 /b 4 times
the leading term. Hence we have in the bending case

~y~~ 3~e (;~+ [1+0 (~:)] for e/b~O. (3.102)

At the other end of the range a/b~O we may again apply the edge dam
solution, now for a tensile force M/2b per dam, and
2 M a+
~y ~ (1[2-4)+ 2ab (2r)+ for alb ~ 0 . (3.103)

In the bending case the nondimensional stress intensity factor K is defined by

writing the stress singularity in the form

(3.104)

The asymptotic formulae for K in this case are

for e/b~O,

(3.105)
2
K ~ (1[2-4)+ = 0.826 for a/b~O.

The simplest polynomial interpolation between these asymptotic results

1[ 1 c 3 e2 11 e 3 c4 ]
K ="2 1 + "2 b + "8b2 - 16 b3 + 0.464 b 4 . (3.106)

is also represented by a curve in Figure 3.4.

Since the interpolation in the bending case is based on more exact data
than the similar interpolation for tensile loading. one may expect at least
the same accuracy. Even though it has not been possible to eompare formula
or curve with the results of accurate numerieal calculations, the authors feel
entitled to claim a one percent aeeuraey.

Strip with symmetrie edge cracks. Consider an infinite strip of width 2b

with symmetrie edge cracks of depth e, in generalized plane stress or plane
strain, loaded by a eentral tensile force N or a bending moment M, each per
unit thiekness of the strip (Figure 3.5).
156 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

In the case of tensile loading, the leading term of the asymptotic expansion
of the stress singularity for c/b-O is obtained by substituting p = N /2b in
equation (3.38). In the half-plane ofthe edge crack problem the stresses along
a line parallel to the edge at a distance 2b are at most of order pc 2 /b 2 , and
their removal for the solid strip results in an additional (nominal) stress at

1.2 r - - - - - , - - - - - - , - - - - - - , - - - - , - - - - - ,
'.122
K
O'y .. K~,(C -'-
2 V -;;:b V2r
1.0 1--\----1'-....-- O'y _ K 3 M .Ic -.
2a V""cl,
i--
v2r

N
0.6
M~
K for M.
equation (3.117)
0.4

2b
0.2

_ alb
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

c/b-
Figure 3.5. K-values for strip with symmetrie edge-eraeks.

the location of the edge crack of the same order of magnitude. Hence for the
asymptotic expansion of the stress singularity,

CT y - 1.122 ~ (;~+ [1 + 0 (~:)J for c/b-O. (3.107)

At the other end of the range of the parameter c/b-1, or a/b-O, equation
(3.17) may be applied. The longitudinal edges of the strip in the solution
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 157

(3.15) for the half-plane carry tractions of order N/b. Their removal from the
semi-infinite strip -b< x< b, y >0 introduces a curvature ofthe edge y=O
of order N/Eb 2 . Since the dam must remain straight, additional stresses are
induced by the removal ofthe curvature. It follows from [3, §116aJ that the
stress singularity due to a curvature 1/R is of order (Ea/R)(a/r)t. The asymp-
totic formula for the stress singularity is therefore, from equation (3.17),

(ly~ ~ ~ (;:)t [1+0 (;:)] for a/b~O. (3.108)

A nondimensional stress intensity factor K for tension is defined by the formula

(3.109)

and from equations (3.107) and (3.108) the asymptotic formulae follow

K ~ 1122
. (1 _!~)
2 b + 0(Cb 2
2
) for c/b~O,
(3.110)
2
K~-
'TC
( 1+--
1
2 b
a)
+ 0 -2 )
b
(a 2
for alb ~O.

The simplest possible (cubic) interpolation is therefore [6J

1 C) - c 2 c 3
K = 1.122 ( 1 - "2 b 0.015 b2 + 0.091 b 3 . (3.111)

An alternative (transcendental) interpolation formula, suggested by the

exact solution in the case of a row of collinear cracks (cf. formula (3.127»

K = [1+0.122 sin 2 ;;] (~: tan ;~)t (3.112)

differs from equation (3.111) by about 0.3 percent. The result is also given in
Figure 3.5.
In view of the fact that the interpolation formula (3.111) is based on
exact values for the function itse1f and for its first derivative at both end
points of the interval 0< c/b< 1, and that the interpolation does not deviate
far from a straight line, the authors feel entitled to claim an accuracy of
better than one percent. Some support for this claim is found in the compari-
son in [6J with results of numerical calculations [21 J, with a claimed
accuracy of one percent. The largest discrepancy found between Bowie's
158 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

results and equation (3.111) was 0.8 percent, and it may be largely due to
errors in his numerical results.
In the case ofloading by a bending moment M the edge crack solution may
again be applied for cjb~O. The leading term in the stress singularity is given
by equation (3.37), where p=3M(b- c}j2b 3 and q=3Mcj2b 3, and the second
term is again of order c 2 jb 2 times the leading term. Therefore

(}y~ 1.122 ~~ (1-0.609~) [1 + o(~:)J (;~+ for cjb~O. (3.113)

On the other hand, for ajb~O one may apply equation (3.20). In the half-plane
solution (3.18) the longitudinal edges of the semi-infinite strip carry stresses
of order Mjb 2 , and their removal induces a curvature of the edge y=O of
order MjEb 3. This curvature vanishes at the center ofthe dam, however, and
it is of order M ajEb 4 at the ends. The additional terms in the stress singularity
due to the annihilation of the curvature along the dam are therefore of order
a4 jb 4 times the primary singularity, and

(}y ~ 3: ~~ (;~+ [1 +0 (;:)] for ajb ---+ 0 . (3.114)

Defining the nondimensional stress intensity factor K for bending by

3M c+
(}y ~ K 2a(ab)+ (2r)+ '
(3.115)

the asymptotic formulae

K ---+ 1.122 (1-2.109~) + 0 (~:) for cjb~O,

(3.116)
for ajb~O

are obtained. The quintic interpolation formula

4 ( 1 a 3 a2 5 a 3) . a4 aS
K = ~ 1 + "2 b + "8 b 2 + 16 b3 - 0.470 b4 + 0.663 b S (3.117)

is also given in Figure 3.5. In view of the large number of exact data incor-
porated in equation (3.117), viz. the function and its first derivative at both
end points alb = 0 and alb = 1, and in addition the second and third derivatives
for ajb=O, the authors expect again a one percent accuracy, in spite of the
stronger curvature of the curve in Figure 3.5.
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 159

Strip with a single edge crack. Consider an infinite strip of width b with a
single crack of depth c = b - a perpendicular to an edge, loaded in plane strain
or generalized plane stress by a central tensile force N or a bending moment
M, each per unit thickness of the strip (Figure 3.6).*

1.2,.-----,-----r----....-----...,------,
1.122
K
N

~M
1.0 ........,.-------+-------'------t----
a:-K 6M,/c _'_
y 0 V~ ffr yl
I
0.8 r------'<-~~--------t---

--x
K for M, Toble Ir
col umn(4)
0.6 ~---.l---~~~---+--

K for N, Toble 1I
column (2)
0.4 I-----~----'------J.-----t-=='""-...:;;:::::__-I

0.374
a:y -KN {3b_2}~
0
-'
ob ffr
0.2 I - - - - - t - - - - . - - - - . . . - - - - - + - - - - - I

- alb
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

c/b-
Figure 3.6. K-values for strip with edge-crack.

In the limit clb~O the asymptotic solutions of the previous case remain
valid. Replacing 2b in equations (3.107) and (3.113) by b, there results for
tensile loading

CTy~ 1.122 ~ (;~t [1+0(~:)J for clb~ 0, (3.118)

and in the case of loading by a ben ding moment

* We are indebted to one ofour students, Mr. G. T. M. Janssen, for an independent check of
our analysis of this case.
160 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

(Jy~ 1.122 6bAf (1-1.217~) (;~t [1+0(~:)J for c/b ~ O. (3.119)

At the other end of the range, c/b~ 1, a/b~O, one may again appeal to the
solutions for the edge dam. The simplest case is loading by a bending moment.
The leading term ofthe asymptotic expansion for a/b~O is given by equation
(3.51). Removal of the stresses along the edge x=b in Figure 3.6, of order
M/b 2 , induces a curvature ofthe edge Y= 0 ofthe semi-infinite strip of order
M/Eb 3 . Annihilation of this curvature at the dam results now in a stress
singularity of order a 3 /b 3 times the leading term (because symmetry con-
siderations cannot be appealed to here). In the bending case therefore

(Jy ~ 0.374 6:; (;~t [1 +0 (~:)] for a/b~O. (3.120)

Tensile loading by a central force N is obtained by superposition of an

excentric tensile load, whose line of action is parallel to the uncut edge of
the strip at a distance 0.736a given by equation (3.47), and a bending moment
N(1b-0.736a). The stress singularity of the excentric force N is given by
equation (3.50) with a relative error of order a 2 /b 2 , the stress singularity due
to the bending moment follows from (3.120) by substituting M =N(1b-
0.736a). The result for a central force is now given by

a t [ 1-0.736 ba+ (a 3
(Jy ~ 1.122 Nb
a 2 (2r)t 0 b 3)] for a/b~O. (3.121)

In the case of central tensile loading we introduce a nondimensional stress

intensity factor K, with due recognition of the predominant effects of the
excentricity with respect to the dam, defined by

(Jy ~ K
N(3b-2a) ct
a(ab)t (2r}i- '
(k = KN (3b-2a)c+)
1 a(ab}i- . (3.122)

The asymptotic expansions for this stress intensity factor are

K ~ 1122
. [1 - ~2 ~b + 0 (cb 2 ) ]
2
for c/b ~ 0,
(3.123)
+ 0 (a3)~ J
2
a
K ~0.374 [ 1 +0.431 b + 0.294 ab2 b3 for a/b~O.

In view of the large value of the derivative at c/b = 0 a polynomial inter-

polation is less suitable in the present case. An interpolation by the conic
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 161

TABLE II
The K-values oI the strip with edge-crack (Figure 3.6), compared with those oIliterature.

c/b Load N Load M

[17,26J c.s.i. [17,27J c.s.i.

equations equations
(3.123) (3.125)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

0 1.123 1.122* 1.123 1.122*

0.05 0.955 0.961 0.991 0.990
0.10 0.844 0.849 0.892 0.890
0.15 0.764 0.767 0.816 0.811
0.20 0.702 0.703 0.755 0.747
0.25 0.651 0.653 0.703 0.693
0.30 0.609 0.611 0.658 0.649
0.35 0.573 0.577 0.619 0.610
0.40 0.544 0.548 0.585 0.577
0.45 0.520 0.523 0.555 0.549
0.50 0.500 0.501 0.529 0.523
0.55 0.482 0.482 0.506 0.501
0.60 0.463 0.464 0.483 0.481
0.65 0.449 0.463
0.70 0.435 0.446
0.75 0.423 0.432
0.80 0.411 0.418
0.85 0.401 0.406
0.90 0.391 0.394
0.95 0.382 0.384
1.00 0.374* 0.374*

c.s.i.: Conie seetion interpolation.

* Exaet values.

section has been employed here which has in common with equations
(3.123) the values and tangents at both.ends of the interval, as weIl as the
curvature at c/b = 1. The results are presented in Table II and Figure 3.6.
Listed also in Table II are the results of an interpolation formula [17, 32J,
based on numerical calculations [26J, and valid only in a limited range.
The agreement is excellent, except for very small values of c/b, where the
formula of [17, 32J is slightly in error, due to aninaccurate value of the
162 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

derivative at c/b = O. The authors feel entitled to claim that their results have
an accuracy far better than one percent.
In the case of loading by a bending moment M define the nondimensional
stress intensity factor K by the relation

(3.124)

and the asymptotic expansions are

K - 1.122 [1 - 2.717 ~ + 0 (~:)] for c/b-O,

(3.125)
2 3
K - 0.374 [ 1 + 2:lab + 8"3 a
b2 + 0
(a ) ]
b3 for a/b-O.

Here again a conic section interpolation has been employed, and the results
are presented in Table II and FigureJ.6. Also listed in Table II are the results
of an interpolation formula [17, 32J, based on numerical ca1culations [27J,
again valid in a limited range. The discrepancies do not exceed 1.4 percent,
but the authors expect their results to be as accurate as those of the (less
simple) tensile force case.

3.6 Crack configurations in a plane or half-plane

An infinite row of collinear cracks. Consider an infinite plane in plane strain

or generalized plane stress with cracks of length 2c along the x-axis with a
regular spacing 2b (Figure 3.7). The solution in the case of uniform tension
(J y
= p at infinity has been given by Westergaard [23J, the solution in the case
of uniform shear T xy = t at infinity has been given in [24]. Both cases are
described in terms of the same dimensionless stress intensity factor K, defined
by

((Jy) _ K(p)
T xy t
(~)t ~, (k
a (2r) k
1)

2
= K(P)t (bc)t,
a
(3.126)

with the same numerical value

K
2a nc)t
= ( -tan- (3.127)
nc 2b
This exact solution may serve as a test case for the asymptotic approximations.
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 163

1.2.-------,,.-------,-------,.------,-------,
p to;.:
K - Atoe
(T, -Kp' Ik -'-
y V~ffr
Dktt
lbC ...L
1.0 k - - - - - t - - - - - - : : . .
xy
... Kt'
V-=; ffr

0.81--------<>-----------'-----""'--.;:::------'-----+------1
K for p and t.
equations (3.127)'(3.133)
YI
0.61------,- I
I
x
0.4-
2b 2b

0.2~---~-------<~---4---_4---_4

- alb
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
°o~--~L---~~-------'----~---~
1.0

Figure 3.7. K-values for collinear cracks.

In the case of a single crack - c< x< c in an infinite plane the disturbance
caused at the location of the crack - c + 2nb < x< c + 2nb (n = + 1, + 2, ... )
in the cases of tension and shear is given by equations (3.5) and (3.13)

(::J -+ (~) [8: b 22

2 +0 (n~:3)J for cjb-+O. (3.128)

Conversely, the disturbance due to all cracks with n non-zero at the location
of the crack - c < x< c is given by

It follows that the stress singularity for a row of collinear cracks obeys the
asymptotic formula
164 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

for c/b ---+ 0 . (3.130)

At the other end of the range c/b---+ 1, a/b---+O, and from equations (3.17) and
(3.23)

(::J ---+ (~) ~ ~ (;~) + [ 1 + 0 (~:)] for alb ---+ 0, (3.131)

where the error term is due to the annihilation of the curvature at the dam,
caused by the removal of the traction (of order pa/b, ta/b) along the lines
x = + b in the solution of Section 6.2.
Introducing the nondimensional stress intensity factor K defined by equa-
tion (3.126), the asymptotic relations are
1 c n 2 -3 Cl 3
(C )
K ---+ 1 - 2b+ 24 bl + 0 b3 for c/b ---+ 0 ,
(3.132)
K ---+ ~n [1 + ~2 ~b + 0 (al)]
b l
for alb ---+ 0 .

The result of the standard polynomial (in this case quartic) interpolation
procedure is the approximate formula (Figure 3.7).
1 C Cl c3 c4
K = 1 - 2b+ 0.286 bl - 0.207 b 3 + 0.058 b 4 • (3.133)

In this test case the approximation is excellent. The discrepancy with the
exact result (3.127) does not exceed 0.2 percent anywhere.
It mayaiso be worthwhile to note in the present case that one may even
ignore the knowledge of the se co nd derivative at c/b = 0, and employ the
cubic interpolation which has in common with equation (3.133) both values
and first derivatives at the end points
1 c Cl c3
K = 1 - 2b+ 0.228 bl - 0.091 b 3 ' (3.134)

with an accuracy of 0.5 percent. It should be borne in mind, however, that

these excellent results are related to the fact that the curve in FigU):e 3.7 does
not deviate too far from a straight line.

An infinite row of parallel cracks. Consider an infinite plane in plane strain

or generalized plane stress with cracks - c < x< c along the lines y = 2nb
(n = 0, + 1, + 2, ... ) with uniform tension (J y = p or uniform shear r xy = t at
infinity (Figure 3.8).
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 165

1.2.....----.,..----,------,----....,.-----,

K (j'y_ KPV bc -'-

s 6
L _
!oE-_ _ _ _~~-xy
Kt V_ b s_c- -'-
V2r
1.0 K fo r t. ----+-------;
equation(3.145l

0.8 ~-----~------+--~--+----------'------~

<===:)

2b1i b+c=s
0.6
2b yl 0.564
I

x
0.4 2b
Atoo (y=p

0.2~------~------+-------4-------~------~
Di L xy 4

-bis
Q..8 0.6 0.4 0.2
°O~---~~---~~---~~---~----~
1.0

Figure 3.8. K-values for parallel cracks.

In the tension case the disturbance due to a single crack at y = 0 at the

location of the crack at y = 2nb is given by equation (3.6)

(Jy~ -p [8~~~2 + o(~:)J for clb~O. (3.135)

By the same argument as in the previous case, the stress singularity in

the case of a row of parallel cracks is

(Jy~ P (;~t [1 - ~:~2 + 0 (~:)J for clb ~ O. (3.136)

At the other end of the range of the parameter clb~ Cf.) the asymptotic
approximation for the stress singularity is given by equation (3.67), and the
relative error of this approximation is, in view of the remarks for long
parallel cracks, of exponential order exp (- J1clb).
166 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

In the present case it is not at all obvious how to choose a parameter with
range from zero to unity in such a way that all possible configurations are
represented adequately. The fraction cis, where s = b + c, is selected, some-
what arbitrarily, and the nondimensional stress intensity factor K, defined by

(}y ~ Kp ( s
bc)t 1
(2r)t' (3.137)

is introduced. To derive a suitable interpolation formula the asymptotic

expansions for K have been terminated at both ends ofthe range (cls~O and
bls~O) at the quadratic terms in cis and bis respectively. The associated
quintic interpolation formula, however, appeared to be inaccurate when
plotted in terms of an entirely different parameter, to be discussed presently.
In this case it is evidently necessary to make use of more knowledge of the
asymptotic behaviour at the ends of the interval. Adequate results are
achieved in the present case on the basis of the asymptotic expansions,
following from equations (3.136) and (3.67),

K ~
1 c
1+ - - -
n 2- 3 c 2 2
- - 5(n -1) -c + 0
3 (C- 4) for cis ~ 0 ,
2 s 8 S2 16 S3 S4

(3.138)

for bls~O.

The associated interpolating polynomial of degree ten is (Figure 3.8)

b7 b8 b9 bIO
+ 15.3427"- 47.020 8
s s
+ 45.2799"- 14.2551"0'
s s
(3.139)

As a check on the accuracy consider the alternative, entirely different param-

eter 0:, defined by 0: = arc tan (nclb) , where 0< 0: < n12, and a different
dimensionless stress intensity factor K*,

(3.140)
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 167

where S*2 = b 2 + n 2 c 2 . The asymptotic formulae for this modified factor K*

are
K * -'Jo (co sC() -! [1 - t tan 2 a + 0 (tan 4 a) ] f0 r C( -'Jo 0 ,
(3.141)
K* -'Jo (sin C(tt for C(-'Jo n/2.

The approximate formula (3.139) may be mapped on a K*-a diagram by the

relations
c/s = c/(b+c) = (n cot a+ 1t 1, K* = (s*/s)! K=

( ---- n -.-
n cos a+sm a
)! K.
The result ofthis mapping is given in Figure 3.9, together with the asymptotic

1.2 .------.-----.--....-,--.1----.-------.
K* ',equation (3.141 )
K* ................

1.0 L-=~~~~-l=~~~~~J
'"
I \
\
! \
I
\ equation (3.14')
0.8 t------+----'If-----+-----\\-\-~--___l

\
K* P~
0.6 r - -
rf y "
s* v'-'-
2r"
s* = b2 +n: 2 e 2
a =ore ton (rre/b)
0.4~---._----.----~---~-------

0.2 ~---t-----..- - - 4 - - - _ _ ; f - - - - - + _ - - _ _ _ l

O~---~---~---~----L---~
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
..f. a
rr
Figure 3.9. Alternative dimensionless stress intensity factor K and parameter a for parallel
cracks, tension case. Dotted lines, asymptotic expansions (3.141).
168 J. P. Benthem and W. T Koiter

formulae (3.141). It is probable that the actual K* curve remains at the lower
side ofthe right asymptote and the error in the interpolating curve is estimated
to be 1 or 2 ~{
In the case ofa uniform shear T xy = t at infinity the counterpart of equation
(3.136) is derived in the same way from (3.14)

T xy - t (;~} [1 + ~:~: + 0(~:)] for clb - O. (3.142)

At the other end ofthe range clb- 00 the stress singularity has the asymptotic
approximation (3.70) with a relative error of exponential order. Define the
nondimensional stress intensity factor K (note in a way different from (3.137))

T xy - Kt
(bSC)t.(2r)+
1
'
(3.143)

and employ now the asymptotic expansions

K - 1 -
1 c n 3 c + n16 1 c
2 ~ + 24
2
-
2

S2
2
-
S3
3

+ 0
(c S4
4
)
for cis - 0,

K - (-3)+
n
[1-0.2135 -b + 0.0182 b
s s 2
2
+ 0.044 3b
s
3
+ s
4
0.051 4b + (3.144)

b
S
+ 0.051 b S + 0 (b7'
6
)] for bls-O.

The associated interpolation polynomial of degree nine is (Figure 3.8)

K (3)+
n
[
= -. 1- 0.2135 -b + 0.0182 2b + 0.0443"
s
4
s
2
b + 0.051 b + 0.051 b
5
s
3

s
4

s
S
]

b6 b7 b8 b9
-0.3036"+ 2.041 7 - 2.631 8 + 0.9639"' (3.145)
s s s s
It is immediately obvious from Figure 3.8, as weIl as from the smaller coef-
ficients in equation (3.145), that the errors of our approximation are smalI,
most likely far less than one percent, and we omit an alternative representa-
tion in this case.

Parallel edge cracks in a half-plane. Consider a half-plane in plane strain

or generalized plane stress with an infinite row of normal edge cracks of
depth c and spacing 2b, loaded in tension by a uniform normal stress Cf y = p
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 169

at infinity. The disturbance at the location of one crack caused by all other
cracks maybe evaluated in the same way as before, now from equation (3.39)

(Jy = - p ~: [2.069 + 0 (~:)] for cjb --7 0 . (3.146)

The stress singularity at the crack tip in the ca se of widely spaced cracks is
therefore by equation (3.37)

(Jy--71.122p (;~t [1-2.069~ + o(~:)J for cjb--70. (3.147)

At the other end of the range clb--7 00 the stress singularity is again given by
(3.67). Introduce again the nondimensional stress intensity factor K defined
by (3.137), where s = b + c, and use the asymptotic expansions

1.2
K o _ Kp "n;c -'-
1.122 y V~ Y2r
1.0
yl
I
I

0.8

2b
--X
0.6 2b
b+c=s
0.564
2b
0.4

0.21-----+----+----+-----+-----;

-Q5
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

--
I
0.6 O.S 1.0
c
5

Figure 3.10. K-values far parallel edge-cracks.

170 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

K ~
2 S
2

S2
3

S3
(c
4
1.122 [ 1 + -1 -C - 1.694 -c - 4.860 -c + 0 - )]
S4
for c/s~O,

(3.148)

for b/s~O.

The associated polynomial interpolation formula of degree ten is given by

(Figure 3.10)
1 [ 1 b 3 b2 5 b3 35 b 4 63 b 5 231 b 6 ]
K = n-t 1 + "2 S + "8 ? + 16 ? + 128 S4 + 256 SS + 1024 S6 +

b7 b8 b9 biO
+ 22.501 7 - 63.5028"+ 58.0459" - 17.577 10 . (3.149)
s s s s
Here again it is estimated that the interpolation is in error by only 1 or 2 ~~.

3.7 Cylindrical bars

Penny-shaped crack. Consider a cylindrical bar of radius b with a central

penny-shaped crack in a plane normal to the axis, loaded by a tensile force N,
a bending moment M or a torque T (Figure 3.11).
For a small radius c=b-a ofthe crack (c/b~O) the stress singularity in
the tension case is described by equation (3.86)

az~ ~ n~2 (;~-t [1+0 (~:)J for c/b ~ 0, (3.150)

where the error estimate is based on the removal of the stresses of order
(N/b 2)c 3 /R 3 on the cylindrical surface p=b in the infinite space problem of
the penny-shaped crack. At the other end of the range, c/b~ 1, the stress
singularity is given by equation (3.50)

for a/b~O. (3.151)

Let the nondimensional stress intensity Jactor Kin the tension case be defined
by
N (ac)-t 1 ( KN (ac)-t) (3.152)
a z ~ K n(b2-c2) b (2r)t' k i = n(b 2 -c 2) b '
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 171
1.2.------.---------,r------,-----,------,

K cr"-K N ~ _'_
Z n ( b2-c2l b V2r
1.01-------., a:-K 4Me ~-'-
Z n:(b4- c'l b ~

~
1:
'z- K 2Te
n[b4 _e4 ) b ffr
,
0.826
0.81-------j K for N.
equa tion(3:154l

0.637

0.4

p
0.2 I-----~'-------+-----+-

_alb
0.8 0.6 0.4
°O~--~---~---~---~~--~
1.0

Figure 3.11. K-values for cylindrical bar with penny-shaped central crack.

and then the asymptotic formulae are

2
K~- [ 1+1 -
2
c - -5-c - + 0 - (C 3)] for c/b~O,
'TC 2 b 8 b2 b3
(3.153)
for a/b~O.

The approximate formula, obtained by cubic interpolation, is in this case

(Figure 3.11)
2 3
K =;2 ( 1 + "21 bc - 8"5 b2
c ) c
+ 0.268 b3 . (3.154)

Since the curve does not deviate too much from a straight line it may again
be c1aimed to have good accuracy, of the order of one percent.
172 J. P. Benthem andW. T. Koiter

In the bending ca se the stress singularity for small cracks is given by

equation (3.86) with K = 4/3 n

az ~ 3: :~~ {;~1- [1 +0 (~:)J for c/b~O, (3.155)

where the error estimate is again based on the removal of stresses along the
cylindrical surface p = b in the infinite space problem, which stresses are
now of order {Mc/b 3 )c 4 /b 4 . Their removal induces stresses at a distance c
from the axis which are a factor c/b smaller. At the other end of the range,
c/b~ 1, the stress singularity is again given by equation (3.50)

az~ (n2=4)+ ;~a (;~+ [1+0(~)J . (3.156)

Define the dimensionless stress factor K in the bending case by

(3.157)

with the asymptotic formulae

4 [ 1 c 3 c 2 5 c 393 c 4 (CbSS)]
K ~ 3n 1 + :2 b + 8" b 2 + 16 b3 - 128 b4 + 0 for e/b ~ 0,
(3.158)
for a/b~O,

and the quintic interpolation formula

4 [ 1 c 3 c2 5 c3 93 e 4 eS ]
K = 3n 1 + :2 b + 8"b 2 + 16 b 3 - 128 b 4 + 0.483 b S . (3.159)

Since this approximation in the bending case is based on more exact data
than equation (3.154) in the tension case, an even higher accuracy may be
expected.
Finally, in the torsion case the stress singularity for small cracks follows
with K = 4/3 n from (3.90)

Tz~~ 3: !~~ (;;)t [1+0 (~:)J for c/b~O, (3.160)

where the error estimate is based on the same argument as in the bending
case. At the other end of the range, c/b~l, from equation (3.77)
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 173

for alb -70. (3.161)

Define the nondimensional stress intensity factor K in the torsion case by

(3.162)

and then the asymptotic formulae are

4 [
K -7 3n 1
1 c
+ "2 b + "8
3 Cl 5
b2 + 16
c3 93 c 4
b3 - 128 b4 + 0
('Cb5)]
5 for clb -7 0,
(3.163)

With the quintic interpolation formula

4 [ 1 c 3 c2 5 c3 93 c4 c5 ]
K = 3n 1 + "2 b + "8 b2 + 16 b3 - 128 b 4 + 0.038 b 5 .
(3.164)

Here again an accuracy better than one percent is expected.

Ring-shaped edge crack or groove. Consider a cylindrical bar of radius b

with a ring-shaped crack a = b - c< p < b in a plane normal to the axis,
loaded by a tensile force N, bending moment M or a torque T (Figure 3.12).
For small values of the crack depth c from equation (3.37) in the tension
case

(Jz -7 1.122 n: (;~~

2 [1 + 0 (*)] for clb -70. (3.165)

Unlike in the similar plane case of edge cracks the error is here of order clb,
due to the application of the basic plane problem to an axisymmetric case.
An evaluation ofthe first order correction in this case requires a considerable
additional analytical effort which would hardly be worthwhile for the present
purposes.
At the other end of the range of the parameter, clb-71, from equation
(3.92)

(Jz -7 ~ n: (;~t
2 [1 + 0 (~:)] for alb -70. (3.166)

The error estimate is again obtained by considering the removal of the

tractions along the cylindrical surface p = b in the infinite space problem.
174 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

1.2 ,........---.-------.------.---~----

K 1.122
cr: -K
Z
_N_
rra
ß_c- -'-
y'2r"
ab
~~~--~----~ ~-K~~ _1_
Z rra2 ab v'2r
1:1/) -
Z
K2.LV
rca2
~ --1...-
ab V2r
Q8~-~~~~~~-------------~------~
K for N,
equation (3.171)
0000 [17.22}

0.6

0.4
3/8
p

I_alb
0.2

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
c/b-
Figure 3.12. K-values for cylindrical bar with ring-shaped edge-crack or groove.

These tractions are of order N Ib 2 , and their removal results in a curvature

of the plane z = 0 of order NI Eb 3 • Annihilation of this curvature in its turn
induces additional stresses in the dam of order a 3 1b 3 times the primary
stresses (cf. [3, §116aJ).
The nondimensional stress intensity Jactor K in the tension case is defined
by

(Jz ~ K na2
N (ac)t1
b (2r)t' (3.167)

and the asymptotic formulae are

K ~ 1.122 [1 + 0 (~)] for clb ~ 0 ,

(3.168)
2 3
K~-1 [1+1- 3 -
a-+ a -+0
(a-) ] for alb~O.
2 2 b 8 b2 b3
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 175

The result of a cubic interpolation is the approximation

1 [ ~1 a 3 a2 a3 ]
K =:2 1 + :2 b + 8 b2 + 0.368 b 3 • (3.169)

The values of equation (3.169) were compared with an interpolation formula

from [17], based on numerical computations [22], and with a limited range
ofvalidity, whose accuracy is claimed to be within one percent. The approxi-
mation (3.169) is some 3 to 4 percent larger in the range 0.3< c/b< 0.5, and
this is most likely due to a too small slope of the function at the end point
c/b = 0, where the exact value of this slope is not available. It shall be seen
that the result for bending will be more accurate, and the difference in slopes
between the bending and tension cases is known exactly from equations
(3.37) and (3.113), and from definition (3.174) for the stress intensity factor in
bending

[d~:b)lending - [d~:b)lension -0.683

(3.170)

at the point c/b = O. If it is assumed, for reasons which will be come clear
presently, that the derivative in the bending ca se is accurate, the value - 1.542
is obtained from equation (3.176) for the derivative in the tension case. The
approximate formula (3.169) may now be replaced by

1 [ 1 a 3 a2 a3 a4 ]
K =:2 1 + :2 b + 8 b2 - 0.363 b3 + 0.731 b4 ' (3.171)

and this result, presented in Figure 3.12, agrees excellently with the findings
of the (limited) numerical calculations in the literature.
In the case of loading by a bending moment M from (3.37) for small values
of the crack depth is obtained

(Jz - 1.122 :~ (;~t [1 + 0 (~)] for c/b-O, (3.172)

where again no better error estimate is available at present. At the other end
of the range, c/b-1, however, from (3.94)

O"z - ~ ~~ (;~t [1 + 0 (~:)] for alb - 0 . (3.173)

As before, the error estimate in equation (3.173) is obtained by removing the

traction along the cylindrical surface p = b in the infinite space problem.
176 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

These tractions are of order Mjb 3 , and their removal induces a curvature of
the dam surface of order MjEb 4 , which vanishes at the center and is therefore
of order M aj Eb s in the dam area. The additional stresses in the dam are thus
of order a S jb S times the primary stresses (cf. [3, §116aJ).
The nondimensional stress intensity factor K in the bending case is defined
by
4M (ac)-t 1 (3.174)
(J z ---+ K na3 b (2r)+'

and the asymptotic formulae are

for ajb ---+ 0 .

(3.175)
The approximate formula is obtained by quintic interpolation in this case,
and the result

K =
3[
8" 1 +
1 a 3 a2
2 b + 8"
5 a3 35 a 4 aSJ
b 2 + 16 b 3 + 128 b4 + 0.531 b S (3.176)

is shown in Figure 3.12.

In view of the large number of exact data at the end cjb = 1 (the function
itself and no less than four derivatives), and observing that the last terms,
obtained by interpolation to the value at c/b = 0, have no large coefficient,
it may be expected that the approximation (3.176) is quite accurate, even if
the exact value of the derivative of K in the bending case at cjb = 0 is not
available. Without question, the derivative at alb = 1 is obtained considerably
more accurately from equation (3.176) than thc derivative of Kin the tension
case is obtained from (3.169), and the exact relation (3.170) between the
derivatives in both cases leads to the more accurate approximation (3.171) in
the tension case.
Finally, in the loading condition of a torque T for small crack depth c
from equation (3.74)

'[z~ ~~ (;~t [1 + 0 (~) ]

---+ for cjb ---+ 0 . (3.177)

At the other end of the range of the parameter, cjb---+ 1, from equation (3.96)
Asymptotic approximations to crack problems 177

rz~'- ~ ~~ (;;)t [1 +0 (~:)] for alb-O, (3.178)

where the error estimate is obtained in the same way as in the bending case.
Define the nondimensional stress intensity factor K in the torsion case by

2T (ac)'}) (3.179)
( k 3 = K na3 b '
and the asymptotic formulae are

(3.180)
3 [ 1 a 3 a 2
5 a3 35 a4 5
(a ) ]
K - 8' 1 + .2 b + 8' b2 + 16 b3 + 128 b4 + 0 b5 for alb - 0 .

The approximate formula is again obtained by quintic interpolation

(Figure 3.12)
3 [ 1 a 3 a2 5 a3 35 a4 a5 ]
K = 8' 1 + .2 b + 8' b2 + 16 b 3 + 128 b4 + 0.208 b 5 '
(3.181)

and it is estimated to be accurate far better than one percent.

References
[1] Sneddon,1. N. and Lowengrub, M., Crack problems in the classical theory of elasticity.
New York, London (1969).
[2J Sadowski, M. A., Zweidimensionale Probleme der Elastizitätstheorie. Zeitschrift für
Angew. Math. und Mech., 8, S. 107 (1928).
[3J Muskhelishvili, N. L, Some basic problems of the mathematical theory of elasticity.
Groningen, Netherlands, 1953. (translation from the Russian 1948).
[4J Koiter, W. T., On the flexural rigidity of a beam weakened by transverse saw cuts. Proc.
Royal Neth. Acad. of Sciences, B59, 354-374 (1956).
[5J Koiter, W. T., Rectangular tensile sheet with symmetrie edge cracks. Journal of Appl.
Mech., 32, p. 237 (1965).
[6J Koiter, W. T., Note on the stress intensity factors for sheet strips with cracks under tensile
loads. Univ. of Techn.; Lab. of Eng. Mech. Rep. nr. 314, Delft, Netherlands (1965).
[7J Koiter, W. T., An infinite row of parallel cracks in an infinite elastic sheet. Problems of
Continuum Mechanics (Muskhelishvili Ann. VoI.), page 246. Philadelphia (1961).
[8J Sneddon, I. N. and Berry, D. S., The classical theory of elasticity in: S. Flügge (editor),
Encyclopedia of physics, Vol. VI, Elasticity and Plasticity, Berlin (1958).
[9J Sneddon, 1. N., Fourier transforms. New York, London, 1951.
178 J. P. Benthem and W. T. Koiter

[10] Weinstein, A., On cracks and dislocations in shafts under torsion. Quart. oJ Appl. Math.
X, p. 77 (1952).
[11] Boussinesq, J., Application des potentieis ... , Paris (1885).
[12] Lekkerkerker, J. G., The effective length of a cantilever beam with circular cross-section
(in Dutch). De Ingenieur, 73, p. 0 110 (1961).
[13] Lurje, A. L, Räumliche Probleme der Elastizitätstheorie, Berlin (1963) (translation from
the Russian 1954.).
[14] Rooke, D. P., Width corrections in fracture mechanics. Engng. Fracture Mech. 1, p. 727
(1970).
[15] Isida, M., Crack tip stress-intensity Jactors Jor the tension oJ an eccentrically cracked
strip. Lehigh Univ. Dept. of Mech. (1965).
[16] Feddersen, C. E., Discussion to: Plane strain crack toughness testing. ASTM Spec. Tech.
Publ. No. 410, p. 77 (1967).
[17] EIst van, H. c., Crack-extension susceptibility of high-strength steels (in Dutch). De
Ingenieur, 82, p. W 131 (1970).
[18] Formann, R. G. and Kobayashi, A. S., Journal oJ Basic Eng., 86, p. 693 (1964).
[19] Sneddon, L N. and Srivastav, R. P., The stress field in the vicinity of a Griffith crack in a
strip of finite width. Int. J. Engng. Sei. 9, p. 479 (1971).
[20] Irwin, G. R., Liebowitz, H. and Paris, P. c., A mystery of fracture mechanics. Engng.
Fracture Mech. 1, p. 235 (1970).
[21] Bowie, O. L., Rectangular tensile sheet with symmetrie edge cracks. Journ. Appl. Mech.
31, 208-212 (1964).
[22] Bueckner, H. F., ASTM-STP 381 (1965) p. 82.
[23] Westergaard, H. M., Bearing pressures and cracks. Journal oJ Appl. Mech. 6, p. A-49
(1939).
[24] Koiter, W. T., An infinite row of collinear cracks in an infinite elastic sheet. Ing. Arch.
28, s. 169 (1959).
[25] Stallybrass, M. P.,A semi-infinite crack perpendicular to the surface of an elastic half-plane.
Int. J. Engng. Sei. 9, p. 133 (1971).
[26] Cross, B., Srawley, J. E. and Brown, W. F., Jr., NA.SA. Techn. Note D-2395 (1964).
[27] Cross, B. and Srawley, J. E., NA.SA. Techn. Note D-2603 and D-3092 (1965).
[28J Titchmarsh, E. c., Theory oJ Fourier integrals. Oxford, 1937.
[29] Erdelyi, A., Magnus, W., Oberhettinger, F. and Tricomi, F. G., Tables oj integral trans-
jorms. 2 vols., New York, 1954.
[30] Collins, W. D., Some axially symmetric stress distributions in elastic solids containing
penny-shaped cracks. Part I, Proc. Royal Soc. London A266, 359-386 (1962).
Part H, Mathematika 9, 25-37 (1962).
Part IH, Proc. Edinburgh Math. Soc. 13,69-78 (1962).
[31] Reissner, E. and Sagoci, H. F., Forced Torsional oscillations of an elastic half-space.
Journ. Appl. Phys. 15, 652 (1944).
[32] Rice, J. R. and Levy, N., The part-through surface crack in an elastic plate. NA.SA.
Techn. Rep. NGL 40-002-080/3 (1970).
[33J Koiter, W. T., Solution ofsome elasticity problems by asymptotic methods. Proc.IUTAM
Symposium on Applications oJ the Theory oJ Functions in Continuum Mechanics (Tbilisi
1963). Nauka Pub!. House, Moscow (1965), pp. 15-31.
 R. J. Hartranft and G. C. Sih

4 Alternating method applied to edge

and surface crack problems

4.1 Introduction

Over the past decade, numerous analytical solutions of crack problems have
appeared in the open literature [1 J. A great number of these solutions are
concerned with idealized crack geometries in plane or axisymmetric elastic-
ity. However, only a few problems involving the interaction of cracks with
neighboring boundaries have been solved satisfactorily. In situations where
the crack intersects a free edge or surface, the method of solution becomes
much more difficult and requires special attention. The advent of computers
has no doubt facilitated the numerical computation of stress distributions
around cracks. Without them, many of the tedious ca1culations would not
be attempted. The alternating method is one which intimately combines
analytical results with the numerical ca1culations.
One of the requisites for solving any crack problem is to handle the stress
singularities at the crack tips properly. This involves first of all a knowledge
of the correct behavior of the stress singularity, which is a task normally
accomplished by analytical means. Next, it is essential to preserve this
singular behavior of the solution in the problem either by isolating it away
from numerical computations or by treating it numerically with the utmost
care. Generally speaking, the error committed near a singular point such as
a crack tip or border will not be confined locally but will cause errors else-
where as weIl. The same applies to corners or points in the elastic solid
where high stress gradients are present. This point will be demonstrated in
the present work on the surface crack problem in three dimensions.
What follows is a treatment of the alternating method as applied to solve
edge crack problems in two-dimensions and surface crack problems in
three-dimensions. Although the surface crack solution is not complete, it
180 R. J. Hartranft and G. C. Sih

serves as a good example for illustrating the complexities and understanding

required to treat problems of this type. The mechanics of the alternating
method is in fact rather rudimentary. It is described in the work ofKantorovich
and Krylov [2J who obtained the solutions to potential problems by using
successive, iterative superposition of sequences of solutions. Their illustration
involves two sequences of solutions, each sequence applying to a particular
geometry. By the alternating superposition of the sequences, the solution
for the region common to both geometries may be found. The method is
called the Schwarz-Newmann Alternating Technique in their book. In this
work it will be referred to as the alternating method, and it will be applied
to solve elastic crack problems.
As an example of the alternating method, consider a simple problem with
no singularities. Suppose the stresses in the quarter plane x ;?: 0, y ;?: 0 are
to be found for the boundary conditions

T,xy{O, y) = 0 T,xy(X, 0) = 0
O",x (0, y) = 0 O"y (x, 0) = O"(x) .

One sequence ofsolutions, SequenceA, leads from the stress O"YA(X, O)=q(x)
on the half plane y ;?:O to the stress O",xA (0, y) = p(y) in particular and to all
otherstresses in the quarter plane considered. The second, Sequence B, for
x ;?:O leads from O"xB(O, y)= p(y) to a solution yie1ding O"YB(X, 0)= q(x). The
sequences, A and B, may be formed to yield the solution for the quarter plane
common to both half planes.
From A, let q(Q)(x) = 0" (x), x >0 andq(Q)(x)=O"( -x), x< O. For the first
solution in sequence A,
O"~).l(x, 0) ='q{Q)(x) yields O"~:,((O, y) = p{1}(y), say.

For the first solution in sequence B,

a~}1(O; y) = ~ p{1}(y) yields O"W(x, 0) = -q{1)(x), say.

Next in sequence A,
O"~i>(x, 0) = q(1){x} yields O"~~(O, y) = p(2)(y) , say
and then in sequence B,
, O"~~(O, y) -.: ~ p(2)(y) yie1dsO"j,'i/(x, 0) = _q{2 l (X), say.
The sequencescontinue alternating this way. Both sequences apply to the
Solving edge and surjClce crack problems by an alternating method 181

quarter plane, and by superposition, the boundary values on the quarter

plane are
CIy(X, 0) = CI~~(X, 0) + CIW(x, 0)+ G~;!(x, 0)+ CIW(x, 0) + .. .

CIAO, y) = CI~~(O, Y)+CI~~(O, y)+ CI~~(O, y)+ CI~~(O, y)+ .. .

or
CIy(X, 0) = q(Q)(x)-q(1)(x)+q(1)(X)_q<2)(X)+ .. .
CIx(O, y) = p(l)(y)_ p(1)(y) + p(2)(y)_ p(2)(y) + .. .
Therefore, after superposing the first n terms of each sequence. the boundary
values are
Gy (x, 0) = CI(X)-q(n)(x)
CIAO, y) = 0.

Additional solutions from the sequences are superposed until the residual
stress, q(n)(x), on the x-axis is negligible compared to the applied stress CI(X).
A different form of the alternating method was applied to the problem of
an edge crack in a semi-infinite region by Irwin {3J, who essentially used
only the first few solutions of each sequence to estimate the stress intensity
factor. Lachenbruch [4] included additional terms from each sequence to
obtain a better estimate. Further.study of the alternating method applied to
this problem will be carried out in detail in Section 4.2. One of the two se-
quences of solutions involved there is for an infinite region containing a
finite straight crack subjected to arbitrary normal stresses on its faces. The
solution is written in integral form and may be evaluated for any given loads.
In this case, the .analytical result gives the singularity separately, and no
additional special numerical treatment is required.
Recently, application of the alternating method to finite width strips
cracked on one edge has been formulated by Broz [5J. The method of
Section 4.2 could be extended to this case by using three sequences of solu-
tions. Reference to such extensions will be made later on. However, Broz
considers more complicated analytical problems involving only two se-
quences. One sequence considers a row of collinear equally spaced cracks
of equal length, each loaded by the same arbitrary normal stresses on its
faces. He gives the formulas for the stresses at the locations of the edges of
the strip in terms of integrals which may be numerically evaluated. The
other sequence gives a similar expression for the stress produced at the
182 R. J. HartranJt and G. C. Sih

location of the crack in an uncracked strip loaded arbitrarily on its edges.

He has inc1uded very few numerical results in [5J, but a computer program
for obtaining additional results could be easily written.
In a similar fashion, three-dimensional problems mayaiso be solved by
the alternating method. Smith et al. [6, 7, 8J have published aseries of
papers containing numerical results for the effect of interaction of cracks
with free surfaces. One of the geometries considered [6J was a surface crack
perpendicular to the surface of a half space. The crack is in the shape of half
of a flat circular disk with the diameter on the surface. The other problems
involved cases where the crack is a larger or smaller portion of the circular
disk whose diameter parallel to the surface lies either above or below the
surface. In [7J the crack intersects the free surface, and in [8J it is completely
embedded in the half space. A generalization of [8J was later made by Shah
and Kobayashi [9J in which the embedded crack is elliptical in shape with
the minor axis perpendicular to the surface.
As in the plane problems, one sequence of solutions for the three-dimen-
sional problems above is chosen to be an infinite body containing a crack.
For the penny-shaped crack a fairly convenient solution is known for pres-
sure on the crack of the form -,n cos m(} where rand () are the usual polar
coordinates. A less convenient solution for the elliptical crack is known for
polynomial variations of the stress on the crack. But these solutions account
only partially for the effect of the stress singularity. The other sequence used
for the three-dimensional problems is made up of solutions of arbitrarily
loaded half spaces. It may be seen in Section 4.3 that the stress applied to the
half space must be singular. The previous solutions do not satisfactorily
treat this effect, and hence the numerical results are drastically altered. The
singularity on the surface of the half space may be taken care of analytically,
and then one is faced with an additional singularity in the other sequence.
That is, the stress applied to the crack is singular at two points of the crack
front. No analytical way of handling this singularity could be found at
present, but special precaution was taken numerically.

4.2 Edge crack problem

The determination of stress intensity factors for bodies containing cracks

extending inward from a free edge has attained importance because such
cracks are frequently found in structural members. The analytical model is
usually based on the theory of elasticity in plane strain or generalized plane
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 183

stress. The case of a crack perpendicular to the edge of a semi-infinite

material (Figure 4.1) will be considered.
Irwin [3, 10J estimated the stress intensity factor, k 1 , for the case ofuniform
pressure on the edge crack (or uniform tension at infinity perpendicular to
the crack) and obtained a value of k 1 ten percent high er than that for an
infinite plate with a crack of twice the length. He used two problems whose
solutions are given in this section. The infinite plate with an arbitrarily

Figure 4.1. Edge-cracked plate.

pressurized crack is considered first. Then the half plate subjected to arbitrary
normal stresses is superposed on the infinite cracked plate. Irwin used the
superposition to obtain two simultaneous integral equations in two unknown
functions and solved them by an iterative method which is equivalent to the
alternating method presented here.
Later, Bueckner [11 J reconsidered the problem and obtained a more
accurate correction (13 %)*. By superposing the two problems described
* Winne and Wundt [12J overlooked the correction of Bueckner when they used some of his
other results on cracks in finite width strips (also contained in [11]). The review of Paris and
Sih [1 J points out the error in [12].
184 R. J. Hartranft and G. C. Sih

above, he obtained a singular integral equation for the deformed shape ofthe
crack. The equation permitted straightforward integration for obtaining the
press ure required to produce certain prescribed deformed shapes. A number
of different deformed shapes and associated press ure distributions were
obtained. A linear combination of these pressures was fitted to the actual
uniform pressure by collocation (equating the actual pressure to the linear
combination at a number of points equal to the number of undetermined
coefficients). Thus the deformed shape ofthe crack was determined as a known
linear combination of the prescribed shapes. And the stress intensity factor
followed immediately (as from equation (4.16) be1ow).
Koiter [13J, in his analysis of the same problem, gave a refined value of
the stress intensity factor involving a correction of 12.15 %. The computation
of a definite integral was done numerically with such precision that the factor
above is in error by no more than one unit in the last digit. The definite
integral results from the application [14J of Mellin transforms [15J to the
quarter plane problem to which the one under consideration reduces by
symmetry. The transform leads to an equation of the Wiener-Hopf type
which is then solved.
A more general study of the problem using the alternating method, was
made by Lachenbruch [4J, who considered variable as weIl as uniform loads
on the crack.
There have been other solutions [16, 17, 18J of the problem using the
same technique as in [13, 14]. The latest by Stallybrass [18J obtains the
stress intensity factors for stress on the crack varying as apower of distance
from the edge. He gives numerical results for integer powers, 0, 1, 2, ... , 10,
which could be combined if the stress on the crack is a polynomial function
of that distance. Sneddon [19J also used the quarter plane formulation, but
his technique of solving the problem (similar to the method of Section 4.2)
leads to a Fredholm integral equation of the second kind. Two approximate
methods of solving the integral equation are compared for the case ofuniform
stress on the crack, and both give very good accuracy.
The sections which follow contain the solutions of the two problems used
in the alternating method. The alternating method is first presented in
detail for the case of concentrated forces acting on the crack. The numerical
results are then used to deve10p an integral expression for the stress intensity
factor for arbitrary loads on the crack. The integral is evaluated for several
examples which are contained in the Appendix. One of the examples is the
problem of uniform pressure on the crack which has been considered by
Solving edge and surjace crack problems by an alternating method 185

many others. A comparison of this result with those obtained by the various
other investigators can be found in Table 1.

TABLE I
k 1 values for uniform tension in Figure 4.1

Source k1/(Ja t

Irwin [3, 10] 1.1

Bueckner [11] 1.13
Koiter [13, 14] 1.1215
Wigglesworth [16] 1.122
Lachenbruch [4] 1.1
Stallybrass [18] 1.1215
Sneddon [19] 1.1215
Appendix 1.1215*

* Obtained by using equation (4.50).

Injinite plate with a central crack. The method of integral transforms [15J
may be used to obtain a solution of the equations of elasticity general
enough to satisfy the boundary conditions of this problem. Formulas from
Chapter 9 of [15J for the special case of symmetry about the x- and y-axes
may be written in integral form. F or the present work, it is sufficient to note
that the expressions satisfy all of the equations of elasticity by direct sub-
stitution. F or the case of plane strain the displacements U x and vy in the x- and
y-directions, respective1y, are given by

E Ux = -
-1- foo [(1-2v)-ocyJ B(oc)e- ay sin ocxdoc
+v 0
(4.1)
E vy =
-1- foo [2(1- v)+ ocyJB(oc)e- ay cos o::xdoc
+v 0

where E and v are the modulus of e1asticity and Poisson's ratio. B(oc) is a
function which will be determined by the boundary conditions..The stresses
associated with the displacement field of equations (4.1) are

(Jx = - f~ (l-ocy)ocB(oc)e- ay cos ocxdo::

186 R. J. Hartranft and G. C. Sih

G'y - - f~ (1 + cxy)cxB(cx)e-a:y cos cxxdcx

'r xy = - y f~ cx 2 B(cx)e-a: y sin cxxdcx . (4.2)

The solution given by equations (4.1) and (4.2) mayaiso be used for general-
ized plane stress if E is replaced by (1+2v)Ej{l+v)2 and v by vj{l+v).
Equations (4.1) and (4.2) should be applied only for y ~O. For negative y,
the conditions of symmetry about the x-axis should be used. The crack

a a

c=======~====~ ----x
(]'y ( x,o )=-q (x )

Figure 4.2. Cracked infinite plate.

problem ofthis Section is restricted to the case ofloading by normal stresses

on the crack which are symmetrie about the y-axis. With this restrietion,
the problem has the symmetry required for application of equations (4.1)
and (4.2). It may be noticed that the last of equations (4.2) satisfies the bound-
ary condition 'rXY(x, 0)=0 on the crack and the x-axis of symmetry outside
of the crack.
The boundary conditions which determine the value of B(cx) are
G'y{x, 0) = -q(x) , lxi< a (4.3)
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 187

where the first of equations (4.3) comes from the imposed pressure, q(x), on
the crack. The second of equations (4.3) results from symmetry about the
x-aXlS.
The boundary conditions (4.3) require these special results from equations
(4.1) and (4.2):
E vy(x, 0)
-1- = 2(1- v) Joo B(cx) cos cxxdcx
+v 0

O"y{x,O) = - f~ cxB{cx) cos cxxdcx . (4.4)

Let
E
v(x) = 2{1- v2) vy(x, 0) = foo0 B(cx) cos cxxdcx . (4.5)

The Fourier inversion [15] of equation (4.5) gives

B(cx) = -2 Joo v(x) cos cxxdx .

TC 0

But by the second of equations (4.3), v(x)=O for x> a. Therefore, B(cx)
becomes

B(cx) = - 2Ja v(x) cos cxxdx . (4.6)

TC 0

Now, since v(x) is a displacement, the representation

v(x) = J (t2ljJ (_x2)+'

a
x
t) t dt
0< x< a (4.7)

may be used. Integration of equation (4.7) by parts shows the correct crack
tip opening shape. If equation (4.7) is substituted into equation (4.6),

B(cx) = -
2fa cos cxxdx Ja (ljJ(t)tdt
2 2)+
TC 0 x t -X

2Ja ljJ(t) tdt Jt

= -TC
cos cxx
( 2 2)+ dx
t -X

J:
0 0

= ljJ(t)Jo(cxt)tdt. (4.8)*

* The formula for Jo(x), the Bessel function of order zero, on page 27 of [20] is used in the last
step.
188 R. J. Hartranft and G. C. Sih

The first of equations (4.3) and the second of (4.4) give the equation

f~ aB(a) cos axda = q(x) , O<x<a (4.9)

Integrating equation (4.9),

f~ B(a) sin axda = f: q(~)d~ , 0< x< a. (4.10)

If equation (4.8) is substituted into equation (4.10) an integral equation for

I/J (t) results.

f~ sin axda f: l/J(t)Jo(at)tdt = f: q(~)d~ , 0< x< a

f: q(~)d~
or

f: I/J(t) tdt f~ Jo{at) sin axda = , O<x<a (4.11)

But*

fCL:! •
o Jo(at) sm axda =
{O(x 2 _ t2)-+ t>x
t < x.
Therefore, equation (4.11) reduces to

(4.12)

Equation (4.12) may be solved as a special case of Abel's integral equation**

f o (X<j)(t)dt
x
2 _t 2 )+ = h(x) , 0< x< a (4.13)

which has the solution

2{ ft
h'(x)dx
<j)(t) = -; t o (t 2 _X 2)! +
}
h(O) , O<t<a. (4.14)

Therefore, the solution of equation (4.12) is

2ft q(x)dx
(4.15)
I/J(t) = -; 0 (t2_X2)!' 0< t< a.

* First forrnula on page 37 of [20].

** This form may be obtained from that on page 141 of [20] by a change ,of variables.
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 189

It is known that the opening displacement of the crack tip is given by (see
equations (3.15) of [21])
2(I-v 2 )
vy(x, 0) = E k 1 (2r}t+0(r) (4.16)

for plane strain. In this result, r=a-x, and k 1 is the Mode I stress intensity
factor. From equation (4.5)
2(I-v 2 )
vy(x, 0) = E v(x) (4.17)

and from equation (4.7) for x=a-r,

a ljJ(t)tdt Jr a- p ljJ(a- p)dp
J a_r[t2-(a-r)2J+ (4.18)
v(x) = = 0 (r-p}t (2a-r-p)t·

In equation (4.18), when r is small, rand p may be neglected in comparison

with a, and then
aljJ(a) Jr dp
v(x) = (2a)t 0 (r- p)t + O(r)

= (2r)t(a t )ljJ(a)+O(r). (4.19)

Thus, by comparing equations (4.16), (4.17), (4.19), the stress intensity factor
k 1 = at ljJ(a)
is obtained. Hence, utilizing equation (4.15),
2 j.~ Ja q{x)dx
k 1 = -n a 0 (2 (4.20)
a - X 2)~ .
2
2

It is also necessary to evaluate the normal stress on the y-axis which, from
equations (4.2), is

a AO, y) = - I~ (1- o:y)o:B(o:) e -tly do: . (4.21)

From equations (4.8) and (4.15)

2 Ja
B(o:) = -
n
Jo{o:t)tdt
0
I t

0
q(x)dx
(2
t
2)t
-X

2 Ja Ja JO(ext)
= - q(x)dx (2 2)t tdt .
n 0 x t -X
190 R. J. H artranjt and G. C. Sih

Therefore, interchanging the order of integration in equation (4.21),

O"x(O, y) = -2 Ja f(x, y)q(x)dx (4.22)

n 0
where
..
j(x, y) =
Jax g(y, t) (t2_X2)t
tdt
(4.23)
where
j
·-00

g(y, t) = - 0 (1-o:y)o:Jo (o:t)e-O: Y do:.

The evaluation of g(y, t) leads directly to

y2_2t 2
g(y, t) = y (t 2 + y2)! . (4.24)

The integration of equation (4.23) may be accomplished with g(y, t) given

by equation (4.24). The result is
. y (a 2 _x 2)t [2 y2 2a 2+ y2 ] (4.25)
j(x, y) = X2 +y2 a 2+y2 X2+y2 - a2 +y2 .

Finally, substituting equation (4.25) into (4.22), the integral

2 y Ja (a 2 - x 2)! [2 y2 2a 2+ y2] (4.26)

p(y) = ~ (a 2 + y2)! 0 q(x) x2 + y2 x2 + y2 - a2 + y2 dx

for the desired stress,

0" AO, y) = p(y) (4.27)
is obtained.
The above results apply also to the case of shear loading on the crack. In
fact if the stress on the crack is
Txy(X, 0) = -q(x) , lxi< a
where q(x)=q( -x), then the Mode Ir stress intensity factor is

k 2 -- ~ at Ja q (x) dx (4.28)
n 0 (a 2 _x 2 )t
and
Txy(O, y) = p(y)
where p(y) is given by equation (4.26).
Solving edge and surJace crack problems by an alternating method 191

Edge-loaded semi-injinite plate. 'fhe solution given by equations (4.1) and

(4.2) applies to the ease in whieh a half plane, y ~O (Figure 4.3) is subjeeted
to normal stresses
(4.29)
symmetrie about the y-axis. It is found from the seeond of equations (4.2)

rJ'y(x,Ol=p(x}

Figure 4.3. Edge-loaded half plane.

and the Fourier inversion theorem that

aB(a) = - -2 Joo p(x) eos axdx . (4.30)

TC 0

The first of equations (4.2) and equation (4.30) eombine to give

()x(O, y) = -2 Joo (l-ay)ae-<XYda Joo p(x)cos axdx

TC 0 0

= -2 JOD p(x)dx Joo.

(l-ay)ae-<XYcos axdCl
TC 0 0

(4.31)

A change of coordinates gives us that for a half plane, x ~O, subjected to

tension on the edge,
()x(O, y) = p(y) (4.32)
192 R. J. Hartranft and G. C. Sih

the desired stress is

O"y(x,O) = - x
4 foo (2
y2 p(y)dy
2)2 . (4.33)
n 0 x +y
F or convenience in the numerical work, introduce the new variable,
y
u=--
a+y
and the function,

t{u) = u 2 p(y) = u 2P (1 auu)'

In terms of these quantities,

0" (x 0) = ~ ~
y' na
fl [X
0
t(u)du
2(1-U)2 / a 2 +u 2]2 . (4.34)

Again, the case of shear loading

Txy(O, y) = p(y) (4.35)
on a half plane has a similar solution yielding
4
Txy(X, 0) = - x
foo y2 p(y)dy
(2 2)2 . (4.36)
n 0 x +y

The iterative approach may be thought

Iterative formulation of the problem.
about in two ways which are essentially equivalent. One way used by
Irwin [3], involves the superposition of the preceding two solutions. The
boundary conditions of the edge-cracked plate problem result in a pair of
integral equations:

O:::';;y< 00

where O"(x) is the stress applied to the edge crack. These equations may be
Solving edge and surjace crack problems by an alternating method 193

solved by iteration by assuming some form for q(x), say q(x)= 0" (x), and
using this assumed form in the second equation to solve for p(y). This value
of p(y) is then used in the first equation to obtain a corrected value of q(x).
Then a corrected value of p{y) is found, and the procedure is continued until
there is no significant change in p(y) or q(x). The last value of q(x) gives the
stress intensity factor according to equation (4.20).
A more satisfactory way, from a physical and computational point of
view, of interpreting the iterative approach involves the alternating super-
position of the previously developed solutions. Consider the details of the
case,
O"(x) = Pb(x-b) , O<b<a
where b(x) is the Dirac delta generali~ed function. The above expression
represents a li ne force, P (force per unit length in the z-direction), acting a
distance b from the free edge (Figure 4.4) .

..........

I
p
b

Q
Q

Figure 4.4. Concentrated forces on a edge crack.

Now refer to the infinite plate containing the crack as Problem A, and
to the edge-Ioaded semi-infinite plate as Problem B. Subscripts of A or B
will denote the problem with which the subscripted stress is associated.
194 R. J. HartranJt and G. C. Sih

Then the iterations consist of superimposing Problem A and Problem B.

The procedure begins with Problem A.
In Problem A, let the stress on the crack be
a~~(x, 0) = -q(O)(x) = -a(x) = -P<5(x-b) , x>O (4.37)
and require it to be even in x. That is, the crack is opened by four sym-
metrically located concentrated forces. The present simple form of a(x)
allows

(0) _
2 Pa-t
k 1 -; (a 2 _b 2 )-!-
and

(4.39)

to be evaluated in closed form from equations (4.20) and (4.26). In the case
of more complicated loading k\O) and p(O) (y) could be evaluated by numerical
integration as in the succeeding iterations. The second part of the zeroth
integration involves Problem B.
In Problem B, let the normal stress on the edge be
a~~(O, y) = _ p(O)(y) .

This load gives the stress according to equation (4.33) as

a~~(x, 0) = q(1)(x)

(4.40)

The superposition of these two problems gives a stress state which satisfies
an of the boundary conditions of the edge-cracked plate except that the
stress on the crack is
ay{x, 0) = - a(x)+ q(l)(x).
If q(1)(x) is not negligible compared to a(x), further iterations are required.
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 195

The first part of the first iteration requires the solution of Problem A for
O"~~(x, 0) = _q(l)(X).
This leads to an additional contribution to the stress intensity factor of

k(1) = ~ a+ J- a q(1)(x)dx
1 n o (a 2 _x 2 )+

and a stress on x = 0 of
O"~~(O, y) = p(1)(y)
where
2'
p(1)(y) = -
y J q(1)(X)(a2 _X 2)+[
a 2y2
- 2a 2 + y2 ]
dx (4.41)
n (a + y2)+
2 0 x 2 + y2 x 2 + y2 a 2 + y2 .
An application of Problem B for a load of
0"~}l(0, y) = - p(l)(y)
glves

where
(2) __ ~ Joo y2 p(l)(y)dy
q (y) - nX 0 (X 2+y2)2 .

The superposition of these two parts of the first iteration gives the solution
of the edge cracked plate with load on the crack,
O"~1)(x, 0) = -q(1)(x)+q(2)(x).
After superposing the zeroth and first iterations, the stress on the crack is

and the stress intensity factor is

2 Pa t 2 Ja q(1)(x)dx
a - b2)t + -n a
= -n (2 t (2
k1 0 a - X 2)+ .

The second iteration has the stresses

O"~i>(x, 0) = _q(2)(X) O"~~(O, y) = p(2)(y)
O"~~(O, y) = - p(2)(y) O"W(x, 0) = q(3)(X)
196 R. J. Hartranft and G. C. Sih

and the stress intensity factor associated with q(2)(X). The functions p(2)(y)
and q(3)(X) are given by formulas similar to equations (4.40) and (4.41).
After superposing this iteration on the others, we have the edge-cracked
plate subjected to stress
o-y(x, 0) = -o-(X)+q(3)(X)
on the crack. F or this load the stress intensity factor is

_
k1- n a
~ t {P
(a2_b2)t+ 0
dx }
Ja [q(1)()X+q (2)()] (a2_x2)±' X

The pattern of the iterations should be dear now.

F or the computations, introduce the dimensionless variables
~=x/a u=y/(a+y) c=b/a
and the functions

s(n)(~) = ! (a2_b2)tq(n)(a~)
P
2
t(n)(u) = u (a 2 _b 2)t p(n) (~).
P l-u
Then the iteration is from t(O)(u) to S(l)(~) to t(1)(U), etc. where
2 l-c 2 u 3 (1-u)2
t( 0 ) ( u) - - --;::-:-----:-c;:;------;::- -;-;------'--:-;:;---'-~
- n c2(1-u)2+ u 2 {(1_u)2+ u 2}t

2U2 2(1-U)2+ U2]

[ C2(1-U)2 +u2 - (l-U)2+ 2 (4.42)
X U

s(n)():) = 4
): J1 t(n-1)(u)du
(4.43)
s -;s O[~2(l-U)2+U2]2'

n ~1. (4.44)
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 197

the stress intensity. factor is given by

k1 = ~ (a!,~a:~)+ [1 +f(~)J (4.45)

where

The dependence of f(c) on c comes from t(O)(u).

The stress intensity factor for the edge-cracked plate subjected to shear
forces (Figure 4.4) is given in terms of the same function f(c) above as

(4.46)

N umerical results and Green's function. The numerical iteration of equations

(4.42)-(4.44) is straightforward except when the concentrated forces are very
near the edge of the plate. For bja ~0.2 the integrals were evaluated using
Simpson's rule with 250 subdivisions, and five iterations were used. Tests
using more subdivisions and iterations showed that the accuracy of the
results is about one percent. As bja was decreased, more subdivisions were
required and it appeared that eight iterations were required. The results are
shown in Figure 4.5. The correction factor plotted there is the fractional
increase due to the edge of the stress intensity factor for an infinite plate with
four symmetrically located normal or shear forces.
No values ofthe functionf(bja) were obtained for bja< 0.05, but the curve
plotted in Figure 4.5 seems a reasonable extension of the computed points.
The computed points are shown as circles, and the curve drawn through the
points is
f(e) = (1- c2 ) [0.2945 -0.3912 e 2 +0.7685 c4 -0.9942 e6 +0.5094 eS] .
(4.47)
This function will be used in a Green's function analysis ofthe stress intensity
factor for an edge crack subjected to some arbitrary distribution of pressure.
One reason for the difficulty in obtaining points on the curve for small
values of bjais the singularity at the point of application of the concentrated
load. As long as b > 0, the stress (T~~ (0, y) (equation 4.39) has no singularity,
and its removal by the half plane solution given previously presents no
198 R. J. HartranJt and G. C. Sih

difficulty. But when b = 0, the stress on the y-axis has a singularity at the
origin which requires special treatment. A straight application of the alter-
nating method to this case would, if the numerical analysis were exactly
accurate, give a stress on the crack, O'~<Y (x, 0), with a singularity at the
origin. Each step of the procedure would leave a stress singularity at the
origin. This points up a fundamental difficulty associated with the alternating
method in more general cases.

.30

.25

.20

o
~ .15

.10

.05

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

bIo
Figure 4.5. Stress intensity factor correction for concentrated forces on an edge crack.

To show the difficulty, recall that equations (4.1) and (4.2) give the solution
for the half plane, y >0, loaded by normal stresses on the edge, y=O. It can
be seen from equations (4.2) that
O'Ax, 0) = O'y(x, 0) .
That is, both normal stresses are the same at each point of the edge. Applying
this result to equations (4.37) and those following for arbitrary stress
O'~~(x, 0) = - q(O) (x) = - O'(x)
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 199

on the crack, it is found that the stress, O"~~(O, y) satisfies

O"~~(O, 0) = O"~T(O, 0) or p(O) (0) = _q(O)(O).

Similarly, in the half plane problem,

O"~W(O, 0) = O"~~(O, 0) or q(l)(O) = - p(O) (0) .
And so it would continue giving
q(O) = _ p(O) = q(l) = _ p(l) = q(2) = _ p(3) = ...

where each function is evaluated at the origin. Therefore,

After the- n th iteration, the superposition of all steps gives the exact solution
of the edge crack problem for stress on the crack given by
O"y(x, 0) = - 0" (x) + q(n) (x) .

And since
O"y(O, 0) = - 0"(0)+ 0"(0) = 0
the scheme does not converge to the desired solution. That is, q(n) (x) is not
negligible compared to O"(x) at x=O at least. But no difficulty should be
expected if the stress on the edge crack at the edge, 0"(0), is zero. And in the
case of a concentrated force as in equation (4.37) 0"(0)=0 as long as b >0.
In the case of shear loading, the same difficulty exists. The equality of the
normal stresses on the edge and on the plane at right angles to the edge has
its counterpart in the obvious statement about the shear stresses on the same
planes. The same kind of details could be given for this case, but fundamentally
the difficulty is that the shear stress on the crack at the intersection ofthe crack
and edge must be equal to that on the edge unless the stress tensor is allowed
to be non-symmetrie.
Consider now the case of arbitrary stress on the edge crack,

O<x<a (4.48)

For a concentrated force, dP= 0" (x) dx, located a distance x from the edge,
equation (4.45) gives the stress intensity factor

_ 2 t O"(x)dx
dk1--a (2 2)t[1+!(x/a)]. (4.49)
rr a-x
200 R. J. Hartranft and G. C. Sih

The contribution of each part of the pressure distribution on thecrack may

be written as in equation (4.49). The total stress intensity factor is obtained by
integrating,

k1
_
-
~ t
a
{Ja a(x) (2 dx 2)t + Ja a(x) (2
f(xja)dX}
2)t· (4.50)
n 0 a -X 0 a -X

For shear loading, Txy(X, 0)= - T(X), k 2 is given by the same expression with
a(x) replaced by T(X). Note that the first term is the stress intensity factor for
an infinite plate containing a crack oflength 2a subjected to the same pressure
(even in x). The second term is the correction due to the presence of the free
edge. The results of integrating equation (4.50) for a number of pressure
variations are contained in the Appendix.
The value of the stress intensity factor listed in Table I was obtained by
application of equation (4.50). It may be seen to agree with the value calcu-
lated by Koiter [13J. In addition, the other edge crack results in theAppendix
agree with those of Lachenbruch [4J, though he published only two digit
stress intensity factors. The result for linearly varying pressure agrees with
that of Stallybrass [18].

4.3 Surface crack problem

One of the crack geometries that has received continual interest in fracture
mechanics is that of a semi-elliptical crack whose major axis lies on a stress
free surface. This configuration is analogous to the two-dimensional version
of the edge crack problem discussed earlier except that no reliable method
has yet been found to solve the three-dimensional problem. The major cause
of difficulty lies in the lack of information at the points where the crack border
intersects with the free surface. Sih [22J has discussed this point in detail in
connection with the finite thickness crack problem. This difficulty is c1early
evidenced by the variation among results [6,9, 10J published on the semi-
circular and semi-elliptical surface crack problems. In [6, 9J, the maximum
value of the stress-intensity factor was found to be on the free surface,
whereas in [10] the maximum occurred at the utmost interior point of the
'crack front.
In order to demonstrate the sensitivity of the solution to the influence of
the free surface the semi-circular crack problem is again treated in this section
by the alternating method. With special care given to the stress state around
the critical points where the crack border intersects with the free surface, a
Solving edge and surjace crack problems by an alternating method 201

more accurate numerical solution was achieved. The results are strikingly
different from those published in the literat ure [6, 7, 8, 9, 10,23] and are
given for each iteration to illustrate the rate of convergence. The construction
of the two sequences used in the alternating method is described with the
general solution given for one of the sequences. The half space solution
required by the other sequence is then presented. Finally, the singularities
which affect the numerical solution are discussed, and methods of treating
them are given. And, concluding this Section, the numerical results are shown.

Penny-shaped crack in an infinite body. The basic solution used for the
infinite body containing a penny-shaped crack (Figure 4.6) is obtained from

Figure 4.6. Penny-shaped crack in infinite body.

Muki [24]. His solution is valid for completely arbitrary loading of a semi-
infinite solid. When the loading is restricted to normal stresses on the surface,
his solution may be applied to the case of a penny-shaped crack subjected to
202 R. J. Hartranfi and G. C. Sih

arbitrary variation of pressure on its faces. The crack problem may be reduced
by symmetry to a half space problem in which known normal stress acts
inside a circular region and unknown normal stress (producing .known
dis placement ) acts outside this region.
A characteristic length is taken to be a, and all length coordinates are
expressed as the product of a and a dimensionless coordinate. The cylindrical
coordinates (ar, e, az) shown in Figure 4.6 involve the dimensionless variables
rand z. In the following equations, a quantity, Po, which has dimensions of
stress is shown explicitly so that all quantities appearing after the summation
signs are dimensionless. In this Section a will be the radius of the crack and
Po, the uniform press ure acting on it. In other applications they would desig-
nate some other parameters.
If the loading is further restricted to be symmetrie about the xz-plane
(e=O), Muki's solution reduces to

2J1U r = - poa m~o cos me f~ [1-2v- ~zJDm(~)

x e-~z [Jm+l(~r) - ~ Jm(~r)J d~

2J1 ve = -poa I
m=O
sinmefaJ [1-2v-~zJDm(~)e-~Z; Jm(~r)d~
0 ..,r

for the displacement components, Ur' V e, W z' The shear modulus and Poisson's
ratio are denoted by J1 and v, respectively, in equations (4.51). Note that the
dimensions of the left-hand si des are the same as poa. The functions Dm(~)
remain to be determined by the boundary conditions on z = O. The Bessel
functions of the first kind, Jm(~r), of all integer orders are required in equa-
tions (4.51).
The stress components corresponding to the displacement field (4.51) are
given by

Ur = Po m~o cos m() { - f~ (1- ~z)~Dm(~)e-';Z Jm(~r)d~

Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 203

(Jo = Po m~o cos m8 {-2V f~ ~Dm(~)e-';z Jm(~r)d~

- ~ f~ (l-2V-~Z)Dm(~)e-.;z[m(~;1) Jm(~r)+Jm+l(~r)J d~}

(4.52)

The shear stresses, To z and T rz ' vanish on the plane z=O as required by sym-
metry about the xy-plane. The boundary conditions of the penny-shaped
crack problem which must be satisfied by appropriately choosing Dm(~) are

(Jz = - pop(r, 8) on z = 0 for r< 1

(4.53)
on z = 0 for r > 1

where p(r, 8) is the dimensionless pressure acting on the faces of the crack.
Since p(r, 8) is required to be symmetrie about the xz-plane, it may be ex-
panded in a eosine series as

L Km{r) cos m8
00

p(r, 8) = (4.54)
m=O

where

K o (r) = -1 f1t p(r,8)d8

n 0

Km{r) = -2 foo p(r, 8) cos m8d8 , m~l. (4.55)

n 0
204 R. J. Hartranft and G. C. Sih

The equations for Dm(~) are obtained by using equations (4.53) in con-
junction with (4.51), (4.52) and (4.54). They are

f~ ~Dm(~) Jm(~r)d~ = Km(r) , r< 1

(4.56)
I~ Dm(~) Jm(~r)d~ = 0, r> 1

for each m=O, 1,2, .... The procedure for solving these equations is analo-
gous to that for the plane problem. The displacement-like function,

(4.57)

is introduced. Since by the second of equations (4.56), wm(r)=O for r > 1,

the Hankel inverse transform [15J of equation (4.57) is

J
~1

Dm(~) = ~ 0 wm(r)Jm(~r)dr. (4.58)

The displacement-like behavior of wm(~) is assured if it is represented in the

form
2
m 51
t- m + 1 dt
wm(r) = ; r r gm(t) (t 2 _ r 2 )+ . (4.59)

Use of equation (4.59) in equation (4.58) gives another representation of

I I
Dm(~),

gm(t) (c 2
l l m l
Dm(~) = -2 ~ Jm(~r)rmdr + dt
2)"t
TC 0 r t -r

(4.60)*
where

jm(~t) = (2~t)t Jm+t(~t)

is the spherical Bessel function of the first kind of order m.
* The formula at the top of page 32 of [20] may be used in the last step if the substitution,
r=t sin e is made.
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 205

If the first of equations (4.56) is multiplied on both sides by m+ 1, it can

be integrated with respect to r to become

r<l (4.61)

where
Lm{r) = J~ Yfm+ 1 Km (Yf)dYf . (4.62)

The equation which determines gm(t) is obtained by substituting equation

(4.60) into (4.61):

r<l

r< 1 . (4.63)

Knowing that* { 0,
t> r
J~ ~Jm+ 1 (~r)jm(~t)d~ = tmr- m- 1
t<r
(r 2 _ t 2 )+ '
equation (4.63) may be written as
r
I tm+2dt n
o gm{t) (r 2 _ t2)+ = "2 Lm(r) , r< 1. (4.64)

By application of the solution, equation (4.14), of equation (4.13) to equation

(4.64),
m+2
t gm
()
t = t
I
t
L;"(r)dr
(2 2)1-
o t -r

or, since equation (4.62) gives

L;"(r) = m+ 1 Km(r)

(4.65)

Changing the variable of integration in equation (4.65) from r to , = r/t gives

the form,
* Third formula on page 37 of [20] with l1=m, v=m+~.
206 R. J. Hartranjt and G. C. Sih

The stress intensity factor is most conveniently determined by examining the

crack opening shape near r= 1. From equations (4.51) and (4.57) the dis-
placement for z = 0 is

(4.66)

For r - l - p, equation (4.59) becomes

As p~O, p and YJ may be neglected in comparison with 1, and this leads to

fP
w m(1- p)
2
= -n gm(1)
1
2~
2 0
(
dYJ
P-YJ
t
2
+ O(p)

Therefore, the equation (4.66) for the crack opening near the crack front
becomes

(4.67)

The relationship between displacement and stress intensity factor (See

equation (5.37) of [21]) is the same as in equation (4.16) for plane strain. In
equation (4.16), note that r is not dimensionless. Hence it is identified with
ap in equation (4.67). Thus, comparing equations (4.67) and (4.16),

(4.68)

In equation (4.68), k p is the physically dimensioned stress intensity factor.

The subscript p is used to distinguish it from the dimensionless stress intensity
factor
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 207

which will be used in the numerical calculations.

The stress intensity factor mayaIso be determined by calculating the
singular part of the stress distribution. If equation (4.60) is integrated by
parts,

only the first term contributes to the stress singularities. The spherical
Bessel functions may be written as the product of polynomials in ~ - 1 and
trigonometrie functions as e.g.
. sin ~ . (J:) = sin ~ _ cos ~
.Jo(~) = -Z-' h ~ e ~.

The resulting integrals of the type

J: ~ne-~z Jm(~r) sin ~d~

obtained from equations (4.52) may be evaluated from formulas based on
the third one on page 33 of [20]. By differentiating and separating the real
and imaginary parts of the formula referred to, results of the type

Jo ea;:; _ ~z • _ r -m . (""
'f'
Jm(~r) sm ~d~ - (2p)t sm "2 +2
mn )
+ 0(1)
are found. After these results are used, and the nonsingular terms discarded,
the stress state may be written in the form

2 k(8) [ 3cf>]
(Jr = ; Po (2p)! cos 2 -
cjJ l'
"2 sm cf> sm 2
.
+ 0 (1)

2 k(8) [ cf>]
(Je = 2v ; Po (2p)t cos"2 + 0(1)

(Jz =;2 Po (2p)t

k(8) [
cos 2
cf>
+ 2lsm
'
cf>
.
sm 2
3cf>]
+ 0 (1)

L rz
2
= - ; Po (2p )t
k(8) [1 . cf>
2 sm
3cf>]
cos 2 + 0 (1) . (4.70)
208 R. J. Hartranft and G. C. Sih

In equations (4.70), P and 4> are the dimensionless polar coordinates shown
in Figure 4.7. The stresses r oz and Tro, are non singular. It may be verified that
the singular terms satisfy the conditionof plane strain,
Uo= v(ur+u z )
locally.
The present iterative approach requires the calculation of the stresses on
the yz-plane. In general each of the stresses, u x ' r xy ' Txz , is not zero, but for
the case in which the pressure on the crack is symmetrie about the yz-plane,

ar

az

Figure 4.7. Local coordinates (p, <!» at crack front.

only the normal stress is not zero. It may be evaluated from equations (4.52)
by
uAO, y, z) = uo(y, n/2, z) .
It is helpful in the numerical analysis to separate the singular and non-
singular parts of this stress as

Ux = 2v ~ pok(~) [(2 P1t t cos ~1 + (2P2t t cos ~2 ] + Poq(y, z) (4.71)

where (P1' 4>1) and (P2' 4>2) are coordinates in the yz-plane as shown in
Figure 4.9. The nonsingular function q(y, z) is computed from the preceding .
So/ving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 209

two equations as long as the point (0, y, z) is not dose to the crack front.
When (0, y, z) nears one of the points (0, + a, 0), the singular parts of equa-
tions (4.71) and (4.72) are equal, and q(y, z) may be written in a form in which
the singularities are analytically cancelled. From equations (4.52) and (4.71),

q(y,z) = - ~ k (i) [(2P1t t cos ~l + (2P2t t cos ~2J

+ m~o (_1)m {-2V f~ ~D2m(~)e-~zJ2m(~y)d~

- ! foo (1-2v-~z)D2m(~)e-~Z [2m(2m-1) J2m(~Y)
y 0 ~y

+ J 2m + 1 (~y)J d~}. (4.72)

Use has been made oft he fact that for symmetry ofloading about the yz-plane,
all K, g, D with odd subscripts vanish.
To i1lustrat~ the lack ofsingularity in q(y, z), the form valid for z=O and
y ~ 1 will be given. A similar expression can be written for y:;;::: 1, and at
y= 1, both give the same value of q(y, z). The Fourier coefficients of p(r, 8)
can be written as polynomials,
N
Ko(r) = Pe + L A1nrn
n=l

N
K 2m (r) = L
n= 1
Am+l,n~' m:;;:::l (4.73)

where Pe=Ko(O)=p(O, 8) is the dimensionless pressure at the center ofthe

crack. For K 2m (r) in this form, equation (4.65) gives
N
go(t) = Pe + L
n= 1
C1nt n

N
g2m(t) = L C m+1,n tn ,
n=l
(4.74)

where
(4.75)
and
210 R. J. H artranji and G. C. Sih

n k-l
10 = 2"' 11 = 1 , 1k = -k- 1k - 2 • (4.76)

The part of Do(~) resulting from the constant part of go{t) may be evaluated as

2
-~
fi t2pc.io(~t)dt=Pc.i1(~)
n 0

and the integrals ofthis piut of Do(~) in equation (4.72) can be determined in
c10sed form. The remaining part of Do(~) and the other D2m(~) can be found
in terms of spherical Bessel functions and the sine integral function. In
general, the remaining integrals in equation (4.72) are evaluated numerically,
but when z = 0 they can be explicitly obtained.
For z=O and y::::;; 1, the integrations in equation (4.72) result in
2200 N
q(y, 0) = -PcFo(y,O) + - L (-Ir L 12m+nCmnY'[1-2v
n n m =1 n=1

+ 2v(2m+ n)+(1-2v)(2m-2)(2m- 3)Fmn (y)] (4.77)

where
14m-4
1 -- - y 2m-4+n
12m + n
n i= 2m-4
Fmn(y) = 2m-4-n
y 1 1 1
In "2 + 1·2 + 3·4 + ... + (4m-5)(4m-4) , n = 2m-4

A similar but more complicated result can be found for y ~ 1. U sing the
polar coordinates shown in Figure 4.9, the other function in equation (4.77)
may be written

Fo(y, z) = 2v [(PI ~2}t sin CP1 ; CP2 - (2Plt t cos ~I - (2P2t t cos ; ]

1 + 2v . ( 2 ) 1 - 2v t
- -2-arcsm + -2
2 (PIP2)
PI + P2 Y

x [sin cP I+ cP 2+ z cos cP 1+ cP 2J + z
2 2 y2(PIP2)!

x[z sin cP 1; cP 2 + (p 1 P2 - 1) cos cP I ; cP 2 ] . (4.78)

Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 211

For z =0, equation (4.78) reduees to

( 0) _ _ v[2(y-l)J+ _ 1+2v .! 1-2v [ 2-1J+

Fo y, - [2(y+ I)J+ + y+ 1 2 aresm y + 2y Y
(4.79)
for y ~ 1. For y< 1, Fo(y, 0) is equal to the eonstant obtained from equation
(4.79) by putting y= l.
Reiterating the important results, if p(r, 8) is symmetrie about both the
xz- and the yz-planes, then it ean be written
1
I
00

p(r,8) = - - (}z{x, y, 0) = K 2 m(r)eos 2m8. (4.80)

Po m=O

It follows that

(4.81)

y
x

()X(O~

Figure 4.8. Half space (x ~O) loaded on surface (x=O).

212 R. J. Hartranji and G. C. Sih

can be computed to yield the stress intensity factor

2
L
1 ro
kp(B) = - PO (a 2 ) gZm(1)cos 2mB (4.82)
n m=O
and
DZm(~) = ~ ~ f1 t ZgZm(t)jzm(~t)dt . (4.83)
n 0

On ce DZm(~) is computed, any of the stresses and displacements may be

determined. In particular O"AO, y, z) of equation (4.71) is obtained by cal-
culating the function q(y, z) from eq. (4.72).

Surface loads on half space. Consider the case of normal stresses 0"x acting
on the surface occupying the yz-plane as shown in Figure 4.8. For the case
(4.84)
in which there is no stress singularity, there are a number of possible methods
of solution. For example, the solution at the beginning of Section 4.3 could
be applied or the solution for a concentrated force on a half space could be
used as a Green's function. For the convenience of numerical calculation as
in [6J, the surface will be divided into squares sufficiently small in size so
that the stress is nearly uniform on each. Next a solution provided by Love
[25J is used to obtain the contribution of the stress 0"x on each square to the
stress o-z on the xy plane.
Love's solution gives the normal stress o"z on the xy-plane due to a unit
tensile stress on a square of side b centered at (0, y, z) as
o-Ax,y,O)=F(ly-YI, Izl, lxi)
where
2nF(~, YJ, 0= (1- 2v)F1 (~, YJ, 0- (F z (~, YJ, 0 - 2vF3 (~, YJ, 0 (4.85)
and the functions Fj (j = 1, 2, 3) stand for

F - t - 1
b +_'"J:
b - SY + t - 1 _ _ t -
Y
1 ':,
(b - '"J:) _ t' -
" (b + SY)
1 I,
1 - an b-YJ an b-YJ an a 1 (b-YJ) an bz(b-YJ)

-1 b- ~ -1 b + ~ _1 ((b - ~) _ 1 ((b + ~)
+ tan -b-
+YJ
+ tan -b- - tan d (b ) - tan
+11 4 +YJ C3
(b)
+11
b-YJ [b-~· b+~J b+YJ [b-~ b+~J
Fz = (b-11f+(Z + ~ + (b+YJ)z+(Zcz;- + ~ <--a;-
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 213

277:, I~ I < b, IYf I < b

{
0, otherwise
(4.86)
with the following contractions
ai = (b - ~)2 + (b-Yf)2 + (2
b~ = (b + ~)2 + (b - Yf)2 + (2
d = (b+~)2+(b+Yf)2+e
d~ = (b-~)2+(b+Yf)2+(2.

By taking advantage of symmetry, attention may be confined to the centers

(0, Yi' z) of the squares which lie in the first quadrant of the yz-plane. The
effect of the other three symmetrically located quadrants is inc1uded in the
result
(Jz(x, y, 0) = Pot(x, y)
where
N N
t(x,y)=2 L L
i= 1 j= 1
q(Yi,z)[F(IYi-YI, Izjl, lxi)

(4.87)

y.
Figure 4.9. Auxiliary coordinates for singular solutions.
214 R. J. Hartranft and G. C. Sih

The symmetry of the stress on the yz-plane insures that there will be no
shear stresses on the xy-plane.
When the stress on the yz-plane is singular, it is desirable to seek a closed
form solution. For the case of interest, from equation (4.71),

4v Pok ."2
O"x(O, y, z) = -:; (n) [(2pd- + cos 2:4>1 + (2P2)- + COS 4>2J
2: (4.88)

such a solution can be found by applying Muki's half-space solution, equa-

tions (4.51) and (4.52), to each term. The result is
4v
O"z(x, y, 0) = -:; (n)
Po k "2 [(2R 1t+ S(t/11) + (2R 2 t+ S(t/12)J. (4.89)

where the dimensionless coordinates, p, 4>, R, t/1 are shown in Figure 4.9.
The function S(t/1) is in the form of an infinite se ries involving hypergeometrie
functions. Rather than give the formulas, the results are shown graphically
in Figure 4.10. An excellent fit of the exact1y computed points of the curve is
obtained by the approximation,

S(t/1) = t/1+[0.344 + 1.851 t/1-11.637 t/12 + 34.545t/1 3

- 61.286 t/14 + 68.124t/15 -47.644t/1 6 + 20.321 t/17
- 4.823 t/18 + 0.488 t/19J . (4.90)

This expression is valid only for 0 ~ t/1 ~ n/2 and for Poisson's ratio, v = 0.30.
.4

.3

v:0.30
.,
O~----~----~----~------L- __~
o 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
1-q,
lt

Figure 4.10. Function for equation (4.89) for singular normal stress on half-space.
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 215

It should be noted that there are singularities in O"z{x, y, 0) at the points

where the crack front intersects the free surface. The numerical difficulties
due to the singularity will be discussed in more detail subsequently.

Iterative formulation. The solutions of the two preceding problems will be

superposed alternately to solve the case of a uniformly pressurized half
penny-shaped crack perpendicular to a free surface (Figure 4.11). The proce-

ay ax

!llll!!<1 z =-P o

Figure 4.11. Half-penny surface crack.

dure begins with the weIl known solution [26J for uniform pressure of a
penny-shaped crack in an infinite medium. This solution gives stresses on
the yz-plane which are removed by superposing the half space solution for
equal and opposite stresses on the yz-plane. As a result of the half space
solution, there is a residual normal stress on the crack in addition to the
uniform pressure. This is eliminated by superposing the solution for pressure
on the crack equal to the residual stress. Again, stresses on the yz-plane are
216 R. J. H artranjt and G. C. Sih

produced which are removed by application of the half space solution. The
cycle of superpositions is continued until the residual stress on the crack is
negligible compared to the uniform pressure.
As outlined, the first step in the procedure requires the solution of the
penny-shaped crack problem for the case
(0)( X,
O"zA y, 0)-
- - Po . (4.91)
The crack solution above may be used to find the stress intensity factor,

(4.92)

and the stress on the yz-plane,

O"xA
(0)(
0, y, Z) 4v pok (0) (1C)
= --; 2" [(2Pl )-J.. COS ZcfJl + ()--1..
2
1
2P2 COS zcfJ2
2
1 ]

+ Poq(O)(y, z). (4.93)

See Figure 4.9 for the coordinates, p, cfJ. F or the case of uniform pressure,
(2/1C)Fo (Y, z) which is given in equation (4.78).
q(O)(y, z) is equal to
The second half of the zeroth iteration is used to eliminate the stress on
the free surface. The stress applied to the surface is

0" (0)(0
xB ,y, Z ) -- 0"(0)(0
xA ,y, Z ) (4.94)

which gives the result (See Figure 4.9 for R, t/!).

(0)( ) _ 4v (0) (1C) [S(t/!l) S(t/!2) ]

O"zB X, y, 0 - --; Pok 2" (2R 1 )t + (2R 2 )t

+ Pot(l)(X,y) (4.95)
where t(l)(x, y) is determined by applying the method described earlier. It
depends only on q(O), and not on the singular part of O"~~.
After the second half of this iteration is subtracted from the first half, the
surface will be free of stress, but the stress on the crack will be
(4.96)
rather than constant. An additional iteration is used to eliminate the stress
,..,.(0)
VzB·
For the first iteration, the stress on the penny-shaped crack is taken to be
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 217

(1)( X, y, 0) -
(JzA - (JzB
(0)( X, y, 0)

(4.97)

Because of the singularity in the first term of equation (4.97), care must be
taken in the numerical procedure. The description of the numerical method
will be given in the following section. The contribution of the two parts of
(J~~ are computed separate1y and the desired quantities expressed as

(4.98)

(4.99)

(JxA
(1)(
0, y, Z) 4v pok(1) 2"
= ---; (n) [(2p1 )-~2 COS 2cfJ1
1
+ ()-~
2p2 COS 2cfJ2
2
1 ]

(4.100)
where k s (8) and Poqs(y, z) are the dimensionless stress intensity factor and
nonsingular part of (J x(O, y, z), respectively, due to stress on the crack of

(4.101)

Similarly, k~p(e) and Poq~)(y, z) stern from the stress Po t(1)(X, y) on the crack.
The effects of these two terms are kept separate into the second half of the
iteration. The stress on the half space is taken to be
(J (1)(0
xB , y, Z ) -- (J (1)(0
xA , y, Z ) .
This results in the residual stress on the crack,
(1)(
(JzB X,
) _ 4v
y,O - ---; Pok
(1) (n)2 [S(1/11)
1
S(1/12) ]
(2R )-t + (2R }t + Pot
2
(2)()
x, Y (4.102)

where
t(2)(X, y) = ~ k(O) (~) ts(x, y)+dJ)(x, y). (4.103)

In a way similar to the definitions of qs and q~), t s and t~) are defined to be
the stress (JAx, y, 0) due to the stress (Jx(O, y, z) equal to qs and q~), respec-
tively.
218 R. J. Hartranft and G. C. Sih

Again, the second half of the iteration when subtracted from the first
half frees the surface of stresses. Adding the first iteration to the zeroth
cancells the residual stress (J~W and gives
(Jz(x, y, 0) = - Po - O"~i2(x, y, 0) .
Further iterations are added until the stress on the crack is reduced to the
applied stress - Po to within some arbitrary tolerance. The additional
computations which must be made for each iteration are straightforward.
F or the second iteration, the dimensionless intensity factor, kfJ) (8), and stress
O"AO, y, z)= PoqfJ)(y, z) due to stress on the crack of O"Ax, y, 0)= Po t(2) (x, y)
are obtained. Then the halfspace solution gives O"Ax, y, O)=Pot}t)(x, y) due
to O"x(O, y, z) = Po qfJ)(y, z). Thecontributionofthisiteration tothe dimension-
less stress intensity factor is

k(2)(8) = ~ k(l) (~) k s (8)+kfJ)(8)

and the stress on the crack is

0" Ax, y, 0) = - Po - 0"~i1 (x, y, 0)
where
(2)_4v
O"zB - -:; Pok
(2)(71:) [S(I/Il) S(1/I2)J (3)()
2 (2R )t + (2R )t + Pot x, Y
1 2

t(3)(X, y) = ~ k(l) (~) ts(x, y)+t}J)(x, y).

For the nth iteration, the functions, k s (8), qs(y, z), and ts(x, y), are used
again in conjunction with the results of the previous iteration, k(n-l)(8)
and t(n)(x, y). The current technique gives the new functions, k~)(8) and
q~)(y, z), which are, respectively, the dimensionless stress intensity factor
and the nonsingular part of O"AO, y, z) produced by application ofthe stress
O"z(x, y, 0)= t(n) (x, y) to the crack. The half space solution of this section
gives t~+ l)(X, y), the stress O"z(x, y, 0) produced by O"x(O, y, z)=q~)(y, z)
acting on the surface. The new addition to the dimensionless stress intensity
factor is

and the residual stress on the crack is

Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 219

where the term carried into the next iteration, if necessary, is

4v k(n-l)
t(n+l)(x, y) = -; (n)2" ts(x, y)+t~+l)(X, y).

The alternating method applied in this Section is modified by the separate

treatment of the singular part of the stress (equation (4.93)) applied to the
half space. The solution for the half space subjected to the singular stress
is given by the first part of equation (4.95). The resulting stress which must be
removed from the crack, equation (4.97), has two parts which are kept
separate. The singular part is the same in each iteration except for the
coefficient involved. Therefore, the numerical solution for a penny-shaped
crack subjected to the singular stress (tensile) of equation (4.101) is determined
to as high a degree of accuracy as possible. The contribution of this solution
to each iteration is contained in the functions with a subscript, S. The
remaining contribution, from the rest of equation (4.97) gives the terms
denoted by the subscript, N. The parts' are combined as in equations (4.98)
to (4.100) to give the total solution of the penny-shaped crack problem for
this iteration. The solution is treated by the same method in each successive
iteration.
The next section contains a description of the numerical details and the
difficulties associated with the stress singularity of equation (4.97).

N umerical treatment of singularities. F or the case of uniform press ure on

the crack, the first step requiring numerical analysis is the clearing of the
stress, equation (4.93) from the surface in the second half of the zeroth
iteration. F or convenience the problem is a half space with tensile stresses,
(TAO, y, z) = Poq(y, z)

on the surface. The function q(y, z) can be any of the nonsingular functions
of the first line of Table 11. The solution for the singular part of the stress
(TAO, y, z) is given analytically by equations (4.88) to (4.90).
The surface of the half space is divided into a number of regions as shown
in Figure 4.12. Each region is then subdivided into a number of squares,
larger squares being used where the stress becomes small and less rapidly
varying. The values of q(O)(y, z) at the centers of each of the squares are
220 R. J. Hartranjt and G. C. Sih

TABLE II
Results of half space solution-nonsingular stress

n ~l

surface stress O"x(O, y, z)/po = q(O) (y, z) q<;J) (y, z)

results in O"=(x, y, O)/Po =

computed from the closed form expression, equation (4.78). Because of the
lengthy calculations needed to obtain thevalues of the other q's, they were
computed at fewer points and the six pointbivariate interpolation formula
was used to get the values at the remainingpoints. The numbers in parentheses
in Figure 4.12 give the number of values of y and the number of values of

! ;

( 3,3 1
V 5
100 squares
(3.5 )
VI
144 squares
( 3,3 ) ( 3,4l
IV lJI 3
25 150
1-
(4,3 J (9,5)
II 75 [ 1250
4 3 1 2 j
Figure 4.12. Grid on surface of half-space.

z, respectively, used to obtain the grid points at which q was calculated

exact1y. After the values of q(y, z) have been computed at the center of each
square, the solution for the nonsingular stresses on a half space in this section
is used directly to obtain the values of the stress on the xy-plane denoted by
Solving edge and surjace crack problems by an alternating method 221

O"z(x, y, 0) = Pot(x, y) (4.104)

where the t's corresponding to the various q's are shown in Table II.
The values of t(x, y) are computed at the 36 points (0.2m, 0.2n), m,n=
0,1, ... ,5. The six point bivariate interpolation formula is used to obtain
intermediate values of t(x, y). This completes the description of the half
space problem's numerical solution.
The solution of the penny-shaped crack problem is needed for stresses on
the crack which contain no singularities.
O"Ax, y, 0) = Pot(x, y).
The function t(x, y) may represent any of the t's in Table III. In a case of
non-uniform pressure on the crack, it could also represent the initial stress
on the crack, t(O) (x, y). (In this example, t(O)(x, y)= -1). As indicated above,
t(x, y) is known at 36 points and interpolation gives its value at any other
point on the crack.
The solution for the case of a penny-shaped crack requires first the com-
putation of the Fourier coefficients of
p(r, 8) = - t(x, y)
which are
Ko(r) = -2 jt p(r,8)d8 1t

n 0

Kzm(r) = -4 jt p(r, 8)cos 2m8d8,

1t

(4.105)
n 0

K Zm + 1 (r)=0, m;:::O.
The first 40 K's are each computed for 30 values of r using a technique given
by Filon [27J. His technique gives as good accuracy with 100 divisions ofthe
range of integration as the usual Simpson's rule does with 500.
The coefficients of a five term polynomial approximation to each Kare
determined by the method of least squares. This gives
5
Ko(r) = Pe +
n= 1
L A1nr"
5
K 2m (r) = L A m + 1,n.r" , (4.106)

where A mm m= 1,2, ... ,40; n= 1,2, ... ,5 are known constants and Pc= p(0,8).
222 R. J. Hartranjt and G. C. Sih

The polynomial form of the K's enable gm{t) to be determined also in poly-
nomial form as in equation (4.74),
5
go{t) = Pe + L
n= 1
elntn
5
g2m(t) = L1 C
n=
m + 1,n tn , (4.107)

where C mn is given by equations (4.75) and (4.76).

The stress intensity factor may be obtained simply from equations (4.69)
and (4.107). The integrals of equation (4.60) which give Dm(~) may be
evaluated in c10sed form in terms of spherical Besse1 functions and the sine
integral function. Recurrence relations between the integrals are used for
the numerical calculations. The details are lengthy but straightforward.
Finally, the integrals in equation (4.72) involving Dm(~) must be evaluated to
obtain the function q(y, z) of equation (4.72) which gives the nonsingular
part of O"x(O, x, z)/Po. These integrals are evaluated by Simpson's rule using
intervals of length 0.25 and integrating over segments of length 5.0 until the
integral over the last segment is small compared to the total integral. As
pointed out in the first part of this section, q(y, z) is computed for various

TABLE III
Stress intensity Jactors and stresses on yz-plane for various loads on crack

stress on crack O"z(x, y, O)/Po = eq. (4.101)/po t(O)(x, y) = -1 t{n)(x, y)

2
produces stress O"x(O, y, z)/po qs(y, z) q(O) (y, z) = - Fo (y, z) qjV) (y, z)
1t
whose nonsingular part is =
(see eq. (4.78)

produces stress intensity factor

kp(8)/~ poat = ks (8)

(See Table II)

Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 223

points of the yz-plane. The notation used for the results of this part of the
numerical analysis is summarized in Table IIL
The singular stress on the crack was given in equation (4.89). For the
numerical analysis consider the dimensionless form,

Note that since (J z > 0, the singular part of the load on the crack gives a
negative stress intensity factor. Further, since larger tensile stresses occur
ne ar the intersection of the crack front with the surface, the stress intensity
factor should be expected to be larger in magnitude there. Thus, when
combined with the other contributions to the stress intensity factor, this will
cause a decrease in the total as the surface is approached.
Because ofthe singularity, it would be advantageous to have a c10sed form
solution for this part of the problem. But since none could be found, it was
decided to use the same numerical method given for nonsingular loads. It
is evident that more terms and finer mesh sizes are required. Limitations on
computer time forced the use ofthe same number ofpoints in rand the same
number of terms in the rexpansion as above. More terms were inc1uded in
the Fourier series, and smaller subdivisions were used in the integration. It
was found that K m (1) decreased very slowly as m.increased. For m=400,
K m (1) was ofthe order of 10- 2 , K m (0.967), of 10- 3 , K m (0.933), of 10- 4 , and
for r< 0.5, Km(r) was ofthe order 10- 5. For m= 1600 these figures decreased
by a factor of 10. Each time additional terms were inc1uded in the Fourier
series, the magnitude of k s ((}), the dimensionless stress intensity factor due to
the singular press ure on the crack, increased near 8 = n/2 and remained the
same elsewhere. Finally ks (8) was calculated using 841 terms in the cosine
senes.
The function qs(y, z) which gives the nonsingular part of the stress
(JAO, y, z) due to the load on the crack was computed using 241 terms in the
Fourier series. This part ofthe numerical solution required more than half of
thecomputer time used. But note that the same function is used again in
each iteration.
In reference [6J which also treats this problem there is no separation of
singular and nonsingular terms in the numerical analysis. The half space
problem utilizes stresses at points within Regions I and III of Figure 4.11.
Outside these regions, the stress is approximated by zero. In [6J, the stress
is computed at 80 points within Region I, as compared with 45 in this
224 R. J. Hartranft; and G. C. Sih

analysis. The additional points should not be expected to account accurately

for the singularities.
To obtain the stresses in the regions mentioned above and to obtain the
stress intensity factor for a given stress on the penny-shaped crack in [6],
the stress on the crack is computed for five values of rand 19 values of ().
Weddle's rule is applied to the integrals for Km(r) for m=O, 2, 4, ... , 10.
Simpson's rule using, say, 40 values of () should be as accurate. Km(r) is

1.25 -

I
1.20
/
/
/
/
I
1.15
Lg From Section 4.3 I
CLo
(\/=0.30) /
/
NI~ I

----
<D
a.
.:.::
1.1 0
/
/
I

/
/
/
/ From Ref.[6]
"./ (v=0.25)

--
l05
.... ./

------

1.00 o~--_:_'_::_------L---L----I-------.I
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
.1.
TI
9
Figure 4.13. Stress intensity factor for Figure 4.11.

obtained in [6] as a fifth order polynomial in r by forcing the polynomial to

pass through the computed points. In this work, Km(r) is known at 30 values
of r, and the fifth-order polynomial is obtained by least squares curve fitting.

Discussion of numerical results. The result of the analysis described above

is the curve in Figure 4.13 which shows the variation of the stress intensity
factor along the crack front. The deepest point ofthe crack is ()=O. Initially,
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 225

moving away from this point, there is a gradual increase in stress intensity
factor. Then about 20° from the surface there is a rapid increase. Following
this a more rapid decrease occurs in the last 3°. Note that the stress intensity
factor tends to zero at the surface, a result discussed in several previous papers
[22,28,29]. It appears that an increase in numerical accuracy would further
decrease the value at the surface toward zero. However, the lack of an exact
solution ofthe problem of a crack loaded by the stress of equation (4.101) is

1.25

1.20

1.15
~o
CL
NI~
-.......
~ 1.10
Cl.
~

1.05L--~

100 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
l..
1t
e
Figure 4.14. Successive iterations for stress intensity factor.

reflected by an accumulation of numerical inaccuracies as the number of

iterations is increased.
It should be c1ear that the results in Figure 4.13 are by no means the exact
solution ofthe problem but are presented as the best approximation available.
The trend ofthe curves differs substantially from those obtained in [6] using
basically the same numerical procedure. The results of [6], shown as a
dashed line in Figure 4.13, would be expected to differ slightly from the
226 R. J. Hartranft; and G. C. Sih

present results because they were obtained for a Poisson's ratio of 0.25 and
the present ones, 0.30. The apparent reason for the qualitative difference
between the results is the differing treatments of the singularities. As back-
ground information some intermediate results will be given.
The curve of Figure 4.13 is the result after the fourth iteration. The stress
intensity factors after each iteration are shown in Figure 4.14. Each new
iteration raises the stress intensity factor, but the amount of increase
decreases as the number ofiterations increases, with one exception. Near the
surface the curve for the second iteration lies be10w that for the first.

1.0

0.8

~0.6
....ou
-CI

.x
I

0.4
v=0.30

k (1)(9)
N
0.2 ~_ _ _ _---~

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

~9
Tt
Figure 4.15. Separate contributions to the stress intensity factor in first iteration.

As described earlier, the contribution of each iteration to the stress intensity

factor consists of two parts. The two contributions for the first iteration are
shown in Figure 4.15. The function ks (8) is used with each iteration as the
stress intensity factor for the singular pressure on the crack. The curve for
k~)(8) comes from the nonsingular part of the stress being removed from
the crack by this iteration. The combination of the two designated k( 1) (8) is
wh at its iteration adds to the previous total stress intensity factor. (In this
case, k (8) = k(O) (8) = 1.)
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 227

4.4 Future applications-semi-elliptical crack

The problem of a flat elliptical crack lying completely within a half space and
perpendicular to the surface has already been attempted in [9]. The results
in [9] for the ca se in which the major axis of the ellipse lies in the surface
(Figure 4.16) are labeled as approximate in recognition ofthe greater accuracy
required due to the intersection of the crack front with the surface. The

Figure 4.16. Semi-elliptical surface crack.

troublesome singularities encountered in the alternating method.which were

discussed in detail in Section 4.3 are present in the semi-elliptical surface
crack problem. Such considerations are neglected in [9], but other difficulties
remain. The major difficulty is that the solution for the elliptical crack in an
infinite medium is extremely complicated.
For the penny-shaped crack problem, the pressure on the crack needs
only to permit a eosine series expansion of the form of equations (4.73) and
228 R. J. Hartranjt and G. C. Sih

(4.80). And the inc1usion ofmore terms in the series is easily handled because
of the nature of the solution. However, the solution for the elliptical crack
requires the pressure to be given as a polynomial
N M
p(x, y) = L L amnx myn . (4.108)
n=O m=O

It is possible to work out the solution for any finite number of terms of
equation (4.108), although, for a large number, it is impractical. Thus far,
no way has been found to include the effect of additional terms in (4.108) by
a recurrence scherne. The additional terms require the solution for the lower
order terms and additional contributions combined in a complicated way.
As a result of the difficulty, the elliptical crack problem was restricted in
[9J to be of the form
(4.109)
The six constants in this equation are determined by a least squares technique
of fitting equation (4.109) to a number of known values of p(x, y). The odd
powers of x are omitted because the problem is taken to be symmetrie about
the yz-plane. F or the elliptical surface flaw, the press ure would also be made
symmetrie about the xz-plane, and the odd powers of y would be eliminated.
Thus, only three constants, a oo , a 20 , a 02 ' would be available for the least
square fitting necessary. Additional terms are c1early needed, but the 200
terms used in the penny-shaped crack solution (40 in e, 5 in r) cannot be
approached.
As suggested by Kantorovich and Krylov [2J, the Schwarz-Neumann
Alternating Technique has wide applicability. It can be applied to other
three-dimensional crack problems of interest such as the finite thickness
crack problem. The crack may be taken to intersect the plate at any angle.
Such problems would involve combined modes of crack extension even
though the plate is loaded in simple tension.
There is some arbitrariness in the choice ofthe two sequences ofproblems
involved in the alternating method. For example the stress, a(x), on the edge
crack was extended symmetrically to negative values of x in the zeroth
iteration. It would have been possible to make the stress skew-symmetric
about the y-axis instead. The two sequences of problems would then be
quite different. Similarly, in the surface crack problem, the initial pressure on
the penny-shaped crack could be taken to be skew-symmetric about the
yz-plane. The problems which make up the two sequences would then have
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 229

different characteristics. In general, the various alternatives should be studied

to determine whether one provides a better representation of the essential
properties of the problem.
It is conceivable that in some applications the alternating method will
involve three or more sequences of solutions. In general, one sequence
would be expected to be necessary for each part of the boundary of the
material. If there were three parts of the boundary and three solutions, the
sequence would be formed similarly to the examples presented here. Each
solution would produce some undesirable residual stresses on the other two
boundaries. Thus, each iteration would use each solution in turn to remove
the residual stresses produced by the other two solutions in their previous
applications.

4.5 Appendix

Stress intensity factors for various particular loads on the edge crack are
listed here. For other loads the general expression of equation (4.50) may be
used. In addition, results for the penny-shaped crack in an infinite body are
given, induding some recently published stress intensity factors for non-
axisymmetrically loaded cracks.
EDGE CRACKS

Concentrated forces. F or concentrated normal and shearing forces applied

to the crack as shown in Figure 4.4, the stress intensity factors are

k = ~ P(at) 1 + f(bJa)
1 TC (a 2 _ b 2 )t

k = ~ Q( t) 1 + f(b/a)
2 TC a (2 a - b 2 )J.. 2

where f(b/a) is given by equation (4.47) and Figure 4.5.

Linear stress. In this case, the stress on the crack varies linearly from zero
at the edge to twice the average stress at the crack tip (Figure 4.17). The stress
intensity factors in terms of the average stresses are
k 1 = 1.3660 O"a(at )
k 2 = 1.3660 Ta(a t ) .
230 R. J. H artranjt and G. C. Sih

O"'y (X,O)2-2a'a ~

1:xy (x,Ol=-21: a ~

Figure 4.17. Linearly loaded edge crack.

"I
"......

b
I

1 1i 0"'0

1 11
x

CT'y(x,Ol-{ 0, O<x<b
-0"0' b<x <a

1:xy (xOl={
, 0, O<x<b
-1: o ,b<x<a

./

Figure 4.18. Partially loaded edge crack.

Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 231

Uniform stress near crack tip. As shown in Figure 4.18, the crack is free of
stress on the part of its faces adjacent to the edge and is subjected to uniform
stresses on the other part up to the crack tip. The stress intensity factors may
be expressed as

where h 1 (b/a) is shown in Figure 4.19. These results mayaiso be expressed in

terms of the average stresses on the crack,
(Ja = (1- b/a)(Jo Ta = (1- b/a)To .

3.0

2.5

Vl2.0
L..
o

-
~
u
o

"0
I

1.5
4.1
N

o
E
....
o
z 1.0

0.5

o O~----~----~------L-----~----~
0.8 1.0
b/a
Figure 4.19. Correction factors for partially loaded edge crack.
232 R. J. Hartranji and G. C. Sih

The stress intensity factors

k l = h 2 (bja)(Ja(a t )
k2 = h 2 (bja)1: a(a t )
then show the expected increase when the same total load is applied nearer
the crack tip. See Figure 4.19.

U nifarm stress (See Table I). In the case of uniform shear loading, the stress
where the crack intersects the edge mustbe zero. See also the numerical
discussion in Section 4.2 of a similar restriction on the normal stress when
the alternating method is used direct1y. These restrictions do not affect the
use ofthe previous example for very small values of bja. As bja~O it is found
that
k l = 1.1215 (Jo (at)
k 2 = 1.12151:0 (at) .

By superposition the first result may be applied to the case of uniform

tension at infinity parallel to the free edge when the crack is stress free. There
is no corresponding application of the second result.

Palynamial stress [18]. Ifthe form ofthe stress in Figure 4.17 is not linear,
but is given by
10
(Jy(X, 0) = - (Jo L Cn(xjat
n=O

where Co, Cl' ... , C lo are arbitrary constants, then the stress intensity
factor is [18]

kl = 0"0 (2a)t [0.7930 Co + 0.4829 Cl +0.3716C 2 +0.3118C 3

+0.2735C 4 + 0.2464 C s +0.2260C 6 +0.2099C 7
+0.1968C g +0.1858C 9 +O.1765C lo ] .

If there is shear loading TxAx, 0) given by the expression for (Jy(x, 0), but
with (Jo replaced by 1:0' then by the statement following equation (4.50), the
Mode II stress intensity factor, k 2 , is given by the expression for k 1 with (Jo
replaced by TO'
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 233

PENNY-SHAPED CRACKS

General result. The pressure applied to the crack in Figure 4.6 is in the form
00

(Jz = - Po L Km(r) cos m(} , z=o, r~l

m=O

where r is the distance from the z-axis divided by the crack radius, a. The
resulting Mode I stress intensity factor is
2
L
00
k 1 = - po(a-t) gm(1) cos m(}
n m=O
where

= f
l (m+ 1 d(
gm(t) 0 Km(tO (1- (2)! .

These formulas apply only when the stress on the crack is symmetrie about
a plane containing the z-axis (the (} = 0 plane). F or the special case ofaxi-
symmetric10adingthe onlynonzero Km(r)is Ko(r), and theequations simplify
considerably.

cr'o
Figure 4.20. Penny-shaped crack in an infinite body und er uni axial tension and uniform shear.
234 R. J. Hartranft and G.c. Sih

Uniform tension. By superposition, the stress intensity factor due to the

uniaxial tension as shown in Figure 4.20 may be determined by considering
the same geometry, but with uniform pressure,
Uz = - Uo , z = 0, r< 1
on the crack and zero stress at infinity. For this problem the parameters of
the preceding case become
m~1.

Therefore, the stress intensity factor is [26J.

2
k l = - uo(a-t) .
n

Uniform shear. The solution in [30J for constant shearing stresses on the
faces of a penny-shaped crack may be used to obtain the stress intensity
factors for Figure 4.20.

k 2 = - 12 ~ 1"0 (at) sin ()

-vn

The uniform shear load produces no Mode I stress intensity factor.

Concentrated forces. The stress intensity factors for Modes II and III are
zero, and [6J

k l = -2 -2P
2 a t (1- ri)-t ~
[00
+ L 1"7 cos m()l cos m()] .
n na m=l

The two pairs of concentrated forces in Figure 4.21 act a distance of ar 1 out
on the rays ()= +()1'
In the case of a single pair of forces of magnitude F on the crack, () may be
put equal to zero and 2P replaced by F in the above expression. If, further,
the single pair of forces acts at the center of the crack,
1 F
k1 = - - 2 at .
n na
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 235

Figure 4.21. Concentrated forces on a penny-shaped crack.

Linear stress. In the case of normal stress varying linearly with x = r cos (J,
l.e.,
O"zz = - por cos (J, z = 0, r< 1
the stress varies from zero on the y-axis to a maximum of Po at the points
where the crack front intersects the x-axis of Figure 4.6. The only non-zero
Km(r) is
K1(r) = r
and the stress intensity factor [6J,

k 1 = 3: po(at ) cos (J

is easily obtained.

Bending stress. The cases of uniform tension and linear stress may be
superposed to obtain the solution of the bending of a beam containing a
small penny-shaped crack in a transverse section. If the crack is far enough
236 R. J. Hartranjt and G. C. Sih

from the lateral surfaces of the beam their interaction may be neglected.
Reference [6] specifies
d>3a c-b >3a
where the dimensions of the beam are shown in Figure 4.22. An additional
restriction must be placed on the dimensions to insure that the crack faces

Figure 4.22. Penny-shaped crack in a cross-section of a beam under pure ben ding.

are not compressed together, for the solution would be invalid if that
happened. This restriction,
b >~a
simply makes the stress intensity factor positive at all points of the crack
front. In terms of the moment of inertia, 1 = 2dc 3 /3, of the cross-section, the
stress produced in an uncracked beam is
Moa
(}'zz = -1- (bla - r cos 8) , z = 0, r< 1 .
Solving edge and surface crack problems by an alternating method 237

By superposition, the stress intensity factor,

2 Moa -t
k1 = ; -1- a (b/a-(2/3) cos 8).

may be found by considering the beam to be loaded only by stresses on the

faces of the crack equal and opposite to those produced in the uncracked
beam.
SURFACE CRACK

The geometry of the half penny-shaped crack at the surface of a half space is
shown in Figure 4.11. F or the case ofuniform tension at infinity perpendicular
to the crack (or uniform pressure on the crack faces), the stress intensity
factor is given in Figure 4.13.

References .
[1] Paris, P. C and Sih, G. C, Fracture Toughness Testing and Its Applications, ASTM STP
381, p. 30 (1965).
[2] Kantorovich, L. V. and Krylov, V. 1., Approximate Methods of Higher Analysis, Inter-
science, New York (1964).
[3] Irwin, G. R., The Crack-Extension Force for a Crack at a Free Surface Boundary, U. S.
Naval Research Laboratory Report 5120 (1958).
[4] Lachenbruch, A H., J. Geophys. Res., 66, p. 4273 (1961).
v v
[5] Broz, P., Acta Technical Csav, 15, p. 724 (1970).
[6] Smith, F. W., Kobayashi, A S. and Emery, A. F., J. Appl. Mech., 34, p. 947 (1967).
[7] Smith, F. W. andAlavi, M. J., Proc. First Int. Corif. Pres. Ves. Tech., Delft, The Netherlands
(1969).
[8] Smith, F. W. and Alavi, M. J., Engineering Fracture Mechanics, (to appear).
[9] Shah, R. C. and Kobayashi, A. S., Int. J. Fracture Mechanics, (to appear).
[10] Irwin, G. R., J. Appl. Mech., 29, p. 651 (1962).
[11] Bueckner, H. F., Boundary Problems in Differential Equations, University of Wisconsin
Press, Madison, Wis. (1960).
[12] Winne, D. H. and Wundt, B. M., Trans. ASME, 80, p. 1643 (1958).
[13] Koiter, W. T., discussion of paper by Bowie, J. Appl. Mech., 32, p. 237 (1965).
[14] Koiter, W. T., Proc. Kon. Ned. Akad. Wet. (B), 59, p. 354 (1956).
[15J Sneddon, I. N., Fourier Transforms, McGraw-HilI, New York, 1951.
[16] Wigglesworth, L. A, Mathematika, 4, p. 76 (1957).
[17] Doran, H. E. and Buchwald, V. T., J. Inst. Maths. Applics., 5, p. 91 (1969).
[18] Stallybrass, M. P., Int. J. Engr. Sci., 8, p. 351 (1970).
[19J Sneddon, 1. N. and Das, S. C, Int. J. Engr. Sei., 9, p. 25 (1971).
[20J Magnus, W. and Oberhettinger, F., Formulas and Theorems for the Functions of Mathe-
matical Physics, Chelsea, New York (1949).
238 R. J. HartranJt and G~ C. Sih

[21] Sih, G. C. and Liebowitz, H., (Mathematical Theories of Brittle Fracture), Fracture, 2,
Academic Press, New York (1968).
[22] Sih, G. c., lnt. J. Fract. Mech., 7, p. 39 (1971).
[23] Thresher, R. W. and Smith, F. W., ASME Paper No. 71-APMW-6, J. Appl. Mech., in press.
[24] Muki, R., Progress in Solid Mechanics, Vol. 1, North-Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam,
p. 401 (1960).
[25] Love, A. E. H., Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (A), 228, p. 377 (1929).
[26] Sneddon, 1. N., Proc. Roy. Soc. (A), 187, p. 229 (19~6).
[27] Filon, L. N. G., Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 49, p. 38 (1928-29).
[28] Hartranft, R. J. and Sih, G. c., J. Math. Mech., 19, p. 123 (1969).
[29] Sih, G. c., Williams, M. L. and Swedlow, J. L., AFML-TR-242, Air Force Materials
Laboratory, Wright-PattersonAir Force Base. Dayton, (November, 1966).
[30] Segedin, C. M., Proc. Camb. Phi!. Soc., 47, p. 396 (1951).
 Hans F. Bueckner

5 Field singularities and related

integralrepresentations

5.1 Introduction

This chapter is concerned with certain stress fields in isotropic elastic bodies.
Assumed will be the laws of linear elasticity where the stresses andstrains
are related to one another by Hooke's law. Emphasis will be placed on field
singularities due to cracks. Moreover the analysis will be confined to fields
of plane strain and to special cases ofaxial symmetry. The results for plane
strain apply to casesofplane stress, ifthe familiar approximation is admitted
whereby a field of plane strain can be interpreted as one of plane stress for
different elastic parameters.
The stresses in an elastic body can be caused by surface tractions, by body
forces and by a temperature field. Some examples pertaining to a hollow
cylinder of inner radius a, outer radius band with a sharp radial notch as
shown in Figure 5.1 will be considered. Cartesian rectangular coordinates
x, y, z as weIl as polar coordinates defined by x = r cos (J, y = r sin (J are used.
y

Figure 5.1
240 Hans F. Bueckner

Assume that the origin is at the center of the cross-section ofthe cylinder and
that the notch is defined by y = + 0, a< c ~ - x ~ b in cartesian and by
() = + n, c< r ~ b in polar coordinates. Plane strain will be assumed, so that
all field quantities depend on x and y only; there is no displacement in the
direction of the axis of the cylinder. This leads to two displacements u in
x- and v in y-direction. The stresses of interest are (Jx, (Jy and 1: xy since
1: xz = 0, 1:yz = 0 and (jz = V ((j x + (j y) where v denotes Poisson's parameter. Let
the cylinder be subjected to the following three cases of loading:
(1) A uniform pressure p acts on the inner cylinder r = a; all other parts of
the surface are free from traction.
(2) The cylinder rotates with angular velocity w around its axis; the surface
is free from traction.
(3) A steady state temperature field T= To log (b/r) exists in the specimen.
The surface is free from traction.
It is to be understood that the faces ofthe notch are inc1uded in the surface.
All three cases, different as they seem to be, have one phenomenon in
common. At the root x - - c, y = 0 of the notch the stresses are unbounded.
Iflocal polar coordinates d, t are introduced in accordance with
x + c = deos t ; y = d sin t , (5.1)
the stresses can be represented asymptotically (d--1-0) as folIows:

(J = (2~)t· cos it·f(t)

with
f(t) = 1- sin it· sin 1t for (J=(Jx

f(t) = 1+sinit·sin1t for (J = (Jy (5.2)

f(t) = sin it· cos 1t for (j = 1: xy •

Here k is a constant, known as the stress intensity factor; more precisely

k = k 1 in terms of contemporary nomenc1ature. Disregarding rigid body
motion we can supplement equation (5.2) by the following asymptotic law
for the displacements :

U = 2/1
k (d)i
2 cos it(K-COS t) = 3-4v
2. K

(5.3)
v = k (d)t
2/1 2 . sin it (K - t); /1 is the shear modulus .
COS
Field singularities and related integral representations 241

The factor k is the same in equations (5.2) and (5.3) but it will take different
values for all three cases in general. A derivation of equations (5.2), (5.3) will
be given in the next section.
The solutions to the problems (1), (2), (3) are well-known and can be
found in many text books of elasticity if the cylinder is without notch. The
fields have axial symmetry in the sense that the stresses (J'n (J'o, LrO depend on
=
r only; moreover LrO 0 while (J' rand (J'°are regular analytic functions of r for
a~ r~ b. Setting (J'o=g(r) we list the various functions g. They are

pa 2 (. b2 )
g(r) = b 2 _a 2 ' 1 + r2

for problem (1);

3+ V 2(2
9 (r ) = -8- pro a +
b 2 a2 b 2
+~-
1 + 3v
3+v r
2) (5.4)

(p denotes the mass density) [lJ

for problem (2) and

(CI( denotes the thermal expansion coefficient) [13J.

for problem (3).

Since the theory of elasticity is linear, the field in the notched cylinder can be
dividedinto twoparts: Theregularfield whichappears underthesameloading
conditions in the unnotched specimen, and a corrective field due to the
presence of the notch. The regular field having no singularity at the root of
the notch, we see at once that the field quantities of the corrective field
prevail over those of the regular one at the root; therefore k is completely
determined by the corrective field alone. The latter is easily characterized.
It is the field in the notched cylinder caused by tractions distributed over
the two faces of the notch in accordance with
(Jy = - g(r) , L xy = 0 on both faces . (5.5)
No other tractions appear; centrifugal forces and temperature distribution
for problems (2) and (3) respectivelyare absent. Thus all three problems are
242 Hans F. Bueckner

reduced to the same type (5.5), so far as the field singularity at x = - c, y = 0

is concerned.
The idea of reduction (suggested in [1]) applies to other specimens as
weIl. In the realm of linear elasticity any crack or notch problem can be
reduced to one where the external load appears in the form of tractions
distributed over the faces of the crack. This reduction is valuable not only
for reasons of a systematic analysis; in many cases it facilitates the analysis.
Even where an exact analysis is difficult or next to impossible on geometrie
grounds alone, the reduction permits the engineer to compare different load
systems with one another by comparing the systems of tractions as they
appear on the faces ofthe crack. If, for instance, two different cylinder prob-
lems possess approximately the same function g(r) in equation (5.5) then the
value of k is practically the same for both o(them.
From here on all further analysis is confined to cases where the specimen's
surface alone is loaded by tractions, the faces of the crack inc1uded. In this
context it is said that the tractions on the crack faces are of"induced" nature
if at opposite points oft he faces the traction vectors are opposite in direction
but equal in magnitude; this characterizes the outcome of the reduction and
applies in particular to (5.5).

5.2 Analysis by field continuation

Consider states of plane strain and refer to z as the complex variable

z = x + i y. Let some domain A be in the z-plane, bounded by a c10sed curve B
as shown in Figure 5.2. In the absence of body forces, any state of plane
strain in A can be expressed by the formulas of Muskhelishvili [9] as
folIows:

2J.lW=K4>(Z)-Z·4>'(Z)-t/l(Z); w=u+iv (5.6)

(J x = Re [4>' (z) + 4>' (z) - z . 4>" (z) -1/1' (z) ] (5.7)
(Jy = Re [4>' (z) + 4>' (z) + z . 4>" (z) + t/I' (z)] (5.8)
-r xy = Im [.24>" (z) + 1// (z)] . (5.9)
Here
J.l= E/2(1+v) , K=3-4v; (5.10)
U, v are the displacements in x-direction and y-direction respectively. The
Field singularities and related integral representations 243

functions 4> " (z), I/I'(z) are holomorphic in A. If A is bounded and simply
connected, then qJ, t/I are also holomorphic in A. If 4>, t/I yield a stress field
u x' u Y' T xy then all other pairs 4> * = 4> + i (xz + ß, 1/1* = 1/1 + y with arbitrary
complex constants ß, y and an arbitrary real constant (X yield the same stress
field. The constants IX, Kß - Y represent the family of rigid body motions. It
should be emphasized, that 4>, 1/1 depend on the choice of the co ordinate
system x, y. If the variable z is changed to
,= e(z-a) , lei = 1 (5.11)
then the pair of functions
(5.12)
yields the same field of stresses and displacements. It can be observed that
(5.13)
If ds is an oriented are-element in A, then the components X in x-direction,
Y in y-direction of the traction which attacks the elastic material to the left
of ds are given by the formula
Zds = (X +i Y)ds = -idP (Figure 5.2) (5.14a)
where
p = P(z) = 4> (z)+ z4>'(z)+ I/I(z) . (5.14b)
The function P(z) is not analytic in general. Note that equation (5.6) can also
be written in the form
2pw = (K+ l)4>(z)-P(z).
The strain energy density W per unit length can be expressed in the form
2EW = (1- v2)(0"; + u;)+2(1 + V)(T;y- O"xUy)
(5.15)
= 8(1+v)(1-2v)(Re4>')2+2(1+v)lz4>"(z)+I/I'(z)1 2 .
Of practical importance are those states of plane strain for which the integral

H = L Wdxdy (5.16)

exists. This means that finite energy (per unit length) is stored in A. In most
engineering applications only such states are encountered. Yet this investi-
gation will lead to special fields ofinfinite energy in A, even if Ais ofbounded
244 Hans F. Bueckner

area. F or this reason the distinction H < 00 and H = 00 has to be kept in

mind.
Domain A shows a crack with faces C +, C - ; the root is at the origin, and
the crack runs along the negative real axis. Dealing with the field near z = 0,

c- ds l
x

~Y

Figure 5.2

we prefer to describe it not with the aid of 4>, !/J but rather with 4> and p,
where p (z) =!/J (z) + zif>' (z). Consequently the formulas take the form

2pw = Kif>(Z) - p(z) + (z - z)if>' (z) , (5.17)

(}x =Re [if>' (z) + 2if>'(z)-p'(z)+ (z-z)if>"(z)] (5.18)

(}y =Re [if>'(z)+p'(z)-(z-z)if>"(z)] , (5.19)

!xy = -Im [if>'(z)-p'(z)+(z-z)if>"(z)]. (5.20)
Take now a field in A responding to boundary tractions on Band in particular
to tractions of an induced nature on some part of the faces C+, C- near
z = 0; more precise1y assume that the latter are given by
Field singularities and related integral representations 245

I
00

O"y+iT XY = f(x) = fnx n ; -8< x~ 0 ; on C+, C- (5.21)

n=O

where f(x) is a converging power series for the indicated interval ; due to the
induced nature f(x) is the same on both faces. (Note that this is a restriction;
one could prescribe tractions of a different kind on the faces.) The coefficients
j~ can be complex-valued. The number 8 > 0 can be as small as one wishes.
In this context we take a region Ar consisting of all those points 0< Iz I < 8
which are either in A or on the crack faces (Figure 5.2). Without loss of
generality it can be assumed that the boundary of A' consists of the circ1e
Izl =8 and of two segments on C+, C-. We assert the

Theorem. If the field has finite energy in Ar and if </>', p' are continuous in
Ar, then the functions </>, p admit expansions
00 00

1>(z) = I akz-t k ; p(z) = I bkztk

k=O k=O

valid for IzJ < 8. Moreover b n= an for n = odd and mb 2m = - ma 2m + fm _ 1 else.

A few explanatory remarks about the theorem are perhaps in order.

(1) Although inessential we define zt by its main branch (positive for
positive real z).
(2) Since z = 0 is not in A' the assumptions of the theorem do not refer to
continuity of q> r, p' at z = O. They do refer to continuity on the segments of
C+, C- which belong to Ar. This is the relevant point of the assumption
since cpr, pr are holomorphic, hence continuous in the interior of A'.
(3) Disregarding the condition (5.21) one can construct fields in A' ofthe
more general form

q>(z) = a n zt n , p(z) = bn ztn (5.22)

n= - 00 n= - 00

where all an> bn are different from zero for all negative n. Such fields can have
finite energy in A' and they can even be of such a nature that all field quantities
are continuous in Ar with the point z = 0 added. An example is
(_l)k
I , zt k .
4
1>= p = Z2 exp( -z-t) = (5.23a)
k=-oo (4-k).
On C+, C- we find Txy=O and
246 Hans F. Bueckner

O"y = 2 Re 1>' = 4x cos Ixl-± -Ixl± sin Ixl-± = f(x) . (5.23b)

The function f(x), although continuous in - 1 ~ x ~ 0 with f(O) = 0, is not
of type (5.21). For this example it is essential that z± is defined as the main
branch of the square root of z.
If the Laurent expansions (5.22) in powers of z± are such that
an = 0, b n = 0 for n< -p, pa positive integer,
then the functions 1>, p have dominant terms of the form
1>(z) ~ a_pz-±P, p(z) ~ b_pz-±P if a_ p =1= 0, b_ p =1= 0,
and the behavior of the field near z = 0 is determined by them. It is easy to
show that the field has infinite energy. This does not make the field unreahstic
if one exc1udes some neighborhood ofzero. The case p = 1 is quite important,
and its consideration and use will be discussed in the next section. In the
case of the expansions shown in the theorem the energy is finite. This is
well-known.
(4) The theorem will be proved in two steps. In the first it will be shown
that 1>, p admit expansions of the general form (5.22). In the second step it
will be proved, on the grounds of finite energy, that an> bn must vanish for
negative n. In view of the example (5.23) this will be neither trivial nor simple.
In the proof below use will be made of the fact that the sum of two fields,
each of finite energy, is also of finite energy.

Proof of theorem (Step 1). By way of equations (5.19) and (5.20), it is found
that
(5.24)

A field of finite energy complying with equation (5.24) and the theorem is
given by p(z)=F(z), 4> (z)=O where F'(x)= f(x). Since this is not the most
general field, an additional field of finite energy must be found for which the
tractions vanish on C+, C-. This amounts to proving the theorem for the
case f(x) =0, and the condition
(p' +p' = 0 on C+, C-
must be satisfied. Here one must be ar in mind that neither 4> nor p' will show
I

the same boundary value on opposite points ofthe crack. Whenever boundary
tractions vanish on a straight line segment of the boundary, it is indicated
Field singularities and related integral representations 247

that the field can be "analytically" continued ac ross and beyond the segment.
The use of the functions 1>., p rather than of cf> . t/I has advantages in this
respect. The combinations g(z) = p' - ej>' and h(z) =i(p' + ej;') are even better.
By virtue of the above relation between cl> and p' the new functions take real
I

values on C+, C-. Set t=izt and map A' into the complex t-plane. The
mapping is 1: 1 and Figure 5.3 shows the image At of A'. At is a semi-circular
y

t-plane

Itl=h

Figure 5.3

disk in the upper half of the t-plane, the radius being et . C+, C- are taken
into intervals on the real t-axis, separated by t = 0; the latter point does not
belong to At. The functions G(t}=g(z), H(t}=h(z) are real on the real t-axis
in At. Since by assumption they approach the boundary values on the real
t-axis for t =1= 0 continuously, both G and H can be analytically continued
into the lower t- half-plane by means of the formulas

G(t) = G(l) , H(t) = H(l) . (5.25a)

This implies Laurent expansions
00 00

G(t) = I
n= - 00
gn tn , H(t) = I
n= - 00
hntn , valid for 0< Itl < et . (5.25b)

The coefficients gn, hn are real. Returning now to g, hand back to ej>', p' we
obtain the expansions:
00 00

2p'(Z) = I (gn - ihn)in. zt n ; 2c1>'(Z) = - I (gn+ ihn)inztn . (5.26a)

n= - 00

For n =1= - 2 coefficients an + 2, b n + 2 can be defined by

(5.26b)
The ab b k of the theorem are those defined by equations (5.26b). It can be
248 Hans F. Bueckner

seen that the coefficient rule bk = - ak for even k and bk = ak for odd k,
stated in the theorem, holds in the more general case (5.26b).

Proof of theorem (Step 2). It is useful to introduce the functions

00

-! L
00

SI(S) = -! L g2k( - Z)k ; 7i(z) = h 2k _ 1 (-z)k

k== - 00 k= - 00
(5.27)
00 00

Sn(z)=-! L h 2k (-z)k; 7il(Z)= -21"

L g2k-l ()k
-z .
k==-oo k= - 00

With the aid of these functions, all of them Laurent expansions in integral
powers of z with real coefficients, one can compose
1
PI = - SI+Z _J...
2
T.I
(5.28a)

The functions fjJ', p' can be split as follows

PI + PlI .
,/,., ,/,.1+,/,.' , , ,
'P = 'P I 'P l I ' P = (5.28b)
The split gives rise to two stress fields. The field described by c/Ji, pi will be
referred to as mode 1 and the other one as mode 11. F or mode 1 each of the
stresses (J x' (J y takes the same value at conjugate complex points z, z; 1: xy
changes sign. For mode 11 (Jx, (Jy switch sign as we change from z to Z, while
!xy stays unchanged. If one considers a subdomain AI! in A', symmetrically

shaped with respect to the x-axis and outside of some neighborhood of z = 0,

the two modes are orthogonal to one another in the sense that the mixed
energy of them in A" vanishes. The energy of the sum of the two fields equals
the sum oftheir individual energies. Since it is assumed that the field generated
by the pair </>, P has finite energy in A', each of the two modes must have
finite energy in A'. It therefore suffices to prove for each mode that its finite
energy implies that the functions S, T are ordinary power series in z and not
genuine Laurent expansions. This will be done in detail for mode I. For the
sake of easier writing the subscript I will be omitted and we set

(5.29)

Going back to equation (5.15) we see that zq;" + IV = (z - z)fjJ" + p' - cf/ =
-2i(y<ft" -iS). The condition of bounded energy yields the existence of
U 2 < 00 such that
Field singularities and related integral representations 249

(5.30)

In order to apply these inequalities one must use certain results from the
theory of analytic functions. The reader will find them in the form of six
lemmas, derived and compiled in Appendix I. The function F of the lemmas
is to be identified with cf>' and the function G of the lemmas 4,6 with - iSo
The lemmas imply that the composition y2</>"(z)is bounded in A' and that
the Laurent expansion of S (z) is of the form

S(z) = ~ + So(z), So = regular power series . (5.31)

z
1
Consequently y2(Z--} T(z))' = y2z - t (T'(z) - - T(z)) is bounded in A'. By
2z
way of lemma 5 one has
1 00

T'(z) - 2z T(z) = n~ 1 dnz n , (5.32)

whence
T(z) = z1-
n=-l
I dn 1 Zn+± =
n+ Z
I
n=-l
~ Zn+ 1
n+ Z
(5.33)

This makes T(z) a regular power series in z. From equations (5.29), (5.31) it
follows that
A-' C
0/ ;:::; - ,
,
p;:::; - -C as z ~ 0 . (5.34)
z z
But such functions are incompatible with finite energy unless c = O. Thus it
has been proved that Sand T of equations (5.29) are regular power series.
Integration of cf>', p' to </>, p leads to the expansions of the theorem with the
coefficients ak , b k defined by equations (5.26b). This concludes the proof for
mode I. For mode II it can be conducted in similar vein. The lemmas are so
formulated that they cover the case of mode II as weIl. Further details will
not be given.
A few consequences of the theorem will now be mentioned. Since the
asymptotic behavior of the field is determined by the functions cf> (z)= az+,
p(z)=äz+, it is easy to find the behavior ofthe field quantities near z=O. If
a is real, the relations shown in equations (5.21), (5.3) govern the behavior.
Areal coefficient a pertains to mode I; reference to that mode was already
made in section 5.1. For mode II the coefficient a is purely imaginary. The
asymptotic relations (well-known) are, with z = re i8, () = 2t,
250 Hans F. Bueckner

ax = (~~t [ - sin t (2 + cos t cos 3t) J

'r xy = (~~t [cos t (1- sin t sin 3t) J

ay = (~~t [sin t cos t cos 3tJ (5.35)

u = k 2 (~)t [sin t {K+1+2 cos 2 t)J

211 2

v = k 2 (~)t
211 2
[_cos t (K - 1 - 2 sin 2 t) J

(see also [8aJ with respect to equations (5.1), (5.3) and (5.35». In the general
case of a complex coefficient a, the stress field may consist of both mode I
and mode II with intensity factors k l , k 2 given by

(5.36)

Two particular limit relations are noteworthy. If Z =ay+i 'r xy on the positive
real axis then
(5.37)
If L\w=w(x+)-w(x-), x+, x- opposite points on the crack faces C+, C-
respective1y, then the "complex crack opening"L\ satisfies
2· 2t (1- v)
(--,-x)-tL\w~ k; x~-O. (5.38)
J.l
From here on k will be referred to as the complex intensity factor. A field
whose behavior complies with the theorem will be referred to as a regular
field with anormal singularity at z = O.
The theorem can be generalized. Instead of a straight line crack one can
assurne an analytic crack (C+, C- have the shape of an analytic curve). It
has been shown in [5J that the expansions of the theorem stay verbally
valid ifthe crack leaves the origin in the direction ofthe negative x-axis and
if the crack is load free in some neighborhood of the origin.
The functions q; , p can be analytically continued, as already mentioned.
They become well-defined functions on the Riemann surface of zt. Conse-
Field singularities and related integral representations 251

quently A' has a counterpart A" on the other sheet, and ep, p define a regular
field with anormal singularity in A" as well. If for example one takes mode II
then it follows from equation (5.38) that the functions epand p exchange their
roles, as one goes from A' to A". This is a feature which should be useful in
crack analysis.
This section will be concluded with a special problem for which the method
of analytic field continuation yields the solution in closed form. The elastic
domain is the upper half of the z-plane, and the x-axis is its boundary.
Along the interval - 1 < x< 1, referred to as L+, constant traction is pre-
scribed. On the remaining part L of the x-axis the displacements are zero,
i.e., U = v = 0 (Figure 5.4). The problem is to find a field of fmite energy in the

Figure 5.4

domain. The condition on L suggests that the field can be continued into
the lower half-plane. In order to show this, let the functionscj>, p be replaced
by functions p(z), q(z) shown in
2Kep= p-iq, 2p = p+iq; (5.39)
hence for points of the real axis
4J.lW = p- p-i(q-q). (5.40)
The condition on L implies that p and q take real values there. Consequently
p, q, weIl determined by equations (5.39) in the upper half-plane, can be
continued into the lower one by means of the formulas

p(z) = p(z) , q(z) = q(z) . (5.41)

The functions p, q, hence the functions ep, p define a field in the whole plane,
252 Hans F. Bueckner

cut along the interval - 1 < x< 1 on the boundary. In other words : a field
in the domain of the so-called Griffith-crack has been obtained. The faces
of the crack will be distinguished by L+ and L- (Figure 5.5). It will turn out
that the field in the larger domain shows tractions on L-. These tractions are
y

L L
x

Figure 5.5

neither constant nor ofthe regular type in equation (5.21). Turning now to the
stresses on the x-axis in general, one finds that
(5.42)
Now, let a y and '!xy be constant along L+. Introduce the related constant
and real coefficients

(5.43)

The boundary conditions on L+ can be given the form

(1 +A) Re (p' -a)-(l-A) Im(q' -b) = 0
(5.44)
(l-A) Im(p' -a)+(l +A) Re (q' -b) = O.
From this it follows that
Re(p' -a) Im(p' -a)+Re(q' -b) Im(q' -b) = 0, (5.45)
and therefore the function
(5.46)
takes real values on L+. Since R(z) foHows the law R(z)=R(z), R(z) takes
Field singularities and related integral representations 253

the same real value on opposite points of the crack, and R(z) is seen to be
regular analytic in the whole z-plane with the exception of the endpoints
of the crack where it will display the singularities of a meromorphic function.
Now introduce the condition that p, q are holomorphic at infinity. This implies
that R(z) has the same behavior. This circumstance and the condition of
finite energy of the field in the upper half-plane suggest that R (z) is a rational
function of the form

(5.47)

The coefficients Co, Cl' C 2 are to be real. Since p, q admit expansions of the
form
P = Po + -PIz + ... , q = qo + -qlz + ... at z ~ 00 , (5.48)

one can express the Ck in terms ofthe coefficients in equation (5.48). This leads
to
(5.49)
Assurne now a solution A(z), B(z) of the functional equation
A 2 {z)+B 2 {z) = R{z) , (5.50)
where A, Bare to be holomorphic in the slot-domain of Figure 5.5, the point
z = 00 inc1uded, while the faces of the crack are to be disregarded. It is also
required that A (z), B(z) follow the law (5.41), i.e. they have to be real on L
and to take conjugate complex values at conjugate complex points z, Z in
general. Then (at least locally) the most general solution to equation (5.46)
can be given the form
p' (z) = a + A cos S - B sin S ; q' (z) = b + A sin S + B cos S , (5.51)
where S is some analytic function. To find some "'simple" pair A, B satisfying
equation (5.50), introduce the function

T(z) = (Z-l)+
z+ 1 ' (5.52)

with the square-root so taken that T{ (0)= 1. This function satisfies the co nd i-
tions ofregularity as weIl as the law (5.41), demanded of A and B. Setting up
(5.53)
254 Hans F. Bueckner

with constant and real coefficients ai> a2' bi> b 2 , we find that

(5.54)

The right hand side is oftype (5.47). Note that A·and Btake purely imaginary
values on L +, L -. The next step is to find a suitable function S = S(z) following
the law (5.41) and making it possible to satisfy the condition (5.44) on L+.
Since A, Bare imaginary on L+, the boundary condition can be given the
form
(A+iB)(eiS-Ae iS ) = 0 on L+ ; (5.55a)
multiplying this relation by e - iS, we see that
1 ~ A exp (2 Im S) = 0 on L+ , (5.55b)
and S must show a constant imaginary part on L+. A suitable function S is
z-1
S(z) = '}' log --1; '}' = -t log}. = t log K • (5.56)
z+
The log is to be so taken that S (00) = O. The function S is holomorphic in the
slot-domain, the point z = 00 included. The same holds for cos Sand sin S.
As regards the approach to z = 1, z = -1 let
z-1 .
- - = d'e 1t ' d >0 .
z+ 1 (5.57)

Then one can write

eiS = e- yt (cos(')' log d)+i sin('}' log d))
(5.58)
e- iS = e yt (cos(')' log d)-i sin(y log d))
and this shows that cos S, sin S stay bounded as d~O or d~oo.
On L+, L- S, T can be represented in the form

T= +ilTI with ITI =(~+:r ; S=2y log ITI +'}'ni ; (5.59)

upper sign for L+ , lower sign for L- .

It remains to deal with the coefficients ak , b k in equations (5.53). To this end

impose on p', q' by equation (5.51) the conditions that their expansions at
z= 00 begin, due to equations (5.48), with the term in Z-2. This yields two
Field singularities and related integral representations 255

conditions for either function. If one uses the following expansions at

infinity
T(z) = l-l/z+ ... , l/T(z) = 1 + l/z+ ...
(5.60)
S(z)=-2y/z+ ... , cosS=l+ ... , sinS=-2y/z+ ...
wh ich enter the conditions with the explicitly written terms only, then one
obtains:
a 1 +a z +a = 0, -al +a z +2y(b 1 +b z ) = 0
(5.61)
b 1 +b z +b = 0, -2y(a 1 +a Z )-b 1 +b 2 = 0
with the solution

a 1 = -!(a+2yb); az = -Ha-2yb)
(5.62)
b1 = !(2ya-b); b 2 = -!(2ya+b),
whence
A = -!a(T+ 1/T)-yb(T-1/T); B = -!b(T+ 1/T)+ya(T-1/T).
(5.63)

The solution so determined satisfies all conditions and in particular the one
of finite energy. The energy in the whole slot-domain is bounded. To check
the tractions along the x-axis, we observe that

(}y+Ü Xy = !(1 + A)(a+ib)+ (A + iB)(e iS - Ae iS ) for L+, L- (5.64a)

(}y+i-r xy = !(1 + A)(a+ ib) +(A +iB) eiS on L, (5.65)
where
eiS - AeiS = eiS (1- A exp (2 Im S») = 0 on L+
(5.64b)
= (1_A 2 )e iS on L- .

This makes it c1ear that the tractions on L- are neither constant nor of type
(5.21). From equation (5.65) it follows that the stresses do not follow the
asymptotic laws of mode I and 11. Although the field exhibits singularities at
z = + 1, they are not the normal on es described in the theorem.
The conditions (5.44) can also be expressed as integral equations. Setting

p ,()...:...
z - -1 fl - - , q '()
f(t)dt z -_ -1 f1 t , g ()
g(t)dt.,f() t reaI (5.66)
n -1 t-z n -1 t-z
256 Hans F. Bueckner

we make use of the well-known properties of Cauchy integrals according

to which
Im p' (x+) = f(x) , Im q' (x+) = g(x) ; x+ E L+
Re p' (x) = Kf, Re q' (x) = Kg with (5.67)

Kf = CPV !r 1 f(t)dt, etc.

n.1- 1 t-x
Consequently equations (5.44) become equivalent with
(l-A)f + (1 +A)Kg = (1 + Jc)b
(5.68)
(l+A)Kf-(l-J,)g = (l+A)a.
This represents a system oftwo simultaneous* integral equations, each with
the integral operator K. The equations are coupled; they have to be solved
for the two unknown functions f, g; equations (5.68) are a special case ofthe
more general system
l+A
f+7:Kg=ß, g-7:Kf=!Y.; 7:=-1-' (5.69)
-11.

where !Y., ß are functions over the interval - 1 < x< 1. These functions can
represent a traction distribution more general than the one of constant
tractions along L+. One can convert the system into one equation for say f
alone. Substituting 9 into the first equation one obtains
(5.70)
This has the formal appearance of a Fredholm equation, but the appearance
is misleading. What accounts for the results of Fredholm's theory is the
circumstance that the integral operator K 2 is compact. This is not the case
in equation (5.70) where K, in the language offunctional analysis, is bounded
but certainly not compact. This implies phenomena of solvability and of
solutions which are outside of Fredholm's theory. One could develop a
theory of equations (5.69) or (5.70) in analogy to the procedure developed
in [4], and it should be possible to use the already known solution for the
case (5.68) in order to construct the solution in the general case. This ends
the application of the method of field continuation for this section. Another
example will be discussed in section 5.4.
* Such equations have been commonly referred to in the open literature as a system of "dual
integral equations".
Field singularities and related integral representations 257

5.3 Fundamental fields and weight functions

°
Assurne a simply connected domain A with an open crack, extending from
z = along part of the negative x-axis. Figure 5.6 shows such a configuration.
Returning now to the general expansions (5.22) we single out the special case
(5.71)

where the functions CPs' Ps are well-defined in A. Now consider the associated
field in the large. The field displays no tractions along the faces of the crack

~I

Figure 5.6

but there will be tractions on the remaining part B' of the boundary B.
These tractions are well-behaved if B' is smooth enough. They are also self-
equilibrated. In order to verify the latter it is necessary to show that (see [9J)

JB'
dP=O, Re r
JB'
z'dP = 0. (5.72)

By (5.14b) and due to p=!/J+Zcp' it follows that

P= CP+P+(Z-Z)(ß'. (5.73)
258 Hans F. Bueckner

Evidently P vanishes on the crack. Since B' goes from the endpoint of C- to
the endpoint of C+ the first integral in equation (5.72) is indeed zero. Inte-
grate the second integral by parts and the condition becomes (P = 0 at the
endpoints applied)

Re J z dP = - Re
B'
[ P dz = - Re [ P dz .
JB' JB'
But
[ P'dz =
JB'
J {p+(J»)dz + J[ (z~z)d4> = J (p+cp)dz + J (J)dz-cpdz)
B' B' B' B'

where the integral over (z - z) . dcp has been converted by integration by parts
with z - z = 0 at the endpoints taken into account. Since (J) dz - cp dz is
imaginary, it suffices to show that

Re [
JB'
(4)+ p)dz = Re (a+a)' r
JB'
z-tdz = O.

But this is obvious since the integral takes a purely imaginary value.
Now the tractions can be relieved in the customary way. Let therefore
<Pr' Pr determine a regular field with anormal singularity at z = 0, the field
opposing the tractions induced by cp s' Ps on B. Therefore
(5.74)
defines a field with no boundary tractions at all. Due to the nature of equations
(5.71) the field has infinite. energy in any neighborhood of z=O. This field
and also its strong singularity at z = 0 will be called fundamental. All funda-
mental fields in A so defined can be reduced to essentially two fields : One for
a = 1 and one for a = i. All others can be found by linear combination with
constant real combination coefficients.
The construction of a fundamental field makes it clear that an expansion
oftype (5.22) holds with an=O, bn=O for n< -1; the coefficients follow the
rule bn=an for n=odd and b n= -an for n=even.
The fundamental fields permit one to ca1culate the stress intensity factor
of a given regular field in a simple manner. Let the pair CP1' P1 denote a given
regular field with anormal singularity of complex intensity k at z = 0, and
4>2' P2 denote a fundamental field with coefficient a in equations (5.71). The
field quantities will be distinguished by subscripts 1,2 respectively. In what
follows the words "field" and "state" will be used synonymously.
Take now an oriented, piecewise smooth curve ij; in A, going from some
Field singularities and related integral representations 259

r
point to another point (". Along G: the two states exhibit tractions which
attack the material to the left. Consider the case where the tractions of state
4Jk,Pk accomplish work through the displacements of state 4Jm, Pm' This work is
~m = f (t (Xku m+ ~vm)ds = Re L (X +i Y)k(u-iv)m ds

= -Re i L wmdPk = Im L wmdPk ; k, m = 1,2. (5.75)

In particular, consider

(5.76)

which may be written as

Integration by parts leads to

Im J (1\ dP2- P2dP

(t 1) =

= Im P1 P2 I
~"

r
- Im f (P dP +P2dP
(t
2 1 1) = Im P1 P2
~"

r
(5.78)

= Im(iP2 P l-iPl P2)1 ;:' + Im f(P d</>1-P1dif>2)'

2 (5.79)

Furthermore

where g(Z)=Plif>~-P2if>~. The se co nd integral in equation (5.80) has a

vanishing integrand; the first one, in analogy to equation (5.78), can be
given the form
260 Hans F. Bueckner

(5.81)

Putting all the pieces together we obtain

2fLW*((t:)=(K+1)Imf g(z)dz+ImR~" (5.82)

(l; ~'

with

Two special cases of (1: will be considered. If (1: is c10sed then R does not
contribute and

2fLW*((1:) = Im(K+ 1) f g(z)dz;

(l; (1: is c1osed. (5.83)

The integral over g(z) in equation (5.83) does not necessarily vanish, if A
were not simply connected. However if (1: is a Jordan curve whose interior
belongs to A, then by Cauchy's integral theorem W*((1:)=O. This is a special
ca se of Betti's theorem, according to which the work done by the tractions
of state (1) through the displacements of state (2) equals the work which the
tractions of state (2) accomplish through the displacements of state (1).
Next let (1: be a c10sed path (1:', consisting of a circ1e of sufficiently small
radius r around the origin (.2 in Figure 5.6), of the faces outside of !f7 and
of B'. The circ1e goes from a point (+ on C+ to the opposite point (- on C-.
The path (1:' is to bound a simply connected subdomain of A, and this can be
achieved if r > 0 is small enough. Since part of the path is on the boundary
B of A, it is assumed that the relevant field quantities are continuous in the
c10sure of the subdomain so that the preceding formulas stay applicable.
(1:' is so oriented that the interior of the subdomain is to the left. Since
W* ((1:') = 0 it follows that

W*(2) = - W*(B") (5.84)

where B" consists of B' and of C+, C- outside of.2; in other words: B" is
that part of B which lies outside of,2. On B" the fundamental field has no
tractions. Hence

- W*(B") = - Im r· w2 dP1 • (5.85a)

~ B"
Field singularities and related integral representations 261

Ifthe tractions of state (1) along the crack are bounded and continuous, then
W* (B") goes to a limit as r~O, namely

lim W*(B") = Imf W2 dPl ' (5.85b)

r--+O B

An opposing limit must exist for W*(.5f} For small r the behavior of this
integral depends on the dominant terms in the expansions (5.22). These are
k k
cf> 1 ~ 2t zt, Pi ~ 2t zt; ifJ2 ~ az- t , P2 ~ äz- t . (5.86)

Turning first to the term R in the formula (5.82) for the case (l: = ...P, we
observe that P2 = 0 can be assumed along Band in particular on the crack.
Indeed P2 has to be a constant on the boundary. By adding a suitable constant
to CP2' which does not essentially change the field (it amounts to rigid body
motion) one can normalize P 2 to zero. Since Pi -<p~ =151 on the crack,
R=(K+ 1)o/2Pl' As r~O, the product o/2Pl goes to a finite limit, the same
for both sides of the crack. Hence R does not contribute to the limit of
W*(...P). It remains to deal with g(z). On the basis of equations (5.86), it is
found that
kä+Ka
zg(z) ~ - 2.2 t as z~O. (5.87)

Consequently

(5.88)

K+-1 (kä+ka
11m W*(2 = 2 2 n - - ).
• ) 1
(5.89)
r--+O 4p

The coefficient a can be normalized by

2p
a = --1 e where lei = 1 . (5.90a)
K+
In this case the asymptotic behavior of W2 takes the form
(5.90b)
A combination of (5.84), (5.85) and (5.89) leads to the integral formula
262 Hans F. Bueckner

1 f 1 .
Re(ke)=Im 2t ' n B w 2 dP 1 = -2t'nJB(XlU2+YIV2)dS (5.91)

where s denotes the arc1ength on the boundary. In general two fundamental

fieIds are needed in order to determine a complex k. If the boundary dis-
placements of the case e = - 1 are denoted by u~), v~) and those of the case
e = i by u~) and v~), then

Re k - _1_
- 2+. n
f B
(X
1
u(r)
2
+ Y1 v(f»ds
2

(5.92)

As one can see, k l , k 2 appear as weighted averages over the boundary

tractions Xl' Y1 • For this reason the boundary displacements u 2, V2 of the
fundamental states will be referred to as weight functions.
The first formula becomes particularly simple for a domain A, symmetri-
cally shaped with respect to the x-axis and loaded along the crack by normal
tractions of induced nature, as it was indicated in the examples associated
with Figure 5.1. The integrals in equations (5.92) will have contributions
from the crack faces only; moreover C+, C- contribute equally. Let the
crack extend from x= -I to x=O and set (along C+) Y1 =p(x), v2=m(x).
The latter is the normal displacement on C+ and m(x) is so normalized that
asymptotically m(x)=( -x)t near x=O. Under these circumstances k l
becomes

k1 = -
2+fO p(s) m(s)ds . (5.93a)
n -I

Formulas (5.92) are not changed if one superimposes a rigid body motion on
either field. Such a motion for the fundamental field adds nothing to the
integral since the tractions of state (1) are naturally seIf-equilibrated. There-
fore the normalization P2 = 0 on B is no limitation of the validity of formulas
(5.92).
While it was assumed that the crack leaves the origin in the direction ofthe
negative x-axis, the basic results are not confined to such a configuration.
Equations (5.92) can be easily adjusted to a situation where ( by equation
(5.11) replaces z. To take an example, reference is made to Figure 5.1. Here
(5.93a) applies in the form
Field singularities and related integral representations 263

2t
k 1 = _. f-c g(x)m(x)dx, (5.93b)
n -b

with m(x) re1ated to the fundamental field whose fundamental singularity is

at z = - c rather than z = O. Expansions (5.22) take the modified form
00 00

<ft(z) = L an(z+c)tn , p(z) = L bn(z+c)tn (5.22a)

n= -1 n= -1

for the fundamental fields ; for fie1ds with anormal singularity at z = - c the
coefficients a_ 1 , b _ 1 vanish.
y

/
x

Figure 5.7

So far only the configuration of an open crack has been considered. Let
now the crack be inside, as shown in Figure 5.7. Let the crack be again on
the negative x-axis, extending from x = -1 to x = O. Let the domain A become
simply connected if the crack were removed. Set

l+z)t I+Z)t
(,Ds(z) = a(T ' Ps(z) - Cl ( T (5.94)

These functions are weIl defined in A. The associated field has the asymptotic
behavior of equations (5.71) as z~O; it induces no tractions along the faces
of the crack. But there are boundary tractions on B'. As before they can be
relieved by an additional field, regular and with normal singularities at
z = 0, z = - 1. Let (,D r' Pr denote the functions of that field. N ow compose
(5.95)
264 Hans F. Bueckner

in analogy to equations (5.74). Again the associated field will be called funda-
mental with a fundamental singularity at z = O. It has anormal singularity at
z= -1; it has no boundary tractions on C+, C-, B'. With insignificant
modifications, the procedure marked by the formulas (5.75)-(5.89) can be
repeated. In the end it turns out that the formulas (5.92) are valid as before.
All of this can be generalized. The reader will find the extension to analytic
cracks in [5J ; the same reference deals with loads on the crack more general
than the one given by equations (5.21). General multiply connected and also
infinite domains A are also covered. But this is not the end of it. One can
extend the definition of the fundamental field as weIl as its applications to

Figure 5.8

the case, where boundary conditions on B, pertaining to tractions, are at

least partially changed into geometrie conditions on the displacements. In
view of the implications of the half-plane problem treated in section 5.2 one
must exc1ude a neighborhood of the root of the crack from geometrie
conditions. Finally one can deal with fields which have more than one
fundamental singularity. Assurne for instance a cascade of cracks as shown
in Figure 5.8. Let d be the pitch of the cascade and assurne that all cracks
are identically loaded, the load consisting of normal tractions of induced
nature. The stress field will have period d with respect to y; the displacements
Field singularities and related integral representations 265

can be expected to stay bounded as lxi-+- 00, for the same approach let the
stresses go to zero.
Under these circumstances one should look for a fundamental field of the
same features, the fundamental singularities to be at the points Z = ndi,
n running through all integers. Take now the period strip - td:::;; y:::;; td. If
(t consists of the two straight lines y = + td, then v = 0, r xy = °
on (t and
W* ((t) = 0. Hence equations (5.92), applied to the strip, stay valid with B
replaced by the two crack faces in the strip.
We turn to the means of finding weight functions. To begin with, equations

°
(5.94) can be identified as the exact description offundamental states for the
domain of the Griffith crack, the crack to occupY the interval -I< x< of
the real axis. Hence equation (5.93) takes the special form

2t CO
k 1 = -; J _I
(I+X)}
W p(x) dx . (5.96)

The same formula was given by Barenblatt [10J who derived the value of k
from a direct representation of the actual field responding to the tractions
on the crack. As I-+- 00 the domain becomes that of the z-plane cut along the
negative x-axis. The functions (5.94) take the form (5.71), and the latter are
(obvious anyway) the functions of the fundamental fields. The weight
function is m=lxl- t .
In order to obtain weight functions in other cases one can resort to at
least three different methods:
(1) Compute the functions <fJr, Pr. This is a common problem of elasticity;
any method suitable to deal with the problem offinding the field for prescribed
traction on the boundary can be employed, in particular the methods of
collocation, of finite elements and those which bear the names of Ritz and
Galerkin. Note that the effort is not greater than that of finding k for a
particular problem, while the result permits us to compute k for all other
problems by way of equations (5.92).
(2) Parameter differentiation with respect to c in (5.22a) can be used.
Assurne here a fixed load on the boundary with a fixed function f(x) in
equation (5.21) prescribed. Look for a regular field with anormal singularity
at x = - c and consider the approach c-+-o. In accordance with the theorem
one writes
00 00

</J(z, c) = L an(c)(z+c)tn ; p(z, c) = L bn(c)(z+c)tn . (5.97a)

n=l 1
266 Hans F. Bueckner

Differentiation with respect to c leads to a field with vanishing boundary

tractions, while

(5.97b)

indicate that o</>/oc and op/oc at c=O represent a fundamental field with the
singularity at z=O. As an example consider the problem of finding m(x) for
the half-plane -1< xwith an edge crack from x = - 1 to x = 0 on the real
axis (Figure 5.9).

X=-1

Figure 5.9

Let the crack be under constant pressure p= 1 and assume the normal
displacement v(x) on C+ to be known for this very case. Then

(x+C)
v(x,c)=(l-c)v. l-c (5.98)
Field singularities and related integral representations 267

for the ca se tha t the roo t is at x = - e rather than x = 0, the crack to be again
under constant pressure p= 1. Equation (5.98) is due to the circumstances
that the two crack configurations are geometrically and dynamically
similar. The procedure of differentiation leads to
ov(x, e)
oe = (l+x)v'(x)-v(x) at e=O; (5.99)

consequently

11m(X) = (l+x)v'(x)-v(x) (5.100)

with a normalizing factor 11 such that m(x)~lxl-t near x=O.

If one writes v(x)=( -x)t·qo(x) then

m(x) = (1-x)qo+2x(1 +x)q~ (5.101)

qo(O)( -x)t
In earlier numerical computations qo(x) was approximated by a polynomial
of degree 3 ; a corresponding approximation to m(x) can be found in Appendix
II.
(3) In some cases and at least for the computation of m(x) integral equa-
tions play an important and natural role. The relevant features of this
method will be shown for the case of the Griffith crack with 1=1. It is useful
to assume that the normal displacement v(x) on C+ ofthe crack is known
under the assumption that the latter is under normal tractions p(x) such that
O"y=-p(x) on both faces. Assuming c/>(z)=p(z) and also c/>(z)=c/>(z) we
ascertain from the very beginning that 1:' xy = 0 on the crack. Furthermore
d
p(x) = - dx 2 Re <p on the faces. (5.102)

The displacement becomes

2f-lw = K<p - qJ on C+, c- (5.103a)

whence
K+1
v(x) = 2;- Im <p on C+ . (5.103b)

Prescribing v (x) thus amounts to prescribing Im <p = nq(x) on C+. This deter-
mines <p (z) as the Cauchy integral
268 Hans F. Bueckner

(5.104)

This leads to the equation

p(x) = - ~ CPV JO 2q(t)dt. (5.105)

dx -1 t-x '
It has nontrivial solutions in the homogeneous case p = 0, and they furnish
the two weight functions associated with the crack, namely one with the
singularity of the corresponding fundamental field at z = 0 and one with
the singularity at z = - 1. It is weIl known that R(t) = [ - t(l + t) J1 satisfies
the equation
dt
CPV fo
()( _ ) = 0 for -1< x< O.
~_lRt t x
(5.106)

Using this relation one can easily show that the functions

R 2 (t) = 1jR 1 (t) (5.107)

satisfy

CPV
~-1
fO R 1 (t)dt =
t-x
n; CPV fO-l R:~~dt - - n , (5.108)

and therefore R l , R 2 are nontrivial solutions of (5.105) for p-O.

Set now

g(x) . f~ 1 p(t)dt .

Then integration of equation (5.105) with respect to x yields

,,0 q(t)dt
CPV = -!(g(x)+c o) = h(x) (5.109)
--1 t-x
where Co is some integration constant. The commonly known solution to
equation (5.109) is

_
q (t ) -
1 (
+
CP JO R(x) h(X)dX) (5.110)*
n 2R()
t Cl V
-1 t-x .

* Frorn here on the sign CPV will be ornitted.

Field singularities and related integral representations 269

Here Cl is an arbitrary constant. One can use the constants co, Cl in order to
impose two conditions on q (t). One finds the following limit relations:

!~~ J~l R~x2:(x) dx = f~l RI(x)h(x)dx = h l

(5.111 )
R(x) h(x)
_0 JO
~~~1 J-1 t-x dx = -1 R 2 (x)h(x)dx = h2 •

Now if one wishes to impose the conditions q(O)=q( -1)=0, then it follows
that Cl + h l = 0, Cl - h 2 = 0 and thus h 1 + h 2 =0 which in turn is equivalent
with

J o
-1
h(x)dx
R(x)
= 0
.
(5.112)

This yields exactly one value of Co, and this determines h l , h 2 as weIl as Cl.
There is then exactly one solution to equation (5.105) with q(O)=q( -1)=0.
This solution leads to a regular state with normal singularities at z = 0, Z = - 1.
This result can also be reinterpreted in the following way: Let q(t)=q*(t) be
some particular solution to equation (5.105); then the general solution is
q(t)=q*(t)+d 1 R I (t)+d 2 R 2 (t), and one can fix the arbitrary constants
d l , d 2 in order to impose the conditions that q(t) vanish at the eq.dpoints.
In more general situations one meets integral equations ofthe more general
type
d- b
p(x) = dx.J a L(x, t) q(t)dt (5.113)

where L(x, t) is a singular kernei, similar in nature to the one in equation

(5.105). The phenomena, associated with the homogeneous case p(x)=O, are
the same as those shown for equation (5.105). Because of the importance of
such equations for the calculation ofweight functions we shall devote all of
the next section to integral equations.
This section will be concluded with some remarks on the function m(x).
Is this function always positive? The ans wer is affirmative for the two
examples above, and in general m(x) > 0 for at least small lxi. Linked to
this question and perhaps even more important is this one: Let m1 (x),
m2 (x) pertain to two domains Al' A 2 of which Al is contained in A 2 as
shown in Figure 5.10. Let the cracks be open, and let the one of Albe part
ofthe crack of A 2. One would expect m1(x) ~m2(x) for all x on the crack of
270 Hans F. Bueckner"

Al' since in the case ofloading the crack interval of Al by pressure one would
think that the notch of Al would open up more than the one in A z. Now a
partial answer to the q uestion will be given. In accord with the theorem the
y

Figure 5.10

two weigh t functions have expansions in odd powers of ( - x)t,

mk(x) = Ixl-t + cklxl t + ... for small lxi ; (5.114)
the leading terms of the associated functions are given by
2/1
c = K+ 1" (5.115)

Now the difference state defined by 4> = 4>z - 4>1' P = pz - P1 has anormal
singularity at z=O with k 1 =2+'(c Z -c 1 ), The use of formula (5.92) gives

2n(c1~cZ) = - f
BI
[(XZ-Xl )U1+(YZ-Yl )V1]ds (5.116)

where Xz, Yz is the traction, induced by field (4)z, pz) on the boundary of Al;
Xl and Yl vanish on the boundary of Al' Let now U z, Vz denote the displace-
ments of field (2) on B l • Then equation (5.116) can be written in the form

2n(c l -c 1) = f [(XZ-Xl)(U1-U1)+(Y1-Y1)(V1-V1)]ds

J
BI
(5.117)
+ [(X1 -X1)U1+(Y1- Y1)V1]ds.
BI

In this representation the first integral is twice the energy of the difference
Field singularities and related integral representations 271

field in Al while the secünd integral is twice theenergy üf state (2) in the
dümain A z -Al (nüte that state (2) has nü tractiüns ün the büundary üf A z).
Altügether it is füund that
(5.118)
which means that at least für small lxi the functiün ml is larger than the
functiün m z. If üne takes für A z the whüle plane cut alüng the negative
x-axis then C z = 0 and hence Cl> O.
If this result can be made müre general then üne cüuld cünstruct upper and
lo~ver büunds für m(x) by bracketing the dümain A between dümains with
well-knüwn weight functiüns. The result (5.118) can be extended tüwards
üther cünfiguratiüns, in particular thüse with interiür cracks.

5.4 Integral equations for various configurations

Adhering tü müde I we shall discuss certain integral equatiüns üftype (5.105).

Let us begin with the derivatiün üf twü special ünes, pertaining tü an array
üfradial cracks. Figure 5.11 shüws a set üfn cracks Co, Cl' ... , Cn - 1 ; Co
y

Figure 5.11

is ün the real x-axis extending früm x=a tü x=b, where 0< a< b< 00.
C k is übtained by rütating Co arüund the ürigin in the cüunterc1ückwise
sense thrüugh the angle 2nk/n. All cracks are assumed tü be under nürmal
pressure, and the pressure distributiün alüng a crack is the same für all üf
272 Hans F. Bueckner

them. The condition for Co can be written in the usual form

Cf y = - g(x) ;T xy = 0 on Cci and Ce; . (5.119)
The functions </>, l/J are particularly suited to analyze the situation. In order
to express the same way of loading all cracks, it is necessary to write
</>(eZ) = ecf>(Z); l/J{eZ) = el/J(z); e = exp(2nijn) . (5.120)
This yields for the complex displacement
W(eZ) = eW(Z) . (5.121)
Relation (5.121) is necessary to obtain the desired state of deformation in
the plane. Since Co is on the real axis, one has, in addition to (5.120)
(5.122)
The functions, </>, l/J are required to be holomorphic at infinity. Introduce
the function w(Z)=Z</>'_cf>+l/J, a function also following the law (5.121) but
not (5.120). Then the conditions (5.119) can be expressed in the following
form:
d
-g(x) = dx Re (2</>+w) , (5.123a)
and
T xy = Im (z</>" + l/J') = Im (z</>" + I/J') = Im w' = 0 on Co, (5.123b)
which leads to the working hypothesis that w(z) be real on Co, continuous
across the crack and thus holomorphic in the domain of Figure 5.11 with
Co removed.
The functions </>, l/J can be represented by the Cauchy integral formula
where the integration pertains to all cracks. By virtue of equations (5.120)
the integration can be reduced to an integral over Co only and final1y, due
to (5.122), to one on Cci alone. The outcome is of the form
'b nztn-2 tl-i e2k
</>(z) = J Kdz, t)h 1 (t)dt, K i = tn_zn k~0 -te--;-k---z
(5.124)
a
.b
I/J(z) = Ja K 2(z, t)h 2(t)dt, (5.125)

Here the functions nh i , nh 2 represent the imaginary parts of cf>, l/J respectively
on Cci. The reality and regularity of w on points of Co permits us to set from
nowon
Field singularities and related integral representations 273

h 1 (t) = q(t) , h 2 (t) = q(t) - tq' (t) . (5.126)

Formulas (5.124), (5.125) are restricted to points z not on a crack. Ifz is on

a crack face the Plemelj formulas on Cauchy integrals must be used.
Relations (5.126) imply in particular

2.uv(x) = (K+ l)q{x) for the normal displacement v on ct ,

while for points z not on a crack:

ljJ(z) = fb Ki(z, t)q(t)dt with Kj = K 2+ :t (tK z )· (5.127)

a

Equation (5.127) is due to integration by parts with respect to the q'-term in

(5.125) with q(a)=q(b)=O assumed. Similarly one can write

u//(z)-c/J(z) = J: K1(z, t)(tq'-q)dt= - f: Ki(z, t)q(t)dt

with (5.128)
Kr = K 1 ~ (tK 1)·
+ et
(5.123a) can be given the equivalent form

-g(x) = ddx {2 f: K 1 qdt + ((Kz-K1)(q-tq')dt}. (5.129)

While K 1 is a singular integral operator the difference K z -K 1 takes the

form of a smooth function of x and t, namely
x n - Z _ tn - Z
K z -K 1 =K o = - n x - - - - (5.130)
xn-rn
Therefore the use of equations (5.127), (5.128) can be extended to points of
Co inasmuch as K o is concerned. Introduce KÖ =Ki - Kr, and equation
(5.129) can be written as t

-g(x) = :x ([2K 1(X, t)+Kö(x, t)Jq(t)dt. (5.131)

This is an integral equation for q if g(x) is prescribed. It is slightly more

general than the type (5.105). For n= 1 the equations are the same. The
above equation was derived to determine a regular state with normal
singularities only. Obviously equation (5.131}can also beused todeal with the
274 Hans F. Bueckner

homogeneous case 9 - O. If one lifts the restriction that q vanish at the end-
points two kinds of weight functions are obtained: One associated with
singularities at Izl = a and one for singularities at Izl = b simultaneously on
all cracks.
y

..'
~\
\
,..... r"-,
/"'~ r--, Ill='
/ [\
I
v-co
I ----
----
I x

\ V
. . . ."./J...... v . ·. y
"
""
l.

Figure 5.12

Let ab = 1 and modify the problem above by confining the cracks to the
unit disk Izl = 1 (Figure 5.12). Conditions (5.119), (5.120), (5.122) shall stay
the same; g(x) is of course restricted to the parts C~ (ofthe original cracks C k )
in the disko The disk boundary Izl = 1 is to be free from traction. Because of
this circumstance one can expect that the field can be analytically continued
into the domain of Figure 5.11. It will turn out that certain allowances must
be made. To be cautious the continued field functions 4>, if.t will not be
required to be holomorphic at infinity. Now consider P on the circular
boundary where
P=<p+z4>'+if.t=<P+Z-l4>'(z}+if.t(z) since Z=Z-l. (5.132)
Furthermore, as a consequence of equation (5.122),
4>(z) = 4>(z) = 4>(l/z) on Izi = 1 . (5.133)
Since P=O can be assumed without essentialloss of generality, the contin-
uation rules •
4> (l/z) = -if.t(z)-4>'(z)/z; if.t(l/z) = -4>(z)-z4>'(l/z). (5.134)
can be derivedfrom equations(5.132)and(5.133). Theseformulaepermitus to
continue the field into the exterior of the disko The function w (z) above takes
the form
w(z) = (z -l/z) 4>'(z) - 4> (z)- 4> (l/z) . (5.135)
As before this function has to be holomorphic in the domain (of the disk this
Field singularities and related integral representations 275

time) without C~. On the latter it is real-valued. Relations (5.126), restricted

to C~, describe as before the relation between q (the imaginary part of </» and
the imaginary part of t/I on Cci. A new feature is that the regularity of </>,
t/I at z=O imply the behavior </>(z)~ -q/(O)z as z--+oo.
A slight deviation from the procedure of the first problem is made by
setting up right away

</>(z) = s: M(z, t)q(t)dt; t/I(z) = ( N(z, t)q(t)dt. (5.136)

Note that both equations pertain to q(t). M, N are assumed to behave like
K h Ki respectively inside the disko Consequently M must have simple and
N double poles at the points t< 1 of Co. They will also have poles on the
cracks C k outside the disk; otherwise </>, t/I would be regular for Izl > 1 which
is not in accord with the rules (5.134). The relation
N(z, t) = -M(1/z, t)-M'(z, t)/z, (5.137)
is specified in accordance with (5.134); the prime denotes differentiation
with respect to z. Introducing the analogue of (J) as
Q(z, t)=(z-1/z)M'(z, t)-M(z, t)-M(1/z, t) (5.138)
we require that this function be regular at any point z = t on Due to Co.
the representation (5.124) the function M is constructed by adding a special
rational function of z to K 1 :
zf'- 2 A (t) B(t) ]
M(z, t) = n [ -n--n
t -z + z 1 -tnzn + z (1 - f' zn)2 + CZ . (5.139)

This function has simple poles at the points z = ekt as required; at the points
Z=ek/t allowance must be made for double poles since otherwise N(z,t)
might not have a double pole at z= t. But more than double poles are not
admissible. An attempt is now made to find functions A(t), B(t) and a
constant c, such that Q is regular as required. The term cz is necessary in
order to enforce regularity of N (z, t) at z = O. The following formulas list
pertinent terms with respect to the point t on C~:
ztn- 2 tn - 2 Zn tn - 2
M/n = -n--n
t -Z
+ ... ; M'/n = -n--n
t -Z
+ n (n
t -~
)2 + ...
(5.140)
Zn-l Z2n-l
M(l/z, t)/n = -A tn_zn + B (t n _zn)2 + ...
276 Hans F. Bueckner

It must be required that

(t n _zn )[(z-l/z)M'(z, t)-M(z, t)-M(l/z, t)] ---+ 0 as z---+ t. (5.141)
This condition yields at once
t 2 -1
B=n-- (5.142)
t2
as a necessary condition to remove the double pole of Q at z = t. The unknown
A can now be so determined that the simple pole left over is also destroyed.
This leads to
A = 2':"-n+(n+ 1)t- 2 • (5.143)
Finally c is found as
2 1+t
C=---2-' (5.144)
t
The verification of equations (5.143) and (5.144) is an elementary exercise left
to the reader. The functions M and N satisfy all conditions imposed above.
This is obvious. It remains to write down the analogue of equation (5.105) in
explicit form. The result is

-g(x) = d~' { { [2M(x, t)+Q(x, t)]q(t)dt}. (5.145)

That q(x) has the meaning (5.126) follows from the already demonstrated
behavior of the component K 1 of M.
The equation leads to a regular field with anormal singularity at z = a on
Co if one imposes the condition q (a) = O. If one lifts the condition one obtains
weight functions as solutions of the homogeneous case g=O. In order to
find the normali~ed weightfunction one should set q(t)=(t-a)--t+qo(t).
This leads to an inhomogeneous equation for qo(t), the latter to be solved
under the condition qo(a)=O. The numerical computation of qo(t) canfollow
any method designed for solving singular integral equations. F ormula
(5.93b) is applicable with the integration to go over the interval (a, 1). This
yields immediately the value of k 1 for any of the n cracks. The same applies
to the configuration of Figure 5.11.
While ab = 1 was assumed for simplicity, the pertinent equations of the
disk problem can be easily transformed to any disk radius r = (ab )-t. In
addition one can apply a shift transformation. Both steps will be combined.
Field singularities and related integral representations 277

We employ in particular a transformation from z to ,= r(z -1). Prescribe

some d > 0, 0: < 0 and set r = nd/2n and a = 1 - o:/r. If n - 00 then Figure 5.12
changes into Figure 5.13 ofthe '-plane. The limit procedure can be applied to
the integral equation for q and leads to an equation which links q and 9 to
one another. This equation governs the cascade of edge cracks of Figure 5.13.

Figure 5.13

A similar procedure can be applied to Figure 5.11, so as to obtain the

cascade of Figure 5.8 as weIl as the associated integral equation. The latter
will be pursued in some detaiL N ow set a = 1 -l/r, b = 1 ; I takes the place
of 0:; the definition of , and r stay unchanged. The limit procedure yields
precisely the cascade of Figure 5.8.
Now if one deals quite generally with equations of the type (5.113), which
can be rewritten in the form

g(x) = :x J: L(x, t) q(t)dt , (5.146)

where q(t) is related to the normal displacement on a crack by equation

(5.126) and where g(x) describes the normal traction, then any transformation
of the type
(5.147)
278 Hans F. Bueckner

leads to an integral equation of the form

d fP -
g(~) = d~ L(~, -r)q(-r)d-r,
(l (5.148)

where tX, ß are related to a, b by equations (5.147). If one wishes to retain the
meaning of q(t) in equation (5.126), then one must set
(5.149)
in order to make 9 (~) the normal traction on the transformed crack.
Applying the last result to equation (5.131) for 1>0 which can be any
number, one can set d = n without loss of generality. This leads to x = 1 + 2~/n,
t=1+2-r/n. Hence it is observed from equation (5.131) that
a
L(x, t) = - 2K 1 (x, t) - Kö (x, t) = - 2K 2 (x, t) - t at Ko(x, t) , (5.150)
L(~, -r) = 2~-4S" with (5.151)
,,-1
S = _x__
" t"-x'"

x = 1 + 2~/n , t = 1 + 2r/n .

Dealing with S" first we apply the well-known formula eS = lim (1 + s/n)"
as n-H:t). This yields at once

(5.152)

More attention should be given to

~=(1+2~/n)(1+2r/n)ar zn
. a {l (1+2~/n)"-2-(1+2r/n)"-2}
(1+2~/n)"-(1+2r/n)" . (5.153)
This is identical with

~ = (1 + 2~/n)(1 + 2r/n) :r Q with

Q = 1. n (1+2~/n)"[1+4-r/n+4(r/n)2J-(1+2r/n)"[1+4~/n+4(~/n)2J
z [(1+2~/n)"-(1+2-r/n)"J(1+2~/n)Z(1+2r/n)z·

_1. 2-r(1+2~/n)"-~(1+2-r/n)" O( -1).

-zn+ (1+2~/n)"-(1+2r/n)" + n ,~i=r.
Field singularities and related integral representations 279

Here the additive constant !n is destroyed by the differentiation 8j8-r and

for the explicitly written middle term one can go to the limit as in equation
(5.152). Consequently

Altogether

L(~, -r) = -2 [ctgh(-r-~)-2 + :-r (-r-~) ctgh(-r-~)J . (5.155)*

and equations (5.148), (5.155) constitute the integral equation for the cascade
of Figure 5.8 if one identifies the coordinates x, y in the future with ~, 11
respectively.
In a similar vein L(~, -r) for the cascade of edge cracks can be found. The
steps are basically the same and naturally more laborious. This goal will
not be pursued in this chapter. A few remarks are still in order. F or n = 1 the
cascade of edge cracks reduces to a single edge crack as shown in Figure 5.9.
Here the L is obtained by letting r---* 00, while d plays no role. The outcome
is known, and with respect to Figure 5.9 the operator L in equation (5.146)
takes the form

L(x t) = _-_2 + 2 + -:-4---,(,--1_+--,x)-:-;:- 8(1 +X)2

(5.156)**
, t-x t+x+2 (t+X+2)2 (t+X+2)3 .

A reasonable approximation to the weight function for this case can be found
in Appendix II. It was obtained by the method of parameter differentiation.
The method employed to attack the problem of the disk with radial notches
is equally applicable to the "inverse" geometry, i.e. to the plane with a
circular hole, from which radial notches enter the elastic domain. F or the
case of just one such notch (Figure 5.14) the operator L is

L(x,t)= __2_
t-x
+ ~ _ x 2-1 ~[X2(X2_1) ~(_X_)J
tx-1 x2 dx dx tx-1
_ 2
2(x -1).
xt 2
(5.157)**
Before leaving the subject of radial notches one should observe that equa-
tion (5.145) and the special cases derived from it are equally valid if the
* In view ofthe ~-difTerentiation in equation (5.148) the constant term can be dropped.
** The integral equations were first published by Wigglesworth [l1J and independently by
the author [2J who also used them in connection with the k l-computation for a notched rotor [3J.
280 Hans F. Bueckner

cracks are inside, i.e. not running up to the edge. Thus if the integration in
(5.147) is restricted to the interval (a, c) with a< c< 1, a relation is obtained
expressing the normal displacement in terms of the normal traction along
radial slots of which the one on the x-axis has endpoints a and c. In this case
there are two weight functions, one of them with a fundamental singularity
at x = a and another one at x = c. Consider now the case of a half-plane with

y /////
/ -" ./

///~~
/;::.~

W
x

/
Figure 5.14

an inner crack. Let the half-plane be bounded by x = 0 and notched from

x = 1 to the right up to infinity. The integral equation is

g(x) =
d
dx foo
1 L(x, t) q(t)dt ;

2
L= - - - + -2- + ----::-
4x
t-x t+x (t+X)2

In the homogeneous case we set q(t) = m(t}. Introduce new variables ~ = I/x,
T = l/t, then the following relations emerge:

1 _ 2 [ - ~ ~ 2~ _ 4~! ]
zL(x,t)-! T(~-T) + T(~+T) + (~+T)2 (~+!)3
-~ -1 1
!(~-T) ~-! T
!~
(~+!)3
-
- (~+T)2
~ (1 - -~)
~+!

-1
~
---:--~= -- + -1 .
!(~+!) ~+! !
Field singularities and related integral representations 281

With the aid of them we find at once that

-r 2 L(x, t) = -L(~, -r).
Consequently the homogeneous equation changes into

o= d
d~
J10 L(~, -r)m(1/r)dr,
and the weight function for the half-plane with an infinitely deep notch is
simply
m(t) = m* (1/t) , m* (t) = weight function for half-plane with edge notch.
This section will be concluded with adescription of the integral equation for
the notched bar. Details have been already published [6J.
y

I r I
I I I
I I I
X=-2 X=-l X"'l IX=2 I X-3 IX-4
I I I
I I I
I I 1
I I I
x•
c::::==:::::> c::::==:::::> t - - - t - - - + +~
--~
a b
c:=:=)
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I 1
I I
I

Figure 5.15

Let the bar occupy the domain of the strip - 1 ~ x ~ 1 of the complex
z-plane. The crack lies on the real axis, and occupies the interval a ~ x ~ b
such that - 1 ~ a< b< 1. The case a = -1 refers to an edge crack. The
operator L(x, t) is representable in the following form:
a
L(x, t) = -2<f;(x, t) - -a K(x, t) (5.158)
t
where <f;(x, t) refers to the values on the crack interval ofthe analytic function
282 Hans F. Bueckner

n n
ep(z, t) = ~4 [cot 4~ (t-z)+cot ~4 (2- t-z)] = 2" cos 2" z ; a< t< b.
.n.n
sm-t-sm-z
2 2
(5.159)
The functions ep(z, t) and r/t(z, t)=ep-zep' are c10sely related to the row of
collinear cracks obtained from the one in the bar by certain shifts and reflec-
tions, as indicated in Figure 5.15. The shifts are by 4n in the x-direction, n
running through all integers, and the reflections are with respect to the lines
x = 2n + 1. If all the cracks so obtained are loaded by normal tractions
g(t) where g(t+4n)=g(t) and g(2-t)=g(t) then

ep(z) = J: ep(z, t) q(t)dt , r/t = ep - zep' (5.160)

are the related field functions, q having the meaning of equation (5.126).
Hence a special periodic field with period 4 with respect to the x-coordinate
is obtained. Integral equation

g(x) = - 2 J: ep(x, t} q(t}dt (5.161)

characterizes this case. The solution of this equation is weIl known. In the
case a = - 1 it is found that, with p = r/t + z ep', a fundamental state is defined
by

1 (cos ±n(z+b})+ (5.162)

ep=p=cos"4n(z-b} . 1 ( b)
sm"4n z-
It has its fundamental singularities at the points b + 4n. The field has period 4
and is therefore applicable to collinear cracks with the same period. The
corresponding weight function is listed in Appendix 11.
The function K (x, t) in equation (5.158) is obtained by relieving the
tractions of the field (5.160) on the bar boundaries lxi = 1 with the crack
ignored. This process does not change v(x) on the upper side of the crack.
In order to relieve the tractions a Fourier-transform can be employed. The
outcome is

(5.163)

with
Field singularities and related integral representations 283

Pl (A) = sinh 2A+2A, P2 (A) = sinh 2A-2A

H l (t, A) = (1- t) sinh (1 + t)A-(1 + t)·sinh(l- t)A
. 2 0 (sinh tA)
= -2 smh ), OA sinh A

H2 (t, A) = (l-t) sinh(l+t)A+(I+t) sinh(l-t)A

_ -2
-
h2"
COS Il
0 (COShh Oe)
'"' 1 1 •
OA COS A

These functions have the t-derivatives

i
::l
H 1 (t, A') = _ 2 SIn
. h2 1
A::l ,
~( }e cosh
• h 1
tA)
ut u/, SIn A

oto H2 (t, A) = 2 0 ()' sinh tA)

-2 cosh A OA cosh ), .

The integral (5.163) can be reduced to integrals which depend on one param-
eter only. Indeed one may write
2 Hk (x, A) Hk(t, A) = (1- x)(l- t) [cosh (2+x + t)A-cosh(x- t)A] +
+ (1 + x)(1 + t) [cosh (2 - x - t)A -cosh (x - t)A] +
+8(I-x)(1 + t) [cosh(2+x- t)A-cosh(x+t)A] +
+8(1 +x)(l- t) [cosh(2-x + t)A- cosh(x+ t)A] ,
15.164)
where 8= -1 for k= 1 and 8= 1 for k=2.
It is now obvious that it suffices to deal with the integrals

()= fCXl (cosh 'rA-l)AdA Q ( ) = fIX> (cosh 'rA-l)AdA (5.165)

Ql 'r 0 P1 (A) sinh 2 A ' 2 'r 0 P2 (A) cosh 2 A '
where ITI < 4. For practical reasons it is preferable to represent K(x, t) by
means of

4Fl (T) = f~ (pdA) !inh2 ). - 8e- 4l) (cosh TA-I) AdA,

(5.166)

F * ('r) _2
-
f CXl
o
e- 4l (
cosh 'r). - 1) AdA -_ ( 1 )2 + ( 1 )2 - -81 .
T-4 T+4
284 Hans F. Bueckner

Since, for A~ co,

P C) 1. h Z A - 8e
-4'
"=O(Jee
-6'
,,), ,
1
z - 8e- 4 ;·=Op"e- 6 ;.)
. I ;. sm Pz (;.) cosh A (5.167)
the integrals offer the advantage that F I (r), F z (r) are holomorphic for Irl < 6.
Tables for the functions F I , F z can be found in Appendix 11. The tables also
show the values oftwo polynomials GI> G z for comparison. These have the
form
k = 1,2. (5.168)
It appears that Gk is an acceptable approximation to Fk , at least for engineering
applications.
The function K(x, t), due to (5.163) is easily expressed with the aid ofthe
functions FI , F z and F*.
Writing
K(x, t) = K I (x, t)+Kz{x, t)+K*(x:, t) (5.169)
where K I , K z, K* represent the contributions of Fi> Fz , F* respectively,
we obtain
!KI(x, t) = (1-x)(1-t)[F I (2+x+t)-F I (x-t)]-
- (l-x)(l + t) [F I (2+x- t)-FI (x + t)] +
+ (1+x)(1+t)[Fr{2-x-t)-F1 (x-t)]-
- (1+x)(1-t)[F1 (2-x+t)-F I {x+t)] ,

!Kz(x, t)= (1-x)(1-t)[F z (2+x+t)-Fz (x-t)] +

+ (1+x)(1+t)[Fz (2-x-t)-Fz (x-t)] +
+ (1- x)(l + t) [Fz (2+x - t)- Fz (x + t)] +
+ (1+x)(1-t)[F2 {2-x+t)-Fz (x+t)] ,
iK*(x, t) = (1-x)(1-t)[F*(2+x+t)-F*(x-t)] +
+ (1 +x)(l + t)[F*(2-x+ t)-F*(x- t)] . (5.170)

It was already suggested in connection with Figure 5.12 how to solve the
associated integral equation. The computation of the weight function is
reduced to the computation of a function qo(t) which itself determines a
regular state with anormal singularity. Ai; for qo any method designed to
Field singularities and related integral representations . 285

deal with singular integral equations is reasonable. Since the theorem on

the expansions of 4>, p implies expansions of type (5.114), more specifically
(5.114) in odd powers oflxl t (ifthe root ofthe crack is at x=O), it is useful to
set up
(5.171)
where Q(t) is an ordinary power series which converges best where it is most
needed, namely at the root ofthe crack. Q(t) will even converge in any disk
which can be placed inside the elastic domain without exceeding the elastic
domain without the crack. Thus the disk radius is b + 1 in the ca se of the
notched bar. At least for b ~ 0 the se ries Q(t) must converge along the crack,
the point z= -1 possibly exc1uded. Even for b >0 one can, by slight modifi-
cation, ass ure convergence if one replaces x by ~, where ,= ~ + il1 is related
to z by the simple transformation
z-b
, = I-bz' (5.172)

If instead of Q(t) one uses apower series in ~, then convergence will hold
along the whole crack. This justifies more than enough the approach (5.171).
F or practical reasons one will approximate Q by a polynomial and determine
its coefficients by any procedure of satisfying the integral equation, in
particular by collocation or least squares. In the present computation a low
order polynomial has always been sufficient. The theorem and equation
(4.114) explain why the approach has to be successful.

5.5 Special fields in three dimensions

Here the attention will be centered on how to generalize the concept and
use of fundamental fields, as they were defined for states of plane strain. To
begin with consider a "simple" generalization ofthe Griffith crack. Cartesian
rectangular coordinates x, y, z will be adopted. We assume a crack of domain
ein the xy-plane. Let its contour be C'. The crack faces are distinguished as
C +, C - as shown in Figure 5.16. Let the crack be under the action of normal
tractions of induced nature such that
(Jz = - g(x, y) on C as weIl as T xz = T yz = O. (5.173).
The normal displacement on C+ will be denoted by w(x, y). As in the case of
the Griffith crack, where 4> - p was found, only one harmonic function
286 Hans F. Bueckner

x x

n
Figure 5.16

G(x, y, z) will suffice to describe the field. This is the Boussinesq-Papkovich

potential. With its aid the displacements and the stresses can be expressed
as folIows:
u = -zG xz -(1-2v)G x
v = -zG yz -(1-2v)G y
w= -zGzz +2(1-v)G z (5.174)
and
<7 x = -2,u[(zG xx )z+2vG yy ] T yz = -2,uzG yzz
<7 y = - 2,u[ (zGyy)z + 2vG xx ]; T zx = - 2,uzG xzz
<7 z = -2,u[zGzzz-Gzz] T xy = -2,u[zGxyz+(1-2v)Gxy],
where

V 2 G= Gxx+Gyy+Gzz= 0 .
and subscripts of G indicate partial derivatives. G will be set up in the form
of a single layer potential, the layer distributed over C with a continuous
density function f(x, y); more precisely

G(x, y, z) = - 41C(: _ v) Lf(~, 1])R -1. d~ d1] (5.175)

with
Field singularities and related integral representations 287

G is regular harmonie outside of the crack domain. The shearing stresses

't"xy, 't"yz vanish along the whole plane z=O. The displacement w vanishes on

z = 0 outside of C. On C + it is given by
w=2(1-v)G z =f· (5.176)
On C - the opposite value is obtained. Furthermore
82 82
O"Z = 2f1G zz = -2f1 ßG where ,1. = 8x2 + 8y 2. (5.177)

Since the limit of G exists as a point (x, y) of Cis approached along the z-axis,
the limit being the same for both sides and determined by simply setting
z=O in equation (5.175), one can write (see also [16J)

g(x,y)= -,1. 2n(~-v) JLf(~,1])[(X-~)2+(Y-1])2J-ld~d1]. (5.178)

Here equations (5.173) have been fed in. It is c1ear that once g is given,
equation (5.178) should furnish the associated displacement functions
f(x, y). Equation (5.178) is expected to have precisely one solution, f, if the
conditionf = 0 is satisfied on the contour C'. With this solution there should
go a field of finite energy in the cracked space if the contour of C is sufficiently
regular and the function g(x, y) at least bounded and continuous on C. If
one lifts the restriction f = 0 on the boundary C' of ethen the homogeneous
=
case g 0 should yield infinitely many linearly independent solutions f,
each defining a "fundamental" field. If one assumes a smooth contour C'
and f(x, y) to show the behavior
f(x, y) = dt . F(x, y), F continuous on C + C' (5.179)
where dis the smallest distance of the point (x, y) from C' (Figure 5.16) then
one can show that the field generated by equation (5.175) is essentially one
of plane strain in the neighborhood of a point of C', the state referring to the
plane (n, z) where n is the outer normal to that point. Moreover, if the point
(x, y) on C' is approached along the normal n from outside or inside, the old
asymptotic relations hold, in particular
k1
O"z = (2d)t for the approach from outside C (5.180)

w
K+ 1 2
= k1 ~ . . the crack.
(d)t for the approach from InsIde (5.181)
288 Hans F. Bueckner

The factor k 1 is of course related to F(x, y):

K+ 1 = 22 • F x, y .
k1 ~ 1 ( )

Finally it can be stated that our field is locally of the nature of the mode I
deformation of plane strain, with a stress intensity factor k 1 varying along
the contour C' of the crack. Introducing the arclength s along C', one can
set k 1 = k (s). The singularity is of the "normal" type. All of this depends very
much on the regularity of C'. If one would consider the point A of the crack
domain of Figure 5.16, the field behavior might deviate, perhaps drastically,
from the one near anormal singularity. Turning now to fundamental fields,
one can define them as follows: Any field, regular outside C, will be called
fundamental, if its local behavior is governed by astate of plane strain due to
(5.182)
in analogy to equations (5.71); n + i z replaces the former complex variable z.
One must allow the coefficient a to depend on s, the arclength on C' so that
a = a(s). The field shall have no tractions on C. In addition to this it is required
that the stresses of the fundamental field go strongly enough to zero as the
distance from C goes to infinity. The displacements should stay bounded for
the same approach. Now another look will be given to the formulas (5.92).
They are based on·Betti's theorem and the behavior ofthe related fields near
.a singularity .All ofthis isapplicable to the new situation. Let us take a domain
in the space, bounded by a sphere S around the origin, of sufficiently large
radius to contain C, and by the surface of a torus, surrounding C'. We set up
Betti's theorem for this domain and go to the limit in double respect. We let
the radius of S grow to infinity, and in this context we assurne now quite
precisely, that the energy ofthe fundamental state as well as that ofthe regular
one outside of S is bounded, and that the outside energy goes to zero as S
approaches infinity. We also shrink the torus T into C', representing the
work integrals on T in harmony with the local behavior of plane strain as
postulated above. In the limit we obtain the formula:

K
2+1
J.1
r k(s)a(s)ds=
.C'
-2
n
i
f
c
M(x,y)g(x,y)dxdy (5.183)

where M (x, y) is the normal displacement of the singular field on C +. This

formula does not determine k(s) locally. In order to do this an infinity of
fundamental fields is needed. For practical reasons, a finite number of
Field singularities and related integral representations 289

them, large enough as to draw conc1usions from the corresponding integrals

(5.183) on the local behavior, has to be found. As in the case of plane strain.
one must provide weight functions M(x, y) together with the associated
a(s). To some extent the three methods listed in section 3 appear to admit a
generalization: Here reference will be made to parameter differentiation.
Assurne that the crack is loaded by constant normal pressure and that
we possess the displacement w(x, y) on C+ ofthe regular fie1d tha~ responds
to the pressure. Ifthe crack is extended by dilatation, then G(x, y, z) should
change into c- 2 G(cx, cy, cz) with c as dilatation factor. Differentiation with
respect to c at c = 1 leads to
H(x, y, z) = -2G(x, y, z)+xG x + yGy+zG z (5.184)
as the potential of a fundamental field. The displacement on C+ of His given
by equation (5.174) and leads to
M(x, y) = xW x + ywy-w . (5.185)
The function a(s) is in proportion to k(s), more precise1y
a(s) = o:k(s) , 0: = -t'2! . (5.186)
Without normalization the integral in equation (5.183) has the integrand
o:k 2 (s). The integral so obtained is essentially the energy release rate with
respect to a growing dilatation factor c. One can normalize a (s) such that

J a(s)ds = 1 .
C'
(5.187)

In this ca se equation (5.183) yields an average value of k(s) on C. That the

integral equation (5.178) should yie1d weightfunctions was alreadymentioned.
F Of the axially symmetrie case of a penny-shaped crack. introduce cylin-
drical coordinates G, r, z in accordance with r cos G= x. r sin G= y and assume
that the crack domain is the unit disk r::::; 1. We consider first fundamental
fields ofaxial symmetry; thus we may write w(x, y) = w(r), g(x, y) =g(r)
and M(x,y)=M(r). Thus the functions a(s), k(s) become constant, and
equation (5.183) changes into
K+l
-2- akt = -
-21- fl M(r)g(r)rdr. (5.188)
J1 7[ 0

To determine the function M(r), consideration is given to the potential G

associated with the crack loaded by constant pressure. In cylindrical coor-
290 Hans F. Bueckner

dinates the relations (5.174) become a special case of

u = (2v-1)Pr -zPrz -Qr; w = 2(1-v)Pz -zPzz-Qz

1
V2 P = Prr + - Pr + Pzz = 0; V 2 Q = 0 . (5.189)
r

Here u is the displacement in radial direction, while w retains its old meaning.
P(r, z) stands for G(x, y, z). Q is an additional harmonie function which we
=
have to resort to farther be1ow. Right now Q 0 for the penny-shaped crack.
Relation (5.184) takes the form
8 8
H(r, z) = -2P+DP, D = r 8r + z 8z' (5.190)

Assuming that P is known, we possess in H the potential of a fundamental

field ofaxial symmetry. If for the case of a constant press ure
(5.191)
then the displacement M(r) due to equation (5.190) will be M(r)=rw'-w
with
M ~ -(!)!(1-rt-t as r--+1 .

Now the constancy of the pressure applied leads one to believe that other
relations of M (r) to w(r) may exist. Looking for a different one, one constructs
H* = D(D-1)P+Pzz -2P. (5.192)
This again is a harmonie function. The double differentiations and equation
(5.191) indicate that the singularity of the field is even stronger than funda-
mental, which is indeed the case with respect to D(D-1)P. Pzz has been
added in order to reduce the singularity to a fundamental one, and the term
-2P will soon justify its existence. Using V2 P=O, one finds explicitly

H* = -(1-r2 +Z2) (Prr + ~ Pr) + 2rzPrz -2P-rPr •

In view of equations (5.189) w is in proportion to Pz on z = 0, while Pzz = const.
Field singularities and related integral representations 291

expresses constancy of press ure. This leads at once to

(5.193)
and all indications are that H* represents a fundamental field, the normal
displacement on C + being

w* = (r 2 - 1) ( w" + ~ w) + rw' - 2w . (5.194)

Equations (5.191) and (5.194) imply w*=O(w) as r~1. Consequently H* has

anormal singularity only. Since it has no tractions on C we infer H* =0,
w*=O and

(r 2 -1) (w" +!r w,) + rw'-2w = ~

rdr
[r(r 2 -1)w'-r2 wJ =0.

This equation can be transformed into a hypergeometrie one,

t(l-t)w+(1-3t/2)w-!w= -! :t [2t(t-1)w-twJ =0; r2 = t (5.195)

dots referring to t-differentiation. The only solution regular at t = 0 is

w = c (1 - t)t, c = const . (5.196)
In view of equation (5.191) we have c= 1. The associated function M(r) is,
by equation (5.190),
M(r) = -(1-r 2 )-t. (5.197)
Formula (5.188) for k 1 takes the simple form

k1 = ~fl (1-r 2 t t g(r)rdr. (5.198)

n 0

Both equation (5.196) and (5.198) are very weIl known*. If anything is new,
it is the method of derivation, showing the power of the concept of a funda-
mental state. Here the integral formula (5.198) was derived without doing
.more than solving a second order linear ordinary differential equation.
Additional conclusions can be drawn from equation (5.196). The fields
defined by H = P;:o H = Py must also be singular fie1ds. They are not ofaxial
* Barenblatt [10] states that he found equation (5.698). the derivation based on the application
of the method of Fourier-Hanke) transforms, developed by I. N. Sneddon for solving axi-
symmetrical problems of elasticity.
292 Hans F. Bueckner

symmetry. Since Px + i Py = eiO Pr' one finds that the associated normal
displacement on the crack takes the form M(x, y)= -r(1-r 2 tt.
eiO . This
is a weight function which permits to determine the first Fourier coefficients
of the function k 1 (s) by virtue of (5.183), if the penny-shaped crack is under
pressure of non-axisymmetric distribution. More generally one can introduce
weight functions of the type M (x, y) = Mn (r) . eniO where n denotes an integer.
For the preceding cases one has Mo=M by (5.197) and M 1 =rM. One can
show that Mn = ~ M in general; the derivation can be based on induction by
n and on the technique of applying the operators 8j8x, 8j8y, D to already
obtained potentials of the type H = H n(r, z)· einO . These functions in turn will
permit us to analyze k 1 (s) for any state of mode I deformation of the penny-
shaped crack.
The case of an infinitely deep outer notch ofaxial symmetry, characterized
by r ~ 1 as the domain for ein the xy-plane will be now considered. Figure

t=O

w=s=O

Figure 5.17a. Space with an axisymmetric infinitely deep noteh.

5.17a indicates the necessary details of geometry and loading. Anormal

load is specified by
(5.199)
To be mentioned first is the case g =0 which has a nontrivial solution with a
normal singularity at r = 1, with finite field energy while the stresses go to
zero at infinity. For the same field and the same approach the displacements
approach constant limits, u* for u and + w* for w (the signs characterize
upper and lower half-space). The potential of the field is defined by
Field singularities and related integral representations 293

Po = -log cosh s-log(l +cos t)+cos t+z arcsin(tanh s) (5.200)

'"
where
sinh (s + i t) = z + i r; - 00 < s< 00 ; 0 ~ t ~ !7C .
Details of the above equation are shown in Figure 5.17a. The field's normal
singularity at r= 1 has stress intensity factor k 1 = 1. More precisely one has
Uz = (1-r2tt on the cross section r~ 1, z = O. (5.201)
The normal displacement on C+ is

w = w* arcsin (1 - rl)t2 ; w*
2
= - (1 - v) .
7CJ.i
(5.202)*

As r---+oo, w---+w* on C+. The stresses are of the order of O(R- 2 ) with
l

stamp
F

Figure 5.17b

R= (r 2 + z2)~-for1argeR. Theveryexistenceof Poasafieldoffiniteenergywith

notractionson Cisquiteinteresting. Itmeans thatthesolution toourproblem
of prescribing U z = - g(r) will not be unique unless we impose conditions on
the solution. In similar vein the dass of fundamental fields is ambiguous to
the extent that the field of Po can be added to any fundaI?ental field without
changing the character of the latter. Before we discuss this in more detail,
Po will be reinterpreted. H, instead of the displacement field (u,. w), one
considers (- u, w* - w) for the upper half-space, then we meet the well-
known indentation problem, indicated in Figure 5.17b. This makes it
* This can be related to the second solution of the equation r- 1 djdr[r(r 2 -l)w' -r 2 w] =0.
The latter is w=(r 2 -1)i: arcsin r- 1 -1 with w-rw'= -arcsin r- 1 = -tn+arccos r- 1 •
294 Hans F. Bueckner

at onee c1ear that the field Po has finite energy, equal to the work done by
the stress of equation (5.201) through the displacement w*. Note that the
tractions ofindentation due to (5.201) are not in equilibrium. There exists a
resultant normal force F = 21[. Returning to the actual problem, one can
impose conditions in many ways. For instance, it is possible to prescribe
that the displacements vanish at infmity. We can also-and this is our pre-
ference-prescribe that the half-space z ~ 0 be under tractions (reactionary
ones for r < 1 and impressed ones for r > 1) which are in equilibrium with one
another. This is what one ordinarily expects to happen, if the tractions
g(r) are beiny applied. In this very case the stresses at infinity are of the
order O(R- 3 ) rather than ofO(R- 2 ). With bounded displacements assumed,
one can see that the energy of deformation can be expressed as the work of
the applied tractions g(r) through the normal displacements w(r) on C.
If the stresses and displaeements of a fundamental field are to show the
same order relations at infinity, then formula (5.183) becomes applicable
to our problem. Now H = (D - 2) Po is a fundamental field. In this case any
multiple of Po can be added. It turns out that H = DP0 has stresses of the
order of O(R- 3 ) for large R. This will be demonstrated for the stress (Jz.
U sing {Df)z = (D + 1) Jz, zDf = (D -1 )(zf), one has for H

(Jz = 2J1(Hzz-zHzzz) = 2J1{D+2)(Pzz-zPzzz)

(5.203)
= (D + 2) (J:, where (J: belongs to P = Po .
For z ~O the stress field of Po can be divided into two parts: One caused by a
concentrated normal force F, applied to the origin of the upper half-space,
and the other one caused by self-equilibrated tractions acting on r::::;; 1. For
the latter the stresses are of the order 0 (R - 3), while the stresses in response
to the concentrated force have the order 0 (R - 2), in particular

(Jz = const. Z3 R- 5 (5.204)

But this term, as one can easily see, is destroyed by the operator (D + 2).
Sinee H = DP0 then is the right fundamental field, it is found that the associated
M (r) takes the form

M (r) = rw' (r) + w(r) . (5.205)

This leads to the following formula for k 1 caused by the tractions g(r):
Field singularities and related integral representations 295

k 1 = -2
rc
fr! r [arCSlll
1
. (1 - l)t
2"
r
1 2)t g(r)dr.
+ (-l+r, J (5.206)

The last example is the notched cylinder (Figure 5.18) of infinite length and
unit radius. The notch is in the plane z = 0 and occupies the ring 0< a::::;; r::::;; 1.
It shall be under normal traction of induced nature with ()z = - g (r) specified
as usuaL In order to find a stress field in the cylinder use must be made of the
more general formulas(5.189). We shall derive an integral equation linking the

2
----
r-1

+ t
r t r- a t r

- -
Figure 5.18

displacement w(r) along the notch to the traction g(r). This will be done in
analogy to how we dealt with the notched bar in section 5.4. The function
w(r) will be specified along the notch and even beyond r= 1 up to infinity.
More precisely the special potential

P=P1 = 1 fOOf27tW(p)P·d(J.dP.
4rc(1-v) 0 0 R '
(5.207)
R 2 = z2+ r2-2rp cos 8+p 2

is introduced. w(r), w'(r) are assumed to belong to L 1 (0, ::::;;); w shall be

continuous everywhere and vanish for 0::::;; r::::;; a. The fie1d created by P 1 alone
has w(r) as normal displacement on the upper side C+ ofthe'notch. The next
step is to find two functions P 2, Q, both regular harmonic in the unnotched
296 Hans F. Bueckner

cylinder such that the pair P = P 1 + P2 , Qinduces no tractions on the cylindri-

cal surface r= 1. To this end Fourier-transforms will be applied leading to

4>k(r, A) = foo Pk(r, z) cos z},dz; t/I(r, A) = foo Q(r, z) cos z).dz
o 0 (5.208)
Pk(r, z) = -2 foo 4>k(r, ),) cos zAd}.;
. Q(r, z) = -2 foo t/I(r, ),) cos ud},.
,
n o n 0

The transforms satisfy the ordinary differential equations:

w(r) a2 1 a
(1) ~ 4> 1 = 2 (1 _ v) where ~ = - 2 + - - - A2 .
ar r ar '
(5.209)
(2) ~4>2=0; (3) ~t/I=O.

The first of equations (5.209) has the solution

1
4>l(r,),)= - 2(1-v) foo0 G(r,p; ;,)p'w(p)dp (5.210)
where
G(r, p; A) = 10(p),) Ko(r).) for p< r ;
= 10(r).) Ko(p},) for p >r.
We observe that G(r, p; I,) = G(p, r; A); G(r, p; A) is a Green's function ofthe
operator ~ and satisfies the customary conditions.
Formula (5.210) could have been direct1y derived from (5.207). One fmds
oo 00

f
• 0 R- 1 . cos zAdz = K o [A (r 2+ p2 -2rp cos 8)t] = n~o Gn{r,p; A) cos n8

(5.211)
where Gn{r, p; A) = Gn(p, r; A) and for p< r:

Since z appears in R -1 only, the integrations in equation (5.207) can be

applied direct1y to the transform of R - 1. This must lead to 4> l' The 8-
integration destroys all terms but Go. This leads to equation (5.210) in
another way.
Some properties of G(r, p; }e) will now be listed: .
Field singularities and related integral representations 297

8G = All (pA) K o (d) for p< r

op
and

- AK 1 (pI.) 10 (d) for p > r (5.212)

~J'Xi
n 0
G( r, p,. A') COS ZA'd'/c -- [2 (.1 .1
Z + (r + p )2J-t. F 2' 2' l', 2 .4rp
( )'" )
Z + r+ p-

(5.213)
U sing formulas on hypergeometric functions, in particular those by Gauss,
one can rewrite equation (5.213). Introduce
Z2+ r 2+ p2
cosh t = i(s+ l/s) where O~ s~ 1 cosh t = ----'---
2rp
Then
7
~
2 + (r + p)2 = (1+s)2/4s; [z2+(r+p)2J-t = ( -S ) t ' -
1.
4rp rp l+s
Due to Gauss:

F(i,i; 1; (1:SS)2) = (l+s)F(ti; 1; S2)

so that finally

~ Joo G(r, p; le) cos zAd), ~ (~)t

n 0 rp
.F(i, i; 1; S2) .
At this point, the function

M l (r,p) = n:r
2
F(i,~; 2; ~:) ; p<r

7;
(5.214)
MI (r, p) = F (t ~; 2; :: ), p>r.

is introduced for sub se quent use. Integration by parts of equation (5.210)

yields, with O=~pG used,

<PI (r, I,) = 2(1-1v)A? [Joo 8G

0 8p . pw' (p)dp - w(r) ] .
298 Hans F. Bueckner

In this context the function

x(r, A) =
1
2(1-v)A2
[flOG
op . pw'(p)dp-w(r)
0
] (5.216)

is introduced. The difference 4>1 - X must take the form

4>l-X = Al (A) 10 (r}.) for r< 1, (5.217)

with some coefficient Al' Moreover

2{1-v)~X = w(r) for r< 1 . (5.218)
At this juncture the following compositions of Bessel functions will be
introduced, where, if the argument is not explicitly written, A alone is that
argument:
D(A) = 1~-li-2(1-v)IVA2 (5.219)

E(r, A) = r 11 ;rA)
1

A) _ oE(r, A) _ 10 (rA) _ 10 ' 11 (rA)

F (r, - 0' - r I 12
r A l l
(5.220)
1 0
H*{r, A) = -' -;- (rF{r, A»
r ur

Here the identity

:r [r11 (rA) ] = rA10 (rA) (5.221)

has been used. The functions D, E, F, H are regular analytic in A in some

neighborhood O(A=O. Dis even in A; E, H are even in Aas weIl as in r, and
F is odd in both A and r.
The conditions that Ur and T rz must vanish on r= 1 can be expressed as
2vPr+(zPrr)z+Qrr = 0, r=l (5.222)
and
r=l (5.223)
respectively. Equations (5.222) and (5.223) are now subjected to a Fourier
Field singularities and related integral representations 299

transform, (5.222) to the cos-type and (5.223) to the sin-type. In this process
the factor z or a z-derivative under the integral sign can be easily taken care
of; the latter can be treated by integration by parts with respect to the deriva-
tive, and the former amounts to a A-differentiation. Example:

f~ (zPrr)z cos ZA dz = zPrr cos ZA I~ + A f~ zPrr sin ZA dz

and (5.224)

f~ zPrr sin ZA dz = - :A f~ Prr cos ZA dz .

If one treats the transforms in this way, then equation (5.222) leads to

t/I" + 2w// - A:A 4J" = 0 . (5.225)

Primes refer to r-derivatives, to be taken be fore one sets r= 1 for (5.225). In

similar vein

f~ zPrzz sin z). dz = - a:;A f~ Pzz cos ZA dz ; (5.226)

but Pzz = -Prr-Prlr; using this and equations (5.209) we find that

f~ zPrzz sin zAdz = O:;A (4J" + 4J' Ir) =

aaA (A 2 '""')
2
0 [ '2 ""
or
= 0A }, 'I-' + W
2 (1 - v)
]
= 1-"

where again the primes denote r-differentiation. Finally condition (5.223)

becomes

(5.227)

In the process of relieving the tractions (induced by Pl) on the cylindrical

surface, the nature of w(r) outside of the cylinder cannot influence the final
outcome. What it contributes to the tractions is compensated again; it
therefore suffices to set from now on:

4J{r, A) = x(r, }.)+ A (A) 10 (r},) . (5.228)

300 Hans F. Bueckner

We shall write t/J(r, 1) in the form

t/J (r, I,) = (C (J.) + },A' (J.)) 10 (d) . (5.229)
The quantities A (1), C (A) canbe determined on the basis of the conditions
(5.225) and (5.227). To this end observe that
4>(1, I,) = X(l, A)+AIo ; t/J (1, A) = (C + lA')Io
4>' (1, 1) = X' (1, A) + lAll; t/J' (1, }.) = (C + JA')).I l (5.230)
4>"(1, 1)= X"(l, A)+).2AI* ; t/J"(1,)')=(C+1A')).2]*; 1*= Io-Id)..
As before a Bessel function written without argument refers to 1 alone.
With x'(1, 1) = NI (1), X" (1,1) = N 2 ().), the conditions take the form
A [},2Io + },3 11 -2vlI I J+ }.C [ - Alo + I 1J = 2vNl - }.N~
(5.231)
A [}.Io +2IJ -CIl = -N'l +2N1 /)··
The integral representation of X implies

2(1-v)N1 = - f~ I I (pl)K 1 V,)pw'(p)dp

(5.232)
2(1-v)N 2= (I I1(p},)[).Ko(1)+K
~ a
1 (J.)J pw'(p)dp .

Postponing the integration in equations (5.232), we set

NI = - 11 (pA) K 1 V); N 2 (A) = Idp),)[ lK o (A) + K dl) ] . (5.233)
Equations (5.231) are solved for A, Cwith NI" N 2 given by (5.233). It is useful
to split A, C as follows:
A = A*-NdJ.I1 , C = C*+N~/Il -N1 Io/Ii . (5.234)
It turns out that A *, C* can be written in the form
A* = 11 co * ),10 +211 (5.235)
- 12 D' C = - l2 D co
with
oE (p, ).) pIo (p}.) 11 (pA) 10
co =- pol = - 11 + Ir (5.236)

It remains to put all the pieces together and to retransform. Since only an
expression for the normal traction along the notch is needed, it iso not
Field singularities and related integral representations 301

necessary to go through all the steps of retransforming. Prescribed is

(5.237)

Consequently

g(r) = 4ft G fCX) r{OX + AA*(A)11 (d)-N 1 11 (rA)/1 1 -

nr Gr 0 Gr
-),[C*(A)+AA*'()e)] 11 (rA)} d)~. (5.238)

Dealing with the derivative A *, (/e) by integration by parts one obtains

g(r) = 4ft ~ J"oo r{GX+ )eA*[211 (d)+dlo {d)]-

. nr or 0 Gr
-).C* 11 (d)-N 11drA)/ 11} d),. (5.239)

The contribution of Xr to the integral (5.239) will be denoted by g 1; the re-

mainderisg z which can bewrittenin two partsasg z = gZ1 + gzz. Thefollowing
formulae pertain to the various contributions. As for g 1 it is noted that

-2(1-v)xr = r~ 11 (p)e)K 1(rA)pw'(p)dp +

"1
+ Jr 11(rA)Kl(P}~)pw'(p)dp, (5.240)

roo ( )
11 p)~ K 1
(.).
r}, d}e =
1 P F (13 . 2,.2pZ). = M 12(r,p) '
4 n 2" 2' 2' p< r, (5.241)
• 0 r r rp

(see [15], Vol. 2, 7.14.2, p. 93, formula (35)). Consequently

g1 (r) = - (
ft G
) . -;-
[1 M 1(r, p)w,(p)dp . (5.242)
n I-v rur. a

The·other terms are

= 2ft ~ J"1 fOO 11 (rl)ldp},) K . r w'( )dAd (5.243)

g21 (r) n -v r d r a 0
(1) I1 1 P P P

gZ2 (r) =
2
. ft ) -
d f1 J -00 1z
~ F(r, }.) F(p, },)rpw' (p)dp . (5.244)
n(1-v rdr a 0 D
302 Hans F. Bueckner

Defining the kerneIs

M 21 = -2 f~ E(r,).)E(p, A)II K I dA
(5.245)
M 22 = -2 foo Ii F(r, A)F(p, A)rp·d).
o D
and M 2 =M 21 +M 22 , M=M 1 +M 2 , one can write

g(r) = - (1
J1 d
) -d
fl ,
M(r, p)w (p)dp. (5.246)
n -v r r a

This is the integral relation between the normal displacement w (r) and the
traction g (r) along the upper side of the notch. In contrast to the integral
equation for the notched bar, the derivative of w is under the integral sign.
This was done in order to exhibit the symmetry of the kernels MI' M 2' M 21,
M 22 • By integration by parts, equation (5.246) can easily be changed into
one involving w(r) only. This would yield

g(r) = (
J1
) -d·
n I-v r r·
d I
l

a
aM(r, p)
aP w(p)dp. (5.247)

The homogeneous form of this equation should be used in order to find the
weight function.
In connection with the integration by parts it should be pointed out that
F(I, A)=O, and therefore M 22 (r, 1)=0. It is also obvious that M l (r, 1)+
M 21 (r, 1) = 0. This justifies equation (5.247). Equation (5.247) differs in
quantitative respect only from the equation for the notched bar. For
Ir- pi ~ 1 the behavior of the kernel is dictated by that of MI' From the
properties of the hypergeometric function it follows that
aMI 2p 2
a;; ~ r 2 _ p2 • (5.248)
It can also be shown that the asymptotic behavior of aMjap as r, p-.l is
precisely that of the kernel L(x, t) for the notched half-plane, as x, t approach
the edge. Numerical computations based on equation (5.246) were carried
out in 1964. These were made for the case of constant pressure g = 1, and
intensity factors k l were computed for values of a ranging from ! to 1.
Appendix II contains some data about those computations.
Future work should analyze the configuration ofFigure 5.16 much more.
This will amount to study in detail the phenomena associated with the
integral equation (5.178).
Field singularities and related integral representations 303

5.6 Appendix I: Some lemmas on Taylor and

Laurent expansions

Lemma 1. Let the power series

L
OC!

F(z) = cn(z-zo)n
n=O

have radius 2R > 0 of convergence. Let D denote the disk of radius R centered
on zo0 Then

Jr = JJD (Re F)2 dxdy = nR 2 { (Re cof + n~l Ic l n

2
2::2}

Ji = fL (Im F)2dxdy = nR 2 {(Im C O)2 + n~l Icnl 2

2::2} (5.249)

J = JL !p 2 1 dxdy = nR 2
{ ICo12 +2 n~l Icnl2 2:: 2}- n

Proof It suffices to prove the first relation; the others follow from it. Introduce
coordinates r, 8 defined by z-zo=r ei/l and usedxdy=rdrd8. Re F is an
ordinary F ourier-series in 8. U se the orthogonality oft he Fourier components
and integrate. This leads immediately to the first relation (5.249).

Lemma 2. From equations (5.249) it folIo ws that

IF(zo)1 = ICol ~ ~;
Rn 2
IF'(zo)1 = !cll ~ 2:;t
R n
(5.250)
Proof Clear.

Lemma 3. Let F(z) be holomorphic in the domain L1 ofthe unit disk Izl < 1,
cut along the negative real axis (Figure 5.19). Assume

(5.251)

Then

for Izl <!; z E L1 ,

304 Hans F. Bueckner

Figure 5.19

where 2R is the minimum distance of any point Zo from the negative real
axis and where D denotes the disk of radius R centered at Zo; Po, Pl are
positive constants not depending on F(z).

Proof As a domain, ,1 is an open set; therefore R > 0; furthermore if

zo=xo+iyo we have 2R=lzol for X o ~O and 2R=IYol for xo< O.
Lemmas 1, 2 stay valid if one takes for 2R any positive number not
exceeding the radius of convergence. The disk Dis in ,1.
Equations (5.250) can be applied with Jr replaced by U z. Set Po =2/n-5:;
since R ~ IYol, it follows from equation (5.250) that IY5F'(zo)1 ~ IR z F'(zo)1 ~
Po U, which proves assertion (a).
As for (b) apply YZIF'(z)I Z~ P6 U z / R2 . Set Pl = P5 n=4, and (b) is satisfied.

Lemma 4. In addition to F(z) oflemma 3 let another holomorphic function

G(z) in ,1 be given. Compose w= yF'(z)+G(z) and assume besides condition
(5.251)

fL Iwzl dxdy~ U Z
(5.252)

with the same U as in (5.251). Then

IRG(zo)1 ~ Pz U with Pz = (-;10)+

Proof G(z)=w-yF'; IG(z)1 2 ~ 2IwI 2 +2IyF'(z)1 2 • From lemma 3(b) with
Pl =4 and from (5.252) it follows that

fIv IGI 2 dxdy ~ 10U z ; (5.253)

Field singularities and related integral representations 305

application of equation (5.250)with J replaced by 10U 2 proves the assertion

oflemma 4.

Lemma 5. Let the Laurent series

L
CI:)

Ho(z) = hmz"l
m=-oo

converge for 0< Izl < 1.

Let 0 < a< 1. Consider in LI a function H (z) which is either (Ci) H (z) = Ho (z)
or (ß) H(z)=z-t Ho (z).
Assume that 1Jfl H(z)1 ~ C for all ZE LI, Izi < a with some constant C
and n a positive integer. Then hm=O for all m< -n; moreover h_n=O in
the case (ß).

Proof In either case 1y n Ho (z)1 ~ C. Take the circle Izl =r (0< r< a) and
form the integral

J(n, p) = f yn zP Ho{z) ~z, p a positive integer

over that circle. The preceding inequality yields J(n, p) ~ 2nCrP and
J(n, p)---+O as r---+O. On the other hand one can evaluate J(n, p) byusing
2i y = z - z and z= r2 / z. Consequently
(2i)n J(n, p) = 2ni h_ n - P + r2 q(r 2 )
where q(r 2 ) is some polynomial of r2 whose coefficients depend on the hk
only, k running from - n - p + 1 to - P + 1. But this is compatible with
J(n, p)---+O only if h_ n- p vanishes. The dominant term of Ho as z---+O is
h_nz- n. In the case (ß) we have yn H(z)~ h_n(y/z)" z-t; this contradicts the
existence of C unless h_n=O. This concludes the proof.

Lemma 6. Let G(z)=H(z) where G refers to lemma 4 and H to lemma 5.

Then hm=O for m< -1 and in addition h_ t =0 in the ca se (ß).

Praaf By lemma 4 we can assume 1yG(z)1 ~ P2 U valid for Izl <;f. This
makes lemma 5 applicable for n = 1, and lemma 6 folIows.
Note that all lemmas 3-6 stay valid if one replaces LI by a similar domain of
disk radius p >0; the limitations Izi < 1, Izi < t, Izi <± are to be replaced by
Izi < p, Izi < tP, Izi < ;fP.
306 Hans F. Bueckner

5.7 Appendix II: Weight functions and stress-

intensity factors

WEIGHT FUNCTIONS

Collinear cracks of per iod 2n. If - c < x< c and its translations by 2nn
along the x-axis describe the cracks and if all cracks are equally loaded by
normal tractions then p=4>=(sin z+sin c)(sin 2 !z-sin 2 !ct! describe a
fundamental field of period 2n with anormal singularity at x = - c and a
fundamental one at x=c. Formula (5.162) is an adaptation to the configu-
ration discussed in section 5.4. The weight function with respect to ( - c, c)
is in normalized form
sin x+sin c
m(x) - . see equation (5.93) .
- 2 [ (cos x - cos c) sin c]! '

Edge crack in the half-plane, infinitely deep notch in the half-plane and notched
bar. For the half-plane m(x) was found by means of equation (5.101); for
the infinitely deep notch the relation m(x)=m*(l/x) was used where m*(x)
is the weight function for half-plane with edge notch. For the notched bar
the related integral equation was numerically solved. The following approxi-
mation to m(x) of formula (5.93) covers all three cases. It is useful to replace
x at a generic notch by the distance t of that point from the root of the notch.
Figure 5.20 shows the relevant geometric quantities. Furthermore we write
m(x) = M(t) , p(x) = P(t) (5.254)
whence
k1 = -
2! fh M(t) P(t)dt . (5.255)
n . 0

The weight function may be represented with engineering accuracy (1 %

error) in the convenient form of the following approximation:
M{t) = t--t(1 +m 1 t/h+m 2(t/h)2) ; (5.256)
here m1 , m2 are constant coefficients; i.e., they do not depend on the variable
t/h. They depend however on the ratio
r = h/W (5.257)
and this dependency is representable in the form of the following approxi-
mation:
 Field singularities and related integral representations 307

t
H
h

Figure 5.20

Figure 5.21

ml = Al +B 1 r 2 +C 1 r 6 , m 2 = A2+B2r2+C2·r6, (5.258)
where Al = 0.6147 Bl = 17.1844 Cl = 8.7822
A 2 = 0.2502 B 2 = 3.2889 C 2 = 70.0444 .
These approximations are useful for O~ r~ 0.5. They cover the case of the
edge crack in the half-plane (H = (0) so that
m 1 = Al' m 2 = A 2 for edge crack in half-plane,
As shown in section 5.3, the information for an edge crack in a half-plane
yie1ds the weight functiop for what seems to be an entire1y different case;
namely the case of an infinitely deep notch in a half-plane (Figure 5.21) where
~ His bounded while h= 00. In this case one has
TABLE I The functions Ft , F2 (5.166) and G H G2 (5.168)

1: F1 Gl F2 G2

0 0 0 0 0
0.1 0.0001087 0.0000607 0.0005865 0.0006487
0.2 0.0004346 0.0002446 0.0023476 0.0025938
0.3 0.0009772 0.0005570 0.0052888 0.0058328
0.4 0.0017355 0.0010065 0.0094186 0.0103619
0.5 0.0027079 0.0016047 0.0147494 0.0161764
0.6 0.0038925 0.0023659 0.0212975 0.0232708
0.7 0.0052869 0.0033066 0.0290831 0.0316406
0.8 0.0068878 0.0044449 0.0381303 0.0412823
0.9 0.0086912 0.0057995 0.0484680 0.0521949
1.0 0.0106924 0.0073895 0.0601299 0.0643810
1.1 0.0128854 0.0092328 0.0731547 0.0778486
1.2 0.0152628 0.0113453 0.0875871 0.0926124
1.3 0.0178161 0.0137400 0.1034780 0.1086954
1.4 0.0205344 0.0164252 0.1208851 0.1261315
1.5 0.0234049 0.0194038 0.1398743 0.1449670
1.6 0.0264121 0.0226710 0.1605199 0.1652631
1.7 0.0295371 0.0262134 0.1829064 0.1870984
1.8 0.0327570 0.0300070 0.2071295 0.2105717
1.9 0.0360443 0.0340152 0.2332977 0.2358043
2.0 0.0393653 0.0381872 0.2615345 0.2629435
2.1 0.0426795 0.0424559 0.2919803 0.2921656
2.2 0.0459373 0.0467355 0.3247957 0.3236788
2.3 0.0490782 0.0509194 0.3601645 0.3577273
2.4 0.0520284 0.0548780 0.3982979 0.3945947
2.5 0.0546976 0.0584558 0.4394394 0.4346075
2.6 0.0569745 0.0614693 0.4838714 0.4781396
2.7 0.0587219 0.0637037 0.5319223 0.5256162
2.8 0.0597701 0.0649107 0.5839766 0.5775182
2.9 0.0599079 0.0648053 0.6404863 0.6343865
3.0 0.0588718 0.0630625 0.7019865 0.6968269
3.1 0.0563308 0.0593147 0.7691149 0.7655151
3.2 0.0518675 0.0531480 0.8426360 0.8412010
3.3 0.0449518 0.044099Ö 0.9234743 0.9247149
3.4 0.0349063 0.0316513 1.0127565 1.0169718
3.5 0.0208599 0.0152320 1.1118682 1.1189778
3.6 0.0016822 -0.0057922 1.2225289 1.2318352
3.7 -0.0241040 -0.0321188 1.3468959 1.3567486
3.8 -0.0584490 -0.0645129 1.4877056 1.4950309
3.9 -0.1039549 -0.1038120 1.6484688 1.6481096
4.0 -0.1641229 -0.1509298 1.8337606 1.8175327

Gk = ak 1: 2 + bk1: 4 + Ck1:6
a1 = 0.006057 b l = 0.001486 Cl = -0.0001534
az = 0.06487 b2 = -0.0007273 C2 = 0.0002358
Field singularities and related integral representations 309

M(t)=(Hstt(1+A 1 s+A 2 s2 ) with s = _._t_. (5.259)

t+H
Suppose that P(t) is given or can be approximated by a polynomial

L Ck(tjh)k.
r/

P(t) = (5.260)
k=O

In this case the integration (5.255) can be carried out to c10sed form and

k 2 (2h)t ~ C [ 1 m1 m2 ] (5.261)
1 = -n- k';;0 k 2k + 1 + 2k + 3 + 2k + 5 .

This formula promises easy engineering applications. It takes but a slide

rule in order to compute k 1 from equation (5.261).
For the notched bar a comparison of kl-data, obtained by the method of
weight functions, and of those available from ASTM 410 and NASA TN
D-2395 was made. The data refer to bending and tension. The agreement is
excellent; details can be found in [6J.
Table I pertains to the integral equation for the notched bar and presents
the functions F h F2 as weH as their approximations G h G 2 . More details
about the integral equation can be found in [6J.

STRESS-INTENSITY FACTORS

I nfinite plane with a circular hole and a radial edge noteh. The data pertaining
to the case of tractions induced by centrifugal forces can be found in [13J.
Notched cylinder under tension. The values of k 1 for various ratios of
notch length to radius were computed on the basis of equation (5.246) in
[7J. In this context approximations for the r-derivatives ofM1 and M 2
were developed; care was taken to preserve the singular character of M at
r= p and its special character at r= 1, p = 1.
From the exact form of Mt it follows that its r-derivative is a function of
the ratio x = pjr alone; more precisely

F(.l .1 2' x 2) for

ar = -.lnx2(1-x2)-1
aMI 2 2' 2' ,
x< 1

ar = nx(x2-1)-IF(-.l.l
aMt 2' 2,
1"x-2)
,
for x>l.

The approximation is of the form

310 Hans F. Bueckner

aMi r2
-a-
r
=
1
211: 2
p -r
2 F(x)
.
wlth

4 1
F(x) = - + LI965{x 2 -1)-0.0500(x 2 -1)2/ x + -(I-x 2)1og 11-x 21.
11: 11:

F(x) is accurate by better than 1 % for 0.5~ x~ 1.5.

The function M 2 or rather its r-derivative can be presented in the form
aM2 s2+4st-t 2+Z .
ar - (S+t)3 P wlth s= l-r, t= 1-p
where Z = 0(S2 + t 2) as s, t~O. Z was computed on the basis of the integral
representation of M 2 ; thereafter an approximation was developed. This is
of the form
. Z=0.9(s+t)4+!(s+t)31 og - 1- + co(S)(S+t)3+ Cl (S)s(S+t)2
. s+t
+C 2(S)S2(S+t)+C 3(S)S3,
with the coefficients
Co = 0.59-12.10 S, Cl = 7.73+ 13.20 s+ 15.00 S2
C 2 = -14.13-0.94 s-30.oo S2 ; C3 = 5.86-1.94 S+ 15.00 S2 .

TABLE II
The functions X and X (v = 0.3)

r= 0.5 r= 0.6 r=0.7 r=0.8 r=0.9 r=1

p =0.5 1.092 1.108 1.090 0.982 0.644 -0.307

1.038 1.069 1.063 0.966 0.639 -0.307

p=0.6 1.349 1.391 1.400 1.302 0.887 -0.530

1.331 1.373 1.381 1.282 0.869 -0.546
p=0.7 1.618 1.705 1.774 1.736 1.280 -0.936
1.634 1.718 1.782 1.739 1.282 -0.936

p=0.8 1.879 2.039 2.225 2.362 2.033 -1.782

1.915 2.078 2.266 2.409 2.096 -1.713

p =0.9 2.065 2.320 2.697 3.250 3.774 -4.316

2.092 2.359 2.753 3.333 3.923 -4.084

p=1 1.957 2.216 2.658 3.545 6.166

1.957 2.214 2.326 3.549 5.896
Field singularities and related integral representations 311

Table II shows a comparison of two functions X, X where

S2 + 4st - t 2 + Z
x = ---,-------:-~-
2r(s + t)3
and X the approximation obtained by replacing Z by Z. The upper numbers
refer to X, the lower ones to X.
For prescribed constant g(r) the integral equation was solved by an
"inverse" method, according to which w(r) was set up in the form
w(r) = Yo (r- a)t +"Yl (r- a)1 +t +Y2 (r- a)2 +t + Y3 (r - a)3 +t
with unknown coefficients Yk. For a function of this type the integral in
equation (5.246) can be obta~ned in closed form, if one uses the approxi-
mations to aM/ar. The coefficients Yk were determined by collocation in
order to match the prescribed g (r) at four special points of the interval
(a,1). Matching was within 1 %. The values of k 1 were derived from y. The
re1ated quantity fo= k 1 h- t , h= 1- a, is shown in the "Table of coefficients"
below.
If one wishes to use equation (5.247) in the homogeneous form for the
computation of the weight function, then the approximation to the r-deriva-
tive of M can be used by simply exchanging rand p. Weight functions have
not yet been computed; integral equation and approximation to its kernel
are presented in order to stimulate the computation of re1ated weight func-
tions by those who are interested.
If one had the weight function M(r), normalized to M(r) ~ (r- a)-t, then
t
k 1 = 2 f1 M(r)g(r)rdr. (5.262)
na a
For deep notches one could perhaps use formula (5.206) for approximation,
so that, after adaptation of it to the new notch,

k1 ~ k! = ~ a- t
f1 [arcsin(1-a2/r2)t+a(r2-a2ttJg(r)rdr.
na a

For g-1 the integration yields

1
k! = - a- t [arcos a+a(1-a 2)t], (5.263)
na
and in particular
1
k!(1-at t = t + -n 3t ~ 1.884 for 1
a=z·
312 Hans F. Bueckner

Table III gives the value of k 1 (1 - a) - t as 1.92; this value and 1.88 are
sufficiently dose together, and the use of k 1 ~ ki for cases a< ! appears to be
justified. As for a ~! an approximation to the weight function can be found

TABLE III
Values of coefficients

a 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

-co 0.960 0.708 0.531 0.392 0.259

Cl 0.881 0.608 0.462 0.396 0.417
-C2 0.768 0.441 0.245 0.087 0.230
-C3 -0.148 0.258 0.926 2.930 17.168

fo 1.920 1.583 1.371 1.240 1.158

10 1.923 1.580 1.374 1.242 1.160

-10fl 4.589 3.435 2.610 2.020 1.610

-1011 4.620 3.337 2.563 2.061 1.716

10f2 2.000 0.997 0.415 0.089 -0.089

1012 1.995 1.002 0.419 0.070 -0.118

100f3 -1.927 2.332 4.708 5.980 6.629

10013 -1.868 2.256 4.649 6.024 6.661

by parameter differentiation of w(r) with respect to a. For this reason Table

III gives an approximation to w(r, a) which can be differentiated with respect
to a.

Details of computationfor the case g(r)= 1 and v . 0.3. With

K+1
C = 2(2 t ),u ,

w(r) can be written in the form

3
w(r) = - C(2~) I cn(r- a)n .
n=O

Thus k 1 = -21- co . If one introduces h=1-a, x=(r-a}/h then w(r) takes

the form
Field singularities and related integral representations 313

where fo=k 1 h- t , fn=hncn/c o for n=l, 2, 3. Approximations L(a) to fn(a)

are:
Jo= 1.080+0.281 A+0.040a 10 , A= (1-a 2 )/a 2
J1 = -0.147 -0.105 A
J2 = - 0.047 + 0.082 A + 0.030 a 6
j~ = -0.6f2+0.056+0.015 A.

TABLE IV
Normal tractions responding to approximate w(r)

10x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

a=0.5 1.000 1.005 1.004 1.000 0.998 1.000 1.005 1.010 1.000
a=0.6 1.000 1.003 1.002 1.000 . 0.999 1.000 1.003 1.006 1.000
a=0.7 1.000 1.002 1.001 1.000 0.999 1.000 1.002 1.005 1.000
a = 0.8 1.000 1.002 1.001 1.000 0.999 1.000 1.002 1.004 1.000
a=0.9 1.000 1.002 1.001 1.000 0.999 1.000 1.002 1.004 1.000

The values of k 1 and of related quantities such as fo were first published in

[Sb]. It should be emphasized that the kcvalues agree with computations
by Zahn [12].

References
[lJ Bueckner, H. F., The Propagation of Cracks and the Energy of Elastic Deformation,
Transactions of the ASME, pp. 1225-1230 (1958).
[2J Bueckner, H. F., So me Stress Singularities and Their Computation by Means of Integral
Equations, Boundary Problems in Differential Equations, Madison 1960, The University of
Wisconsin Press, pp. 215-230.
[3] Bueckner, H. F. and Giaever, 1., The Stress Concentration of a Notched Rotor Subjected
to Centrifugal Forces, ZAMM 46, pp. 265-273 (1966).
[4] Bueckner, H. F., On a Class of Singular Integral Equations, Journal of M athematical
Analysis and Applications, Vol. 14, No. 3 (1966) pp. 392-426.
[5J Bueckner, H. F., A Novel Principle for the Computation of Stress Intensity Factors,
ZAMM 50, pp. 529-545 (1970).
[6J Bueckner, H. F., Weight Functions for the Notched Bar, ZAMM, 51, pp. 97-109 (1971).
[7J Bueckner, H. F., The Stress Concentration of a Notched Cylinder under Tension. Report
314 Hans F. Bueckner

DF-64-LS-85, Oct. 1964, Class I. Large Steam Turbine-Generator Department, General

Electric Co., Schenectady, N. Y.
[8J a. Paris, Paul C. and Sih, George c., Stress Analysis oJ Cracks. Fracture Toughness
Testing and its Applications. ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 381; pp. 30-81.
b. Bueckner, H. F., Discussion (of the preceding paper), pp. 82-83.
[9J Muskhelishvili, N. 1., Singular Integral Equations, Groningen, Holland. 1953, P. Noordhoff
Ud., chapter 11.
[10J Barenblatt, G. 1., Mathematical theory of equilibrium cracks. Advances in Applied
Mathematics, Academic Press, New York and London, Vol. 7, pp. 55-129, 1962.
[11 J Wigglesworth, L. A.
a. Stress distribution in a notched plate. Mathematika, Vol. 4, 1957, pp. 76-96.
b. Stress relief in a cracked plate. Mathematika, Vol. 5, No. 9, 1958, pp. 67-81.
[12J Zahn, John J., Stress Intensity Factors for a Sharply Notched Infinite Cylinder under
Tension. Developments in Mechanics, Vol. 3, part 1, p. 91. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1965.
[13J Melan, Ernst and Parkus, Heinz, Warmespannungen (p. 32), Wien, Springer-Verlag, 1953.
[14J Oberhettinger, Fritz, Tabellen Zur Fourier Traniformation, p. 3. Springer-Verlag, 1957.
[15J California Institute of Technology, Bateman Manuscript Project. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc. 1954.
[16J Panasyuk, V. V., Limiting equilibrium oJ brittle so lids with Jractures (p. 184). Translation
from Russian, distributed in 1971 by Management Information Services, P. O. Box 5129,
Detroit, Michigan 48236.
 I. N. Sneddon

6 Integral transform methods

6.1 Introduction

Among the earliest papers leading to a revival of interest in crack problems

in the c1assical theory of elasticity were those in which the solution of the
relevant boundary value problem was obtained by a systematic use of the
theory of integral transforms. In this connection reference can be made to
[1 J, [2J. Interest in this form of solution has been maintained over the years
and the present chapter is an attempt to present the essentials ofthis methode
It is emphasized he re that it is only the essentials of this approach which
are described here. Several topics of interest are omitted, for example, the
behavior under shear of solids containing cracks receives only abrief mention
and there is no discussion of either torsion problems or of problems con-
cerning cracks situated at the interface of two different media. There has
certainly been a great deal of work done on these topics by the use of integral
transform techniques but the techniques used are basically the same as those
employed in the simpler problems discussed here, in which it is assumed that
the deformation produced in the elastic body arises from the application of
press ure to the crack surfaces. (By a simple superposition argument it is
easily seen that the c1assical problem of the behavior of such a body under
uniaxial tension can be reduced to a particular case-that in which the pres-
sure is constant-of this form of problem.

6.2 The Griffith crack problem as a mixed boundary

value problem

To determine the stress field in the xy-plane due to the application of a

symmetrie press ure p (x) to the faces of the Griffith crack specified by the
316 I. N. Sneddon

relations lxi :s.;:; c, y= 0, it is sufficient to ca1culate the stress field in the half-
plane y ~ 0 when the boundary y = 0 is subjected to the boundary conditions

O"yy(x, 0) = - p(x) ,
uy(x, 0) = 0 , x> c,
O"Xy(x, 0) = 0 , x~ 0,

which can be deduced easily by considering the symmetry of the problem.

It should be observed that by "symmetrie" in this case it is meant that the
prescribed function p(x) is an even function of x and also that the pressure
applied to the face y = 0 - of the crack is identical to that applied to the
opposite face y = 0 +. The usual assumptions of the c1assical theory of
elasticity are made; in particular it is assumed that the deformed surface
of the crack does not differ from the undeformed one in any marked degree
so that the pressure is assumed to be applied to the boundary y= 0 and not
to the faces of the deformed crack.
An elegant solution ofthis half-plane problem has been given by Lowengrub
[3] using a method similar to that devised by Sneddon [4] for the case of a
circular crack in an infinite elastic solid in three-dimensional space. Let the
Fourier eosine and sine transforms be denoted by

ffc [f(~, y); ~-x] = (~}t f~ f(~, y) cos (~x)d~

ffs [f(~, y); ~-x] = (~}t J~ f(~, y) sin (~x)d~ .

Thus the displacement field may be written in the form u = (u x ' u y' 0) where
the components ux and u y are given respectively by the equations
uAx, y) = - 2-t· (1 + v)jn+ Effs [(1- 2v- ~y) IP(~) e-~y; ~-x] (6.1)
uy(x, y) = 2+· (1 + v)j n+ Effc [(2- 2v+ ~y) IP(~) e-~y; ~-x] (6.2)
in which E denotes Y oung's modulus and v denotes Poisson's ratio. This is
the solution of the equations for plane strain; if the solution for the case of
plane stress is desired it may be obtained by means of the familiar change in
the numerical values of the elastic constants. The corresponding expressions
for the components of the stress tensor are readily obtained from the stress-
strain relations for an isotropie solid. From these expressions it can be
deduced immediately that O"Xy(x, 0) ~anishes for all real values of x and that
1ntegral transform methods 317

The prescribed boundary conditions will, therefore, be satisfied if the

function. t/t(~) can be determined as the solution of the "dual" integral
equations

(~)~ d~ §"s [t/t(~); x] = p(x) , 0::::;; x::::;; c, (6.3)

§"c [t/t (~); x] = 0 , x> c. (6.4)

Now express the unknown function t/t(~) in terms of another function g(t)
by the integral

t/t(~) = f: tg(t)Jo(~t)dt, (6.5)

in which J o denotes the Bessel function of the first kind of order zero. It can
be easily deduced from elementary properties of Bessel functions that
whatever the function g(t) is-provided, of course, that the integral (6.5)
exists-the equation (6.4) is automatically satisfied. Similarly it can be shown
that, if 0::::;; x< c,

(6.6)

In a similar way we can show that

Ob • _ (~)t fmin(x,c) t g(t)dt
J'Ps[t/t(~), x] - (2 (6.7)
n 0 x - t 2 )!
and then deduce from equation (6.3) that the unknown function g(t) is the
solution of the Abel integral equation

~ ~ fX t g(t)dt = (x) 0< x< c. (6.8)

n dx 0 (x 2 - t 2 )! p ,

It is elementary that the solution of this equation is

p(x)dx
r
t

g(t) = . (t 0x )! ' 2_ 2
0< t< c.

In terms of this form of the functiong(t) the stress component O'yy(x, 0) and
318 I. N. Sneddon

the displacement component uy{x, 0) can be expressed by the pair ofequations

x> c, (6.9)

O~x~c. (6.10)

If the function g(t) is differentiable it can be deduced by performing an

integration by parts in the integral on the right-hand side of equation (6.9)
that when x > c,
2xg(c) JC g'(t)dt
O"yy(x, 0) = nx-c 2)!
(2 +x (2
oX-C
2)! '
from which it follows that

lim (x - c)t O"yy(x, 0) = ~ g(c) c! . (6.11)

x-+c+ n
From the explicit expression for g(t) it can be deduced immediately that in
this case the right-hand side of equation (6.11) may be replaced by the
expreSSIOn

~ ct Je p(x)dx
n 0 (C 2 _X 2)±'
so that the stress intensity factor can be calculated directly once the variation
of pressure on the crack faces is prescribed.
To calculate the elastic energy W expended in forming the crack, use is
made of the formula

W= 2 J: p(x)uAx, O)dx. (6.12)

If we substitute the form (6.10) for uy(x, 0) and use the formula

Jo p(x)dx JC (tt2g(t)dt
c

-x
2)t =
x
JC
t g(t}dt
Jt ( p(x)dx
0
2
t -x
2)!
0

for the change in the order of the integrations, and recall the formula for
g(t) we find that

W 8 (1 - v2 ) JC t[g(t)]2dt.
= (6.13)
nE 0
Integral transjorm methods 319

For example, in the case in whichp(x)= Po, a constant, it is easily shown that
g(t) = nPo/2 and hence that the stress intensity factor is Po at and that the
crack energy is given by the formula
n(1- V2)p~C2
W = ----'-----
E
which is Inglis' expression for the crack energy in the case of a crack opened
out by the application to its faces of a constant press ure.
It is useful, at this point, to recall the steps in this solution since they are
common to many of the approaches which involve integral transforms:
(1) Replacement ofthe crack problem by a mixed boundary value problem
for a half-space;
(2) Use of an integral transform solution of the equations of elasticity
involving an unknown function '" to derive dual integral equations
for this function;
(3) Formulation of an integral representation of '" in terms of a new
unknown function g in order to reduce the dual integral equations for
'" to a single integral equation forg.
(4) Calculation of the quantities of physical interest-the stress intensity
factor and the crack energy-in terms of the function g.
It will be seen that the same procedure is applicable in more complicated
situations. In general, however, the integral equation in stage (3) is not an
equation of Abel type with a closed form solution but a Fredholm integral
equation of the second kind whose solution can be obtained numerically.

6.3 Griffith cracks with more complicated geo-

metries

Griffith crack in a strip with stress-free edges. There are two cases of a crack
in an infinite strip to be considered: that in which the crack is parallel to the
edges of the strip and that in which it is perpendicular.
First consider the case shown in Figure 6.1 (Cf. [5J). Now suppose that
a crack oflength 2c, situated symmetrically in a strip ofwidth 2b, is opened up
by the application of asymmetrie press ure p(x) to its faces. It is easily seen
that the problem of determining the stress field in the strip is equivalent to
determining the stress field in the strip - 00 < x< + 00, 0 ~ y ~ b, subject
to the boundary conditions
320 I. N. Sneddon

(j"xy = (j"yy= 0
W.bl

(-c,Ol :.;' (c.Ol x

O""yy=.-p(x)

(O,-bl

Figure 6.1

G"yy(X, 0) = -p(X) , 0< lxi< c, (6.14)

Uy(X, 0) = 0, lxi> c, (6.15)
G" xy (X, O) = 0 , - 00 < X < + 00 , (6.16)
-oc<x< +00. (6.17)
If p(x) is an even function of x, it is readily shown that the displacement field

flUx(X, y) = - (nI2)1-ffs [t/J (~) {VI (~b) cosh(~y) - ~yV2(~b) sinh(~y)}; ~~X ]
+ !(nI2)1-ffs [t/J(~){ (1- 2v) sinh(~y)+ ~y cosh(~yn; ~~xJ '

flUy(X, y) = (nI2)1- ffc [ t/J(~){V3(~b) sinh(~y) + ~yV2(~b) cosh(~y)}; ~~X ]

+ (nI2)1- ffc [ t/J (~) {(I ~ v) cosh(~y) -l~y cosh(~y)}; .~~x] '
where denotes the rigidity modulus
fl EI 2 (1 + v) and the functions V l'
V 2, V 3 are defined by the equations

Udt) = {t 2 + (1-2v) sinh 2 t} 1(2t+ sinh 2t) ,

V 2 (t) = sinh 2 tl (2t + sinh 2t) ,
V 3 (t) = {t 2 - 2(1- v) sinh 2 t} I (2t + sinh 2t)
satisfies the conditions (6.16) and (6.17). For this displacement field the
following equations are obtained:
Integral transfarm methads 321

where the function M is defined by the equation

M(t) = {2t(t+ 1)+ 1-e- 2t} /(2t+ sinh 2t) .
The remaining two conditions (6.14), (6.15) are satisfied ifthe function t/I(~)
is the solution of the dual integral equations

(~)t ffs[t/I(~){l-M(~b)};xJ=p(x), O~x~c, (6.18)

ffc [t/I (~); x] =0, x> c . (6.19)

Equation (6.19) is again satisfied by the representation (6.5). Substituting this
form into equation (6.18) we obtain the relation

(X tg(t)dt
2 d
--d (2 2Y---d
n x.ox-t zn x
2 d
j~X
0
M(~b)t/I(~)cos(~x)d~=p(x), 0~x~c.(6.20)

If the operator I is defined by the equation

If(x) = 3. ~ j~X tf(t)dt

n dx 0 (X 2_t 2 )t

then it is easily shown that its inverse is defined by the equation

,-t h(x)dx
(t 2 -x 2t·
-1
I h(t) = • 0 z

Applying 1- 1 to both sides of equation (6.20) a Fredholm integral equation of

the second kind we find:

g(t) - (C sg(s)M(s, t)ds = ß(t)

-' 0

which determines the auxiliary function g(t); the kerne I of the equation is
defined by the equation

M(s, t) = f~ ~M(~b)Jo(~s)Jo(~t)d~,
and the right hand side by the equation

"()
p t =I
-1 ()
Pt =
{t p(x)dx
(t 2 -x 2)1.. • (6.21)
• 0 2

From equation (6.12) and the relation

322 1. N. Sneddon

( 0) _ 2(I-V l )fC tg(t)dt

u x,y - E x (tl_Xl)!

it is found that
4(1 Vl)fC
W = t ß(t) g(t)dt . (6.22)
E °
Lowengrub solved the integral equation for the case in which c ~ band
p(x)=Po, a constant and derived the formula
np (1 vl )
W = ° E- Cl {I +,ul(cjbY+,ul(cjb)4+,u3(Cjb)6 + o (c 8 jb 8 )} (6.23)

Infinite row of parallel cracks. Also considered in [5J is the c10sely related
problem of determining the distribution of stress in an infinite (two-dimen-
sional) medium in which there is an infinite row ofidentical cracks spaced at
equal intervals. (Cf. Figure 6.2). In this case the components of the dis-
placement field are defined by the equations
_ _ 1.$ [{ (1-2v) cosh ~(b- y)
,uUx (X, Y) - l:!l' s sinh ~b +
_ ~b. cosh ~y _ ~y si~h ~ (b - y)} t/J (~): ~~xJ·
smh l ~b smh ~b

1$ [{2(I-V)Sinh~(b-Y)
,uuy(x, y) = "2:!1' c sinh ~b +
_ ~b sinh ~y ~y cosh ~(b- y)} ./,()::). )::~ ]
sinh l ~b + sinh ~b 'I' ~ . s x .

These expressions are formulated to ensure that the boundary conditions

O"Xy(x, 0) = 0, -oo<x<oo
0" xy (x, + b) = uy (x, + b) = °, -oo<x<oo
are satisfied. By means of them the displacement field is calculated in the
band Iyl ~ b; that in any other part of the solid can be obtained by a simple
symmetry argument. From these equations it is easily shown that
d
O"yy(X, 0) = - dx§"s[{1+~(~b)}t/Jg);x]
Integral transfarm methads 323

rI'xy=U y = 0
- - - - - - - - - - f - - - - - - - - - - - y=b

o (c=o) x
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - y=-b
rJxy=U y = 0

2b

Figure 6.2

where the function H is defined by the equation

H(t) = (t+e- t sinh t) cosech 2 t, (6.24)
so that the boundary conditions
Uyy(x, 0) = - p(x) , lxI ~ c;
corresponding to the opening up of each crack under the action of a sym-
metrical pressure p(x) are satisfied if t/I (~) is the solution of the pair of dual
integral equations:
d
dx §"s[ {l+H(~b)}t/I(~); x] = p(x) , o~ x~ c,

§"c [ t/I (~); x] = 0 , x >c.

The second of these equations is again satisfied by the integral representation
(6.5), and it is easily shown that the first equation is satisfied if the function
g(t) is chosen in this case to be the solution ofthe Fredholm integral equation
324 I. N. Sneddon

g(t) + J: sK(s, t)g(s)ds = ß(t) , (6.25)

whose kernel is defined by the equation

K(s, t) = -2 J
OCJ
~H(~b)Jo(~t)Jo(~s)d~ (6.26)
n °
and in which the right-hand side is defined by the equation

p(t)
(2)+
=;; I t
0
p(x)dx
(t 2 _ x 2 )! . (6.27)

It is also easily shown that the energy of the crack is again given by the
equation (6.22).
The integral equation (6.25) has been derived by a different method by
England and Green [6], who also derive an approximate solution of it in
the case when p(x)=Po, a constant, and b~c. For this solution the cor-
responding expression for W is

which represents the crack energy.

Griffith crack in an infinite strip. Next consider the solution ofthe equations
of elastic equilibrium for th~ semi-infinite strip lxi ~ a, Y ~ 0 subject to the
boundary conditions
O"yy(x, 0) = +-- p(x) , lxi ~ c, (6.29)
uy(x,O) = 0 , c< lxi< a, (6.30)
O"xAx, 0) = 0 , lxi< a, (6.31)
0" xA + a, y) = 0" xy ( + a, y) = 0, lyl ~ 0, (6.32)
This boundary value problem, which was solved by Sneddon and Srivastav
[7], corresponds to the problem of a Griffith crack situated centrally in an
infinite strip and oriented in a direction normal to the edges of the strip
(cf. Figure 6.3). The crack is again assumed to be opened up by the application
of a symmetrical pressure p(x).
To obtain the solution of this boundary valueproblem a displacement
field is assumed in the form
Integral transfarm methads 325

(]'xx =(]'xy=0

(C,O) x
(]'yy=- p (x)

x=-o x=o

Figure 6.3

uAx, y)= -tffc[~-l {f(~)- (1- 2v)g(~)} sinh(~x)+ xg(~) cosh(~x); ~~ yJ

-tffs[,-14>(')(1- 2v - 'y)e-~Y; '~x ] (6.33)

uy(x, y)= -tffs [~-1 {f(~)+ 2(1- v)g(~)} cosh(~x)+xg(~) sinh(~x); (~y]

+tffc[,-14>(O(2-2v+'y)e-~y; '~xJ, (6.34)

in which the functions f, 9 and 4> are unknown. This form of solution ensures
that the condition (6.31) is satisfied. The conditions (6.32) are satisfied if the
functions f, 9 and 4> satisfy the equations
. eJoo'4>(Ocos(,a)
f(~) cosh (~a)+ a~ g(~) smh (~a) = - n 2 0 (~2 + (2)2 d', (6.35)

,. . . 4~ JOO ,24>(') sin ('a)

f(c;) smh(~a)+g(~){smh(~a)+~a cosh(~a)} = -; 0 (e+,2)2 d'.
(6.36)
The equations (6.29); (6.30) are equivalent to the pair of dual integral
equations
326 1. N. Sneddon

d
dx ffs [,-l </>(,); '~x] -

- (~)! I~ [{f(~)+2g(~ncosh(~x)+~xg(~)sinh(~x)]d~= -p(x)/2j1,

o~ x~ c,
c< x< a.

The second equation of this pair is satisfied by the integral representation

(6.37)

Substituting this form into the first equation ofthe pair and then applying the
operator 1-1 to both sides ofit we obtain the integral equation

G(t) - (~)! t I~ [{f(~)+2g(~nIo(~t)+~tg(~)Il(~t)]d~=tp(t),

O~t~c, (6.38)
where the function p(t) is defined by the equation

o~ t~c. (6.39)

Eliminating the functions f, 9 and </> from the form equations (6.35) through
(6.38) we get the integral equation

G(t) - I: {Hdu, t)+H2 (u, t)} G(u)du = tp(t) , O~ t~ c, (6.40)

where

H1 (u, t) = t foo xe-ax

. h( ) 10 (xu) 10 (xt)dx ,
o sm ax
O~u,t~c,

-2 foo xh(u, x) h(t,x)dx

H 2 (u, t ) - t . h (2ax)' O~u,t~c,
o 2ax+sm

with
h(u, x) = {ax coth (ax) -I} 10 (ux) - ux 11 (ux) .
Integral transform methods 327

Simple ca1culations show that the energy ofthe crack is given in terms ofthe
solution of equation (6.38) by the formula

W = 2n(1-v)J! f: p(t) G(t)dt

and that
k = lim [2(x- c)]t O"yy(x, 0) = 2t J!G(c) .
x-c+ c
The numerical work was carried out for the case p(x)= Po, a constant. In this
case P (t) = Pol (2J!). If G (t) is replaced by Po X(t) I (2J!) it follows from the above
equations that the crack energy Wand the stress intensity factor kare given
respectively by the equations

W = n(1-;Z)P~ f: X(t)dt , (6.41)

(6.42)

where X(t) is the solution of the Fredholm integral equation

X(t) - t f: X(u) [ H 1 (u, t) + Hz (u, t)] du = t , o~ t~ c. (6.43)

It will be recalled from the definitions of H 1 and Hz given above that the
kernel of the integral equation (6.43) depends on the value of a.
To afford a direct comparison with the numerical values which are easily
obtained in the case in which the edges ofthe strip are constrained, Sneddon
and Srivastav derived the numerical solution of equation (6.43) for a=n
and a range of values of the crack length c. It turns out that even for the higher
values of the ratio cla, the function X(t) differs only slightly from t. From the
values of the function X(t), the stress intensity factor k and the crack energy
W were computed by means of (6.41) and (6.42). The results are shown in
Tables I and Ir.

Two coplanar Griffith cracks in an infinite elastic medium.Lowengrub and

Srivastava [8] have used the method of integral transforms to determine
the stress field in the neighbourhood of two Griffith cracks defined by the
relations -b~ x~ -a, a~ x~ b, y=O which areopened by constant
pressure along the faces of the cracks.
328 I. N. Sneddon

TABLE I
The variation with c/a of the stress intensity factor K

K/po

c/a Constrained Stress-free

edge edge

0.1 0.398 0.399

0.2 0.570 0.575
0.3 0.714 0.727
0.4 0.852 0.883
0.5 1.000 1.058
0.6 1.173 1.271
0.7 1.401 1.573
0.8 1.754 2.047
0.9 2.511 3.068

TABLE II
The variation with c/a of the crack energy W

W/Wo

c/a Constrained Stress-free

edge edge

0.1 0.025 0.024

0.2 0.100 0.097
0.3 0.231 0.224
0.4 0.424 0.406
0.5 0.693 0.701
0.6 1.063 1.106
0.7 1.599 1.710
0.8 2.349 2.673
0.9 3.710 4.523

Wo = [n(l-v2)P6a2]/2E

The problem is equivalent to that of determining the displacement field

in the half-plane y ~ 0 when the boundary y = 0 is subjected to the mixed
boundary conditions
Integral transform methods 329

O"yy(x, 0) = -,p(x),
Uy (x, 0) = 0, lxi< a, lxi> b ,
O"Xy(x, 0) = 0, -oo<x<oo,
where the function p(x) is prescribed. By assuming a displacement field of
the form given by equations (6.1) and (6.2) the above boundary conditions
lead to the set of tripie integral equations
ffc[l/I(~); x] = 0, O<x<a,
ddx ffs[l/I (~) ; x] = !np(x) ,
ffc[l/I(~); x] = 0, x> b,
it being assumed that the prescribed pressure p(x) is an even function of x.
The solution of this set of equations is shown to be of the form

l/I(~) = ~-1 f: h(t 2) sin(~t)dt, (6.44)

where
h(t2)= _ ~(t2+a2)tfb(b2_y2)t yp(y)dy + C {{t2_a2)(b2_t2)}-i-,
n b2 - t 2 a y2 _ a 2 y2 _ t 2 1

(6.45)
the constant Cl being defined in terms ofthe complete elliptic integral ofthe
first kind F = K {(b 2 - a 2 )+ /b} by the formula

(6.46)

all integrals being interpreted as Cauchy principal values. Lowengrub and

Srivastava show also that this solution can be put into the alternative form

where the constant C 2 is defined by the formula

(6.48)
330 1. N. Sneddon

In terms of the constants Cl' C 2 and the constant N defined by the equation
n 2 2 Jb yp(y)dy
(6.49)
N= 2: (b - a) a [(b2 _ y2)(y2 _ a2)]t '

the stress intensity factors k a , k b defined by the equations

k a = lim {2(a-x)}t·(jyy(x, 0), k b = lim {2(x-b)}t·(jyy(X, 0)
x--+a- x-b+

are given by the formulas

Further the crack energy is given by the formula

in which the function P(t) is defined by the equation

P(t) = J: p(x)dx .
In the special case in which p(x)=Po, a constant, it is found that
Cl = Po {a 2 -(EIF)b 2} ,
2 _ t 2- (EIF)b 2
C 2 = Po b2(1- ElF) , h(t) - Po [(t2 _ a2)(b2 _ t2)Jt '

where E is the complete elliptic integral of the second kind, E = E {(b 2- a2)tIb }.
These expressions lead to

ka = {a(b2~a2)}t{(EIF)b2-a2}, kb = {b(b2~a2)}t(1-EIF), (6.51)

for the stress intensity factors and the formula

W = n(1-;2)P~ {a2+b2-2(EIF)b2}. (6.52)

Two coplanar Griffith cracks in an elastic strip. Lowengrub and Srivastava

also considered the problem of determining the stress field in the vicinity of
two coplanar Griffith cracks in an infinite1y long elastic strip [9J. The problem
they consider concerns a strip of material - 00 < x< + 00, - () ~ y ~ () with
Integral transform methods 331

y- 5

( -1,0) (-k.O ) (k.O) (1,0 ) x

Figure 6.4

the cracks located in the interior of the material on the line y = 0, k ~ lxi ~ 1,
where the constant k satisfies 0< k< 1 (cf. Figure 6.4). It is assumed that the
cracks are opened up under the action of a completely symmetrical pressure
p(x) and that the edges of the strip are free from stress. The boundary
conditions then become
O"yy(x, +e» = O"xAx, +e» = 0, (6.53)
O"yy(x, 0) = -p(x) k~ lxi ~ 1, (6.54)
uy(x, 0) =0 lxi< k, lxi> 1 , (6.55)
O"Xy(x, 0) =0 -oo<x<oo. (6.56)
In the stresses and displacements in the half-strip 0 ~ y ~ e> may be derived
from the displacement fie1d defined by the equations

(2n)t puAx, y) =
(Jb [IjJ(~) {~2e>2 cosh(~y) + (1- 2v) sinh 2ge» cosh(~y)+ ~y sinh2(~e» sinh(~y)
~s ~e>+~nh2~
+ !(1-2V)SinhgY)+!~YCOSh(~Y)}; ~---+xJ
(2n)t pUy (x, y) =
= fF [1jJ(~){ ee>2 sinh(~y)- 2(1- v) sinh2(~e» sinh(~y)+ ~y sinh2(~e» cosh(~y)
c 2~e>+sinh 2~e>

+ (1":"v) cosh(~y)-!~y Sinh(~Y)}; ~---+x ]

332 I. N. Sneddon

where the function ljJ (~) satisfies the set of tripie integral equations

ffc [ l/I (~); x] = 0 , o~ lxi< k, lxi> 1 ;

(6.57)

in which the function 2\11 is defined by the equation

M( ) = e- 2U -2u(u+ 1)-1
u 2u+sinh 2u .

Assuming the representation

l/I(~) = ~-1 r h(t2) sin (~t)dt ,

1

.Jk
(6.58)

and using the method described in (d) above it is easily shown that h(t 2 ) is
the solution of the Fredholm integral equation of the second kind,

h(x 2) + {h(t 2) K (x 2, t)dt = F(x 2) , k~ x~ 1, (6.59)

satisfying the condition

(6.60)

where
2
K(x , t) = -2
-4 (x 2 _k 2)t
1 2
(1 ( 1- y2)t
2 k
ym(y, t)
2 2 dx2 (6.61)
n -x .k Y - Y -x
with
m(y, t) = J: M(bu) cos(uy) sin(ut)du (6.62)
and
F(x 2)= _ ~(x2_k2)t
n l-x 2
f'l( y2-k2)
.J k
l-y2\tYP}Y)dY +
y-_x 2
C f (x 2 -k 2)(I-x 2)}-t,
l

(6.63)
C being an arbltrary constant determined by the condition (6.60). Now
consider the special case in which P(x) = Po, a constant. The stress along the
line of the cracks is given by the formula
Integral transform methods 333

_ 2
O"yy(X, 0) - - -
11:
I1
k
th(t 2)dt
2
t -X
2 -
2
-
11:
Jl
k
2
h(t) m(x, t)dt

from which it is a simple calculation to deduce that the stress intensity

factors defined by the equations
K k = lim [2(k-x)tJ. O"yy{x, 0), K l = lim [2(x-1)tJ. O"yy(x, 0)
x--+k - x--+ 1 +

are determined by means of the forml.ilas

.
K k = k'ki
Po [
(E/F-k) 1 -
2 { 10 Co
2b2 + 16C6}
4b4 +

+
21
b: (3k4+C1k2+C2)+O(b-6) (6.64)

where F = K (k'), E = E (k') are respectively the complete elliptic integrals of

the first and second kinds with modulus k' = (1 - k 2 )t and the constants
Co, Cl and C 2 are given by
C o = 1+k 2 -2(E/F) ,
Cl = k'4/(4C o)-1-k 2 , C 2 = k 2 + (E/F)C 1 , (6.66)
and 10 and 11 denote the integrals given by the equations

10 = I~ uM(u) du , 11 = - 3\ I~ u 3 M(u)du . (6.67)

The numerical values of 10 and 11 can be found from Ling's tables [10J;
they are 10 = - 2.34974, 11 = 1.66033.
Similarly, the expression
2
uy(x, 0) = 2(1 - v )
E
I 1

x
h(t 2 )dt, k~x~ 1

. for the crack dis placement is used to yield

W= 2(1-V 2 )PoJ. 1 th(t 2 )dt

E k

for the crack energy. To the same :order of approximation this gives
334 I. N. Sneddon

(6.68)

where the constants /11 and /12 are given by the equations
/11 = -!C o l 0 ' /12 = iC515-i(1+k2)(2+k'2jC5)/l. (6.69)
The case k=O corresponds to the case in which the two cracks have merged
to form a crack of length 2. Since in this case E= 1, EjF=O and C o = 1 it
follows that /11 = -tl0' /12 =i15 -~11 in agreement with equation (6.23).

Two parallel infinite rows of parallel cracks. If equations (6.54) through

(6.56) are retained but (6.53) is replaced by·
O"Xy(x, +<5) = 0, uy(x, +<5) = 0, - 00 < x< 00 ,

the boundary value problem corresponding to the array of cracks shown in

Figure 6.5 is obtained. In this case the displacement field is of the form

) -t a; [{~<5 cosh ~y (1- 2v) cosh ~ (<5 - y)

/1U x (x, Y) = ( 2n:J/'s . h2~<5 -
Sin
. h;:5:
';ln SV
+

( ) =(2 )-t a; [{2(1- ) sinh ~(<5- y) _ ~<5 sinh ~y

/1u y x, y n:J/' c . v sinh ~<5 sinh 2 ~<5 +

where l/I(~) again satisfies the equations (6.57) but now the kernelM(u) is
defined by the equation
M(u) = coth u-1 +u cosech 2 u .
The analysis proceeds in exactly the same way as before except that the
numbers 10 and 11 defined by equations (6.67) with this new form for Mare
found to have the values l o =n 2 j4, 11 =n 2 jl44. For instance, the crack
energy is given by equation (6.68) with /11 and /12 defined by the equations

111 = 1
-4 n
2C 0,
Integral transjorm methods 335
y

2k 1-k

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - y=5

o (kOl (1,0 ) x
- - - - - - - - -----y--5

Figure 6.5

It is easily verified that these values reduce to those given by equation (6.28)
in the case k= O.

An infinite row of cracks. The problem of determining the stress field in the
vicinity of a row of identical cracks spaced periodically (cf. Figure 6.6) has
been discussed by Sneddon and Srivastav [11J using the method of finite
Fourier transforms.to reduce the relevant mixed boundary value problem
to the solution of a pair of dual series relations. The displacement field can
336 I. N. Sneddon

2n:

I
x

2 c
iI

Figure 6.6

be written in the more familiar form of a Fourier series for y;;:: 0:

I
<Xi

uAx,y)= - an(1-2v-ny)e- nY sin(nx)

n=l (6.70)
<Xi

uy{x, y) = (l-v)ao + I an(2-2v+ny)e- ny cos(nx)

n= 1
where to satisfy the boundary conditions
(J Xy(x, 0) = 0, lxi ~ n, (J yy(x, 0) = - Po, lxI ~ c, uy(x, 0) = 0, c< lxi< n ,
the sequence {an}:'=o must be chosen to be the solution of the dual series
relations
<Xi

Inan cos (nx) = ±Po , (6.71)

n= 1

I
OC;

±ao + an cos(nx) = 0, c<x<n. (6.72)

n=l
To solve these equations a new function g(t) is introduced by the assumption
that the series on the left-hand side of equation (6.72) can be expressed in the
range 0 ~ x ~ c by the integral

1 (1 ) JC g(t}dt
'2 Po cos '2 X
x
(
coS· x -"- .cos t )-t .
Using the well-known formula for the calculation of the coefficients of a
Fourier series we find that
Integral transform methods 337

ao = 2+ . f: g(t)dt ,

an = 2 - +. f: {Pn (cos t) + Pn - 1 (cos t)} g (t) dt , (6.73)

where Pn denotes the Legendre polynomial of degree n. Substituting these

expressions for the coefficients an into the series on the left-hand side of
equation (6.71), interchanging the order of summation and integration and
summing the infinite series, we obtain an integral equation ofSchlömilch type
whose solution is easily found to be
g(t) = 2+· tanHt) .
It is a simple matter to show that for a spacing of 2n the stress intensity factor
is given by the formula
k = lim [2(x- c)Jt Uyy(x, 0) = 2+· Po tan-i- Hc) .
x-.c+

Written in terms of conventional units with 2a as the spacing (instead of 2n)

this equation takes the form

2at a n -
k=po [-
nCJ+ (6.74)
n 2a
The problem of determining the stress field in the vicinity of the irregularly
spaced array of cracks shown in Figure 6.7 has been considered by Parihar

Figure6.7

[12]. Starting from the displacement field (6.70) Parihar derives a set of
tripIe se ries relations for the determination of theelements of the sequence
{an }:= l ' His final result is complicated and the reader is referred to the
original paper for details.

Edge crack in an elastic half-plane. An integral trans form solution of the

plane strain problem of determining the stress and displacementfields in an
e1astic half-plane containing an edge crack normal to the free surface when
the faces ofthe crack are subjected to normal press ure has been given recently
by Sneddon and Das [13].
338 1. N. Sneddon

Suppose that the elastic solid occupies the half-plane x ~O and that we
take the length of the crack as our unit of length so that it occupies the
segment 0 ~ x ~ 1, y = O. Because of the assumed symmetry with respect to
the x-axis only the displacement field in the positive quadrant has to be
considered. The boundary conditions are
O"yy(x, 0) = - Pof(x) , O~ x~ 1, (6.75)
uy(x, 0) = 0, x >1, (6.76)
O"Xy(x, 0) = 0, x ~O, (6.77)
(cf. Figure 6.8) where Po is a constant with the dimensions of pressure and

O~==~--------~x

Figure 6.8

f(x) is a prescribed function of x. It is also assumed that

y~O . (6.78)
The displacement field may be represented by the equations
2f1.ux (x, y) = -g;-s [~-1 A(~)(1-2v- ~y)e-~y; ~-+xJ

+g;-c[,-1 B(O(2-2v+'x)e-'X; '-+yJ, (6.79)

2f1.U y(x, y) = g;-c[~-l A(~)(2-2v+~y)e-~y; ~-+xJ

- g;-s [,-1 B(')(l- 2v - 'x) e -'x; ,-+ yJ . (6.80)

Whatever the forms ofthe functions A and B, these displacement components
1ntegral transform methods 339

are such that the conditions (6.77) and the second of(6.78) are satisfied. The
boundary conditions (6.75) and (6.76) lead to the pair of dual integral
equations

ffs[~-IA(~); x] + (~y- x f~ B(()e-~Xd(=poF(x), O~x~ 1, (6.81)

ffc[(-1 A(n; x] = 0, x> 1, (6.82)

in which the function F is defined in terms of the prescribed function f by
the equation

F(x) = J: f(t)dt .

Similarly, the first of the equations (6.78) is equivalent to the relation

y~o. (6.83)

Equation (6.82) is automatically satisfied by the integral representation

A(~) (n)t fi
= "2 Po~ 0 ta(t)Jo(~t)dt (6.84)

ofthe unknown function A(~); for the function B(n a similar representation
IS

Substituting these expressions into equations (6.81) and (6.83) and operating
on each with 1-"1 we find that these equations are equivalent to

a(t) + J~ K(t, u)b(u)du = <fJ(t), O~ t~ 1, (6.85)

b(t) + J: K(t, u)a(u)du = 0, t ~O, (6.86)

where the kernel K is defined by the equation

K(t, u) = 4n- 1 tu 2 (u 2 + t 2 )-2 , (6.87)
and the function <fJ(t) by the equation
340 I. N. Sneddon

A. ( ) = ~ft f(s)ds (6.88)

'f' t TC 0 (t 2 _ S2)-!- •

The stress intensity factor is given by the formula

k= lim [2(x-1)]to- yy (x,0)=poa(1) (6.89)
x-+1+

and the crack energy by the formula

W =
TC(1
-E
V 2 )p 2
0
f10 ta(t) </J(t)dt . (6.90)

Since these last two formulae involve only the function a(t), b(u) may be
e1iminated from the equations (6.85) and (6.86) to obtain the single integral
equation

a(t) - 10 L(t, r) a(r)dr = <f>(t) ,

1
O~ t~ 1, (6.91)

whose kernel is given by the equation

16tr 2 [ t 2 +r 2
L(t, r) = ---;r (t2_r2)3 log ~
(t) - 1 ]
(t 2_r 2)2 . (6.92)

This kernel appears to have a singularity at t = r but in fact it is easily shown,

by means of l'Hospital's rule, that K (t, r)-+4j(3TC 2 r) as t-+r.
It turns out that (as a result of numerical integration of the integral

Figure 6.9
Integral transform methods 341

equation (6.91)) the stress intensity factor for a crack of length c is

k = 0.793Po(2c)t
and the crack energy is
W= 0.988 Wo ,
where Wo=2(1- v2)P5c2 IE.
The related problem of a line crack which makes an angle with the
boundary of a half-plane (cf. Figure 6.9) has been considered by Krapkhov
[14]. The method used is to express the displacement field in terms ofinverse
Mellin transforms and to solve the resulting dual integral equations by
means of the Wiener-Hopf technique. The details are too complicated to be
reproduced here; the reader is referred to the original paper for them.

6.4 External cracks

The problem of the determination of the displacement and stress fields in a

plane weakened by two colinear external cracks, of the form shown in Figure
6.10, has been considered by Lowengrub [15]. T 0 simplify the analysis the

o (1,0 ) x

Figure 6.10

unit of length is taken to be one-half of the distance between the tips of the
cracks. The boundary conditions for the corresponding mixed problem for
the half-plane y > 0 are: .
O"yy{x, 0) = - p(x) , lxi ~ 1,
uy(x, 0) = 0, lxi< 1,
0" Xy(x, 0) = 0 , -oo<x<oo,
where the function p(x) is prescribed for lxi ~ l.
Consider a displacement field of the form
342 1. N. Sneddon

ux(x, y) = t J~ ~-1 (1- 2v- ~y)e -~y {l/I i~) cos (~x)- '/lA~) sin (~x)} d~ ,
(6.93)
uy(x, y) = t J~ ~ -1(2 - 2v + ~y) e -~y {l/Is(~) cos (~y)+ l/Ia(~) sin (~x)} d~ ,
(6.94)
Now, if Ps(x)=t{p(x)+p( -x)} and Pa(x)=t{p{x)-p( -x)}, then the
unknown functions l/Is(~) and l/Ia(~) respectively satisfy the pairs of dual
integral equations:

-
J~ ~ 1 l/Is (~) cos (~x) d~ = 0, O~x<l,

d
dx
Ja)0 ~-1l/1s(~) sin (~x)d~ = Ps (x) , x ~ 1 ;

J~ ~-1"'a(~) sin(~x)d~=O, O~x<l,

x~ 1.

By a method similar to that adopted in section 6.2 Lowengrub showed that

the solution of the first pair can be written in the form

(6.95a)
where

- -
2 J1 Jo(~t)dt Ja) (2
xPs(x)dx
2)t' (6.95b)
n 0 1 x -t

and that the solution of the second pair can be similarly written as

(6.96a)

(6.96b)
Integral transform methods 343

p p

p
o (1,0 ) p
x

Figure 6.11

o (1.0 ) p
x

Figure 6.12

The case shown in Figure 6.11 corresponds to Ps(x)=Pb(C-X), Pa(x)=O

and it is easily deduced from the above solution that

(6.97)

Similarly thecase shownin Figure 6.12corresponds to pAx) = 0, Pa=Pb(c-x)

and subsequently the formula

k = =[1 + (c2 ~ 1 )1 ] . (6.98)

6.5 Star-shaped and cruciform shaped cracks

The problem of finding the stress field in the vicinity of a star-shaped crack
of 2n arms (as shown in Figure 6.13) has been discussed by Srivastav and
Narain [16]. It is assumed that the pressure is symmetrically distributed so
that the problem, stated in terms of plane polar coordinates (r, ß), is equiv-
alent to the mixed boundary value problem
344 I. N. Sneddon

Figure 6.13

O"rO(r, +0:) = 0, uo(r, +0:) = 0, r ~ 0,

O"09(r, 0) = -2pf(r), 0~ r~ 1
U o(r, 0) = 0 , r> 1 ,
for the infinite wedge 181 ~ 0: = nln. In terms of the inverse Mellin operator
JIt -1 defined by the equation

JIt - 1 [4> (s) ; x] = 1.

-2
nz
f 4>
L
(s) x - S ds

(in the usual notation) and the differential operator D = aloe, Srivastav and
Narain represented the displacement field by the expressions
ur(r, 8)= +r- 1J1t- 1[(s+1)-1{(1-v)D 2-s(1+vs)}X; s~rJ, (6.99)
uo(r, 8)= -r- 1J1t- 1[{(s+1)(s+2)}-1
x {(1-v)D 2+(1+v)s2+(s+1)(s+2)}DX; s~rJ,
(6.100)
where the function X(s, e) is given by the equation
X(s, 8) =
= ()[(s + 2) cos{ (e - o:)s} sin {(s+ 2)0:} - s sin(sx)cos {(s + 2)(8 - 0:) }]
t/I s s. sin (so:) sin {(s + 2)0:}
Integral transform methods 345

The function ljJ(s) is determined by the dual integral equations

A- 1 [(s+ 1){(s+2) cot(sa)-s'cot(s+2)a} ljJ(s); rJ = r 2 f(r), O~ r~ 1,
A- 1 [ljJ(s);rJ=0 r>1.
If it is given the integral representation

ljJ(s) = r(ts~!)r(t) f1 t S g(t)dt

rb- s + 1) 0

it can be shown that the auxiliary function g(t) is the solution ofthe Fredholm
integral equation

g(t) + f: g(u) K (u, t)du = h(t) , (6.101)

whose kernel is defined by the equation

t
K(u, t) = 2A-1 [s'cot{(s+2}o:}-(s+2) cot(sa)
+ 2 cot (tsn)} tan (!sn); tluJ (6.102)
and whose right-hand side is defined by the equation

h(t) = ~ ft f(x)dx J- •

n 0 (t 2 - X 2 )2
The integral equation (6.101) has been solved numerically by Srivastav and
Narain; tabulated values ofthe function g(t) for the cases in which the angle
a takes the values 45°,60°, 75° and 85° are given in [16]. From these values
it is possible to calculate by aseries of quadratures the stress and displacement
fields near the tip of each arm of the crack.
A similar analysis has been given by Westmann [17]. He arrived also at
the integral equation (6.201) but solved it by the Wiener-Hopf technique.
Westmann derived the formula (in the ca se of constant pressure Po)

r-1 +

where K (n) is a complicated function ofn which has the asymptotic behaviour
K (n) '" (2In}t, as n~ CfJ •

Figure 6.14 shows the variation of K (n) with n as determined by Westmann

together with the variation of (2In)t to show how good the asymptotic
formula Is.
 346 I. N. Sneddon

1.0
1\
\
\
o.a \

v-f
\

~ ~~
f- -
n
0.6
c:

0.4
~~
~
r------
1'-...
0.2
~
t---
I I I ~ 1 1 ~ ~- I I
4 {) 8 10 20 40 60 100 200 400 1000 4000 10,000
n
Figure 6.14

The related problem of a crack at the tip of a wedge has been discussed by
Srivastav and Narain in [16]. The boundary conditions on the line 8=0
are the same as before but on the boundaries 8 = + ex of the wedge the stress-
free conditions (J (j(j = (J rr = 0 prevail. The displacement field is again given
by equations (6.99) and (6.100) but now the appropriate form ofthe function
X(s, 8) is given by the equation
X(s, 8) = l/1(s) [sin {s(8 - ex)} - s(s + 2t 1 sin {(s+ 2)(8- ex)}
S· cos (sex) - cos {(s + 2) ex }
+ (s + 2) sin { (s + 2) ex} - s . sin (sex)

x {COS{S(8-ex)}-COS{(S+2)(8-ex)}].
lf
1/1() = S+2[8 cos{(s+2)ex} sin (sex)-(s+ 2) cos(sex) sin{(s+2)ex}]-1
(S+ 2) sin { (8 + 2) ex} - s . sin (sex)

r
8 s

x T(!s;-!)T(!) tSg(t)dt
Ttz-s+ 1) -' 0
it is found that g(t) satisfies a Fredholm equation of the type (6.101) with
h(t) defined in terms of f as before but the kernel now being given by the
formula
Integral transfarm methads 347

6-a

o~===------------

6- -a
Figure 6.15

Figure 6.16

K(u, t)=
=!J/t-l[{2-tan(1.sn) 2s(s+2)(1-cossa)-4sin(sa)sin{(s+2)a} }- !J
2 2 S cos {(s+ 2)a} sin(sa) - (s+ 2) sin {(s+ 2)a} cos(sa) 'u

This integral equation has been solved numerically by Srivastav and Narain
348 1. N. Sneddon

but only in the case in which a = n/2 which corresponds to the geometry of
Figure 6.8 above. The results are tabulated in [16J.
The corresponding problem for external cracks is shown in Figure 6.16.
This problem has also been considered in [16J in the form of the mixed
boundary value problem

(Joo(r, +a) = 0, uo(r, +a) = 0, r;::: 0,

U o(r, 0) = 0 , 0 ~ r< 1,
(Joo(r, 0) = - 2f1J(r) , r;::: 1 .
The displacement field is again given by equations (6.99) and (6.100) but
now I./.t (s) must satisfy the dual integral equations
.ß-l[I./.t(S); rJ =0, O~r< 1,
.ß- 1 [k(s) I./.t(s); rJ = r J~ f(u)du , r;::: 1 ,

where k(s)= (s+2) cot(sa)- S· cot {(s+2)a}. To solve these dual equations

I./.t(s) = T(±-±s)~H) Joo g(t)tS-1dt

2T (1- 2 s) 1

which automatically satisfies the first of them and which when substituted
into the second leads to the Fredholm integral equation

for the determination of the function g(t). In this equation, the kernel
Kdu, t) is defined in terms ofthe kerne1 K(u, t) defined by equation (6.102)
through the equation
Kdt, u) = (ut)-l K(u, t),
and the function h 1 (t) is defined by the equation.

hd t ) = - ; dt
1 d Joo (Xx2 _tdx2 )-} Joo f(y)dy.
t
2
x

The case of a star-shaped crack when n = 2 (i.e. when the crack is of cruciform
shape) may be analysed by the method introduced at the end of section 6.3.
In this ca se the geometry is the simple one shown in Figure 6.17. Assuming
that the faces of the crack were subjected to asymmetrie pressure Pof(x),
Integral transform methods 349

Rooke and Sneddon [18J took in the positive quadrant a displacement field
of the type given by equations (6.79) and (6.80) but with A=B. (The stress
field in the remainder of the plane can easily be determined by a symmetry
argument.) The boundary conditions
axAO, y) = - Pof(Y) , O~y~l,

ux(O, y) = 0, y> 1,
aXY(O, y} = 0, y~ 0,
a yy (x, 0) = - Pof(x) , O~x~l,

uy(x, 0) = 0, x> 1,
aXY(x, 0) = 0, x~ 0,
then lead to a pair of dual integral equations of the form (6.81), (6.82) but
y

(0.1 )

(-1.0 ) o (1.0 ) x

( 0,-1)

Figure 6.17

with B replaced by A. It follows from equation (6.86) that if we represent

A(~) by a formula of the type (6.84) then the function a(t) must satisfy the
Fredholm integral equation

a(t) + J: K(t, u)a(u)du = cjJ(t) , O~ t~ 1, (6.103)

where K(t, u) is given by equation (6.87) and cjJ(t) by equation (6.88). The
stress intensity factor is given in terms of the solution of this equation by
(6.89) and the crack energy by (6.90). In the case in which the applied internal
pressure is constant, Po, we have cjJ (t) = 1 and

a(l) = 0.8636 , (ta(t)dt = 1.4914.

350 1. N. Sneddon

It follows therefore that the stress intensity factor is given by the expression
k = 0.8636ko ,
and the crack energy by
W = 1.4914 Wo,
where ko=Po and Wo=4n(l-v)p6/E.
The case of a crack with arms of unequal lengths 2a and 2b has been
considered by Sneddon and Das [19]. In this case the cracks are defined by

Il (0, b)

---c:=======:
( -a,Ol (a,Ol x
(0, -b)

Figure 6.18

the relations lxi :s; a, y=O and Iyl :s; b, x=O in the xy-plane (cf. Figure 6.18).
The boundary conditions in this case are
(J xx (0, y) = - Pog(y) , O:s; lyl :s; b ,
ux(O, y) = 0, Iyl >b
(JXY(O, y) = 0, -oo<y<oo
(J yy (x, 0) = - Pof(x) , O:s; lxi :s; a ,
uy(x, 0) = 0, lxi >a,
(Jyy(x, 0) = 0, -oo<x<oo
where the functions fand gare prescribed and are for simplicity, assumed
to be even functions.

6.6 Circular cracks

Circular cracks in an infinite solid. The problem of determining the distribu-

tion of stress in the neighbourhood of a circular-or "penny-shaped"--crack,
Integral transform methods 351

specified by the relations p ~ c, z = 0 in an infinite solid can be solved in a

manner similar to that used in section 6.2 for a Griffith crack. In terms of
cylindrical co ordinate (p, 4>, z), the problem is equivalent to finding the
displacement field in the half-space z ~ 0 when its plane boundary is loaded
in such a way that
er zAp, 0) = - p (p), 0 ~ p ~ c ; uAp, 0) = 0, p > c ; () pAp, 0) = 0, p ~ 0 ,
(6.104)
where u= [up(p, z), 0, uz(p, z)] denotes the displacement vector. By making
use of the theory of Hanke1 transforms it can be shown that
up(p, z) = -Je 1 [~-1(1-2v-~z)IjJ(~c)e-~Z; ~-pJ
(6.105)
U z (p, z) = Je 0 [~-1 (2- 2v+ ~z) 1jJ(~c)e-';z; ~-p J
where the operator Jen is defined by the equation

(6.106)

By ca1culating ()zz (p, z) from the stress-strain relation and reformulating the
conditions (6.104) we find that the unknown function ljJ(t) is the solution
of the dual integral equations
Jeo[ljJ(t);xJ =f(x) , 0~x~1 ;
Je O [C 1 1jJ(t); xJ = 0, x> 1.
where the function f(x) is defined in terms of p by the equation
f(x) = (1 + v)c 2 E- 1 p(xc) ,
The second of the dual equations is automatically satisfied by taking ifJ (t)
as the integral representation

ljJ(t) = f: g(x) sin (xt)dx . (6.107)

Substituting in the first equation of the pair we find that the function g(x)
satisfies an integral equation of Abel type whose solution is easily found to be

( ) = ~ JX (2
9 x
sf(s)ds
2)t· (6.108)
n 0 x -s
(Cf. [4J).
It is readily deduced that the stress intensity factor
352 1. N. Sneddon

k= lim [2(p-c)J t O"zAp, 0)

p ..... c+

is determined from the pair of formulat:

2 1
k = - --:;:: G(c), G( u) = f" pp(p)dp (6.109)
n C2 o (2
U -p
2).1.. .
2

In the case in which p(p)=Po, a constant, we find that G(u)=pou so that

k = (2/n) Po ci.
The energy of the formation of the crack can be expressed in terms of
the function G(u) by means of the formula

W= 8(I-v 2 )J C
{G(u)}2du. (6.110)
E 0

In the case in which p(p)=Po, this gives W=8(I-v2)P5c3/(3E).

The related problem of the opening up of circular cracks in an infinite
solid as a result of thermal fields has been discussed by Olesiak and Sneddon
[20J using integral transform techniques but no new matters of principle
are involved and hence it will not be discussed here.
If, in addition to the applied pressure, there is a cohesive force of the type
postulated by Barenblatt the formula for the stress intensity factor can be
modified in an obvious way. Suppose that the cohesive force c(s), with
s = c - G, acts over only a small zone near the rim of the crack then it is
neCeSsary to add to G(c) the quantity - (2c)-t C, where C is the constant
defined by the equation

C = J: si. c(s)ds
and called by Barenblatt [21J the cohesive modulus of the material.
A model ofthe conditions near the rim of a circular crack when a constant
pressure Po is applied to the faces of the crack has been analysed by Olesiak
and Wnuk [22] by taking the elastic solution with

p(p) = { Po, O~ p~ c cos ß,

(6.111)
-Pi' c cos ß< p~ c,
where ß is very small. Barenblatt's condition is then replaced by the simple
condition G(c)=O, with G(c) defined by the second equation of the pair
(6.109) and the equations (6.111), and this yields the equation
Pl = Po (cosec ß-1)
Integral transjorm methods 353

which connects P1' ß and po. The crack energy is then given by the formula
8(1-v 2 )p 2 c 3
W= 3E 0 {cos (2ß) + tan 2 (! ß)(l + 2 cos ß)} .

To ca1culate the value of the crack energy it is necessary to know the ap-
propriate value of ß, and the additional relation connecting the three
quantities P1' ß, Po only one of which is prescribed (Po)· Olesiak and Wnuk
assume that this is provided by making the hypothesis that the value of Pl
to be taken is that which leads to a certain combination of the stress compo-
nents reaching a critical value which is characteristic of the material. The
consequences of such a hypo thesis are explored by these authors in the form
of aseries of numerical ca1culations.

Circular cracks in cylinders. The method of Hankel transforms outlined

above has been extended in several papers in an attempt to estimate the
effect ofthe geometry ofthe elastic solid upon the.value ofthe stress intensity
factor and that of the crack energy. We discuss briefly the problems con-
cerning a penny-shaped crack in an infinite cylinder whose radius is chosen
z

/----
--
Figure 6.19

(in terms of the radius of the crack as unit of length) to be a. It is assumed

that the crack lies in a plane normal to the axis of the cylinder and that its
center lies on that axis (cf. Figure 6.19).
In the first problem [23J it is assumed that
up (a, z) = 0 , (j pz (a, z) = 0 (6.112)
354 I. N. Sneddon

while in ~he second problem [24J it is assumed that

(J'pp(a, z) = (J'pAa, z) = O. (6.113)
In both problems it is assumed that the crack faces are subjected to apressure
2f1f(p). The problem is therefore equivalent to a boundary value problem
for the semi-infinite cylinder 0::::;; p::::;; a, z ~ 0, when the plane boundary is
subjected to the mixed boundary conditions
(J'zz(p,O)= -2f1f(p), 0::::;;p::::;;1; uz(p,O)=O, 1< p::::;; a ; (6.114)
(J' pAp, 0) = 0, 0::::;; p::::;; a , (6.115)
and the curved surface to either of the pairs of conditions (6.112) or (6.113).
The solution of the equations of equilibrium is taken in the form
02U
U z = OZ2 - 2(1-v)LlU, (6.116)

where Ll denotes the axisymmetric Laplace operator

02 1 0 02
Ll = - + - - + -
Op2 P op OZ2
and U is a biharmonic function (LlLl U = 0) which is given by the integral
representation

(6.117)
This representation has the property that it leads to (J' pz (p, 0) = O. The
remaining conditions (6.114) on the plane z=O are satisfied if A,B and t/J
satisfy the dual equations

$'o[t/J(~);pJ + -2 foo [{A(~)-2vB(~)}Io(~p)-~pB(~)Il(~p)Jd~ =f(p) ,

n 0

0::::;; p::::;; 1 ,
$' 0 [ ~ - 1 '" (~) ; p] = 0 , l<p::::;;a.
Again, let the function t/J be represented by an integral of the type (6.107)
and thereby ensure that the second equation of this pair is automatically
satisfied.
When we substitute this expression into the first equation of the pair and
Integral transform methods 355

then operate on both sides of the resulting equation by 1- 1 we get the

integral equation

g(t) + -2 Joo [ {Ag) + (1 - 2v) B (~)} sinh (~t) - B (~) ~ t cosh (~t)] d~ = h (t) ,
n 0
(6.118)
in which the function h(t) is derived from the prescribed functionf(p) by
means of the formula

h(t) = ~Jt pf(p)dP. (6.119)

n 0 (t 2 - p2)t

So far the analysis is common to both problems. Writing down the integral
equations corresponding to the boundary conditions (6.112) and eliminating
the functions A and B from this pair of equations and equation (6.118) we
find that the function g(t) is the solution ofthe Fredholm equation

g(t) - J: K (t, u) g(u)du = h(t) (6.120)

whose kernel is defined by the equation

K (t, u) = H u+t) - (u-t)

(-a- -a- ,H

with the function H given by the expression

H(x) = -2-
2 Joo K 1((u)) [cosh(ux)-lJdu,
n a 0 11 u
K 1 and 11 denoting modified Bessel functions of the first order.
The stress intensity factor k = limp "' 1 + [2 (p -1) Jt 0"zAp, 0) is given in
terms of this function 9 by the simple formula
k = g(l) , (6.121)
and the crack energy by the formula
(-1)
w-_ 2n (1-v 2 )
2
E wa ,

where
w(a- 1 ) = J: h(t)g(t)dt. (6.122)
356 1. N. Sneddon

Of course, this last equation gives W in terms of a system of units in which

the unit of length is taken to be the radius of the circular crack. In terms of
convential units in which the radius of the crack is c the above formula is
then replaced by

W = 2n 2 (1- V2 )C 3 w(c/a) (6.123)

E .

In particular, if a constant pressure Po is applied to the faces of the crack

h(t}=2p o t/n and this equation reduces to
(6.124)
where Wcc = 8(1- V2 )C 3 PÖ/3E is the energy ofthe system in the case in which

r
a ~c,
W1 (c/a) = 3 tcfJ (t)dt (6.125)
~ 0

and cfJ (t) is the solution of the integral equation

cfJ(t) - f: K(t, u) cfJ(u)du = t . (6.126)

Since the function g(t) = h (t)in the case in which a ~ c, the percentage increase
of the stress intensity factor over its value in the ca se of an isolated crack is
given by the formula
= g(l)- h(l) 100
n h(l) x .

In the case of constant pressure Po this reduces to

n1 = {cfJ(l)-l} x 100. (6.127)
Two points in the analysis should be noticed: in the first instance the kernel
ofthe integral equation (6.126) does not depend on the value ofthe Poisson's
ratio of the material; secondly, to determine the stress intensity factor or the
percentage increase n only g(l) has to be calculated.
The analysis in the second case based on the boundary conditions (6.113)
goes through in exact1y the same way, the only difference being that the
kernel of the integral equation (6.126) is given by much more complicated
formulas. In this case, too, the kernel does depend on the value ofthe Poisson's
ratio. F or details of the analysis an interested reader is referred to p. 204
et seq. of [25J.
Integral transjorm methods 357

Numerical values of n 1 calculated from equation (6.127) are given in [23J

and the corresponding factor in the ca se of the boundary conditions
(6.113)-denoted by nz-is tabulated in [24J on the assumption that the
Poisson's ratio is 0.25. The variation of n 1 and n z with the ratio r=c/a
plotted from these va lues is shown graphically in Figure 6.20. From these
curves it is observed that the difference between the values of n 1 and nz is
not physically significant and that in either case the percentage increase of
the value over that for an isolated crack is less than 10% ifthe radius ofthe
crack is less than half of that of the cy linder.

r
Figure 6.20

A comparison of the axisymmetric solution and that of the corresponding

plane strain solution is shown in Figure 6.21, where n 1 has the above meaning
and n is the corresponding quantity calculated from formula (6.74):

n = 100 {( 2a nc)t }
nc tan 2a - 1 .

In the axisymmetric ca se the independent variable x is equal to the ratio of

the area of the crack to the cross-sectional area of the cylinder while in the
plane strain case x is the ratio of the crack length to the distance between the
358 1. N. Sneddon

centers of two neighbouring cracks. These graphs show that unless the radius
of the crack is greater than one-half of the radius of the cylinder, there is
litde error incurred by taking the corresponding value of n for either n 1 or n 2 •

140

20

0.4 x 1.0
Figure 6.21

In other words a reasonable approximation for either n 1 or n 2 is given by

2a 2 nC2)!
n = 100 [( nc 2 tan 2a 2 -

which re duces when c ~ a to

25n 2 c4
6a 4 [1 + o (c 4 ja 4 )] .

Circular cracks in thick plates. Lowengrub [26J has considered two basic
boundary value problems relative to the determination of the distribution
of stress in the vicinity of a circular crack lying symmetrically in the central
plane z = 0 of a thick plate. If the radius of the crack is taken to be the unit
length then the crack is determined by the relations 0::::;; p::::;; 1, Z = 0 and the
plate is given by - b::::;; z::::;; b.
In the first problem it is assumed that the surfaces of the plate are given a
Integral transjorm methods 359

uniform displacement e with the boundary conditions (for the elastic layer
O~ z~ J):
(6.128)
0" pz(p, 0) = 0, p ~ 0; O"zAp, 0) = 0, O~ P ~ 1 ; uAp, 0) = 0, p > 1. (6.129)
It has been assumed that the faces of the crack are free from applied stresses.
Ifthe components ofthe displacement vector are taken to be (u p , 0, U z + ez/J)
then up and U z must be such as to satisfy the modified boundary conditions

p ~O, (6.130)
O"pz(p, 0) = 0, p ~O; O"zAp, 0) = -2J1ß2 8 /J, O~ P ~ 1; uAp, 0) = 0,
p> 1, (6.131)
where ß2=2(I-v)/(1-2v).
In the second problem it is assumed that the crack is opened up under
internal press ure with the conditions
O"pz(p, J) = O"zz(p, J) = 0, p ~O; (6.132)
O"pAp,O)=O, p~O; O"zAp,O)=-p{p), O~p~l; uAp,O)=O,
p > 1. (6.133)
If the displacement field is taken to be of the form
(1-2v) cosh ~(J-z)
sinh ~J

+
~z sinh ~(J-z)} . ;::~
sinh ~J ,S P
J
= _l.Yf ["-l'I,(;::).{~J sinh ~z _ 2(1- ) sinh ~(J-z)
Uz 2 0 r; 0/ S sinh2 ~J v sinh ~J

_ ~z cosh ~ (b - z)}. ;: ~ ]
~ sinh ~J ,S P

then the boundary conditions of the first of these two problems are satisfied
if the function !/J (~) is taken to be the solution ofthe dual integral equations
.Yf 0[{I + H(~J)} !/J(~); p] = ß2 e/J , O~p~l,

.Yf 0 [ ~ - 1 !/J (~); p] = 0, p> 1,

360 1. N. Sneddon

where the function His defined by the equation

H(x) = (x+ 1_e- 2x ) cosech 2 x.
By using the method outlined for the cylinder, Lowengrub reduced the
solution of these dual integral equations to the solution of a Fredholm
integral equation of the second kind for an auxiliary function g(t).
The same method can be used to derive the solution of the second of the
above two problems.
The solution of the first of these two problems can be used to derive the

°
solution of the problem of determining the stress field in an infinite solid
containing an infinite set of circular cracks ~ p ~ c, z = + nh, (n = 0, 1, 2, ... )
when the faces ofeach crack are subjected to exactly the same pressure [27].

External circular cracks. The problem of determining the distribution of

stress in an infinite elastic solid when pressure is applied to the faces of a flat
"external" crack covering the outside of a circle has been discussed by
Uflyand [28]. Uflyand expresses the Boussinesq-Papkovich solution of the
equations of elastic equilibrium in toroidal coordinates and then uses the
Mehler-F ock transform to solve the relevant boundary value problem. It
should be observed that the boundary value problem is not a mixed problem
in this case-the normal stress and the shearing stress are prescribed on the
boundary-but the properties ofthe Mehler-Fock transform are by contrast
much more complicated than those of the Hankel trans form.
Lowengrub and Sneddon [29] use cylindrical coordinates (p, 4J, z) and
Muki's solution [30] of the elastic equations. To simplify the analysis the
radius of the circle is taken to be the unit of length so that the crack faces are
described by the relations p ~ 1, z = 0, and it is assumed that:
(1) the face p ~ 1, z=o+ is loaded in exactly the same way as the face
p~1, z=o-;
(2) the applied pressure p(p, 4J) is an even function of 4J.
The restrietion (2) is not in any sense limiting; any problem in which it is
not satisfied can be solved in exactly the same way except that the Fourier
series representing p(p, 4J) will then containing sine terms in addition to
eosine terms. In the method used in [29] the condition (1) cannot be relaxed;
it must be retained in order that the stated problem can be reduced to a
mixed boundary value problem for a half-space. It should be emphasized
that Uflyand's solution does not involve making this assumption of symmetry
about the plane of the crack.
Integral transform methods 361

Because of the condition (1) the problem may be reduced to that of deter-
mining the displacement field in the half-space z ~ 0 when the plane z = 0 is
subjected to the boundary conditions

Uz (p, 4>, 0) = 0 , 0 ~ 4> ~ 2n, p~1

(Jzz(p,4>,O)=-p(p,4», O~4>~2n, p>l
o ~ 4> ~ 2n, p ~0.

In these circumstances the displacement field may be glven the Muki

representation

L
00

up = cos(m4»Jft'm_l[~-1I/lm(~)(1-2v-~z)e-~Z; ~-p]
m=O

- L
00

m cos(m4»p-l Jft' m[~-2I/1m(~)(1-2v-~z)e-~Z; ~-p]

m=O

L
00

u</J = _2p-l m sin(m4»Jft' m[~-2I/1m(~)(1-2v-~z)e-~Z; ~-p]

m=O

L
00

Uz = cos(m4»Jft'm[~-1I/lm(~)(2-2v+~z)e-~Z; ~-p],
m=O

where the functions I/Im(~) are the solutions of the dual integral equations
Jft' m [ ~ - 11/1 m (~); p] = 0 , O~p<l,

Jft' m[1/1 m(~); p] = gm (p) , p ~ 1,

the functions gm(P) being defined by the expansion

The solution of these equations was derived by Lowengrub and Sneddon in

the form

where the functions Gm(t) are defined by the equation

(6.134)
362 1. N. Sneddon

from which it is easily deduced that the stress intensity factor

k= -lim [2(1-p)]to- zz {p, </>,0)
p"'l-

is given by the formula

4E co
k =
n
2 (1
+v
) L G m (1) cos (m</»
m=O
. (6.135)

The case of loading by two equal and opposite point forces (cE Figure 6.22)
has been considered in detail in [29].
y
p

o x
p

Figure 6.22

F or an axisymmetric loading function p (p), the displacement component

u<p (p, z) vanishes identically and the two remaining components of the
displacement vector are given by the equations
up(p, z)= -Yl'1 [e- 1l/t(e)(1-2v-ez)e-';z; e-p] ,
uz(p, z)= Yl'o[e- 1l/t(e)(2-2v+ez)e-';z; e-p] ,
with the function l/t(e) defined by the equation

l/!(e) = f~ g(t) cos (et)dt ,

in which
g(t) = 2(1 + v) Jco pp(p)dp . (6.136)
nE t (p2 - t 2)t
It is then easily shown that the stress intensity defined above is given by the
formula
k = g(1) . (6.137)
Special cases of these formulas are considered in some detail in [29]. These
correspond to the loadings:
Integral transform methods 363

(a) p(p) = PoH (a- p) , k = (po/n)/(a 2 -l)t, (a = 1.2, 1.6, 2.0)

(b) p(p) = PoP -m, (m > 1), k = r(!m-t)po {r(tm)nt} -1 ,

(c) p(p) = POp-2 , k = Po,

(d) p(p)=Pb(p-c)/(2nO), k=n- 2(c 2 _1)-tp, (c>l).

6.7 Cracks in stress fields with body forces

The problem of determining the stress intensity factor in an e1astic body in

which there are body forces acting arises in the consideration of practical
problems involving rivets and stiffeners. In a model describing such a
situation the rivet reactions are often represented by body forces.
The problem of determining the displacement field in an infinite solid
(in the plane strain case) is discussed in [31] in the situation in which there
are symmetrie body forces-i.e. it is assumed that the body force at (x, y) in
the x-direction, denoted by X (x, y), is odd in x and even in y, while Y(x, y),
the component in the y-direction is even in x and odd in y. It is supposed that
the faces of the crack are free from tractions (CE Figure 6.23).
y

~
X (-x,y)
L-
(x,y) x

~:y)
0
(Xr x

Figure 6.23

The solution is obtained as the sum of the solutions of the following two
problems:

Problem 1: Find the displacement field u(1) satisfying the equations of

elastic equilibrium in the presence of the prescribed body forces, which tends
to zero at infinity and satisfies the boundary conditions U~l )(x, 0) = 0, ()~~}(x, 0) = 0
for all real values of x.
For this solution it is a simple matter to calculate the normal stress on the
x-aXlS,
. yy x, 0) .
() (l)(
364 I. N. Sneddon

Problem 2: Find the displacement field U(2) in the neighbourhood of a

Griffith crack when the faces of the crack are su~jected to apressure p(x)=
er~;) (x, 0).

Problem 2 has been discussed already in section 6.2; Sneddon and Tweed
[31J have derived the solution of Problem 1 by applying the theory ofFourier
transforms directly to the equations of elastic equilibrium with body forces
present. Once the function p (x) has been calculated from this solution we
can use equation (6.11) to obtain the formula for the stress intensity factor at
the tip of the crack.· It turns out that
(1-2v)er .l.j,ooJoo (6.138)
k = (l-v)n C2 0 0 S(u, v) Jo(cu)dudv ,

where er denotes the density of the solid and the function S is defined by
2vu 3 - 2 (1- v)uv 2
S(u, v) = (1-2v)(u 2 +v 2)2 ffs[ffc{X(x,y);y~v};x~uJ,

2(2- v)u 2 v+ 2(1- v)v 3 cz cz ., .

+ (1-2v)(u 2+v2)2 J1'c[J1's{Y(x, y), y~v}, x~uJ.
(6.139)
Several special cases are considered in detail in [31 J.
The general plane strain problem when the distribution of body forces
can no longer be assumed to be symmetrical has also been considered [32J.
In this instance the problem is much more complicated but it can be sim-
plified by reducing it to two mixed boundary value problems for the half-
planes y ~ 0, and y::::; O. The following decomposition of the body forces is
made:
X(l)(X' y), y> 0, y(l) (x, y), y> 0,
X(x, y) = { Y(x, y) = {
X(2) (x, y), y< 0 , y(2) (x, y), y < 0 ,

with the functions X(1l, y(l) uniquely defined in the upper half-plane and
the functions X(2), y(2) uniquely determined in the lower half-plane. In a
similar mann er the displacement vector u (x, y) can be resolved and deter-
mined according to the equations
u(1)(x, y)+U(3)(X, y), y> 0,
u(x,y) = {
U(2)(X, y)+U(4)(X, y), y< 0,
Integral transfarm methads 365

where
(1) u(1) is the solution in the upper half-plane ofthe equations of equilibrium
with the inc1usion of body forces (X(1), Y(1)), satisfying the boundary
·.
con dIhons u(1)(
y x, 0)-0 (1)(x, 0)-0'
- , uxy - ,
(2) U(2) is the solution in the lower half-plane ofthe equations of equilibrium
with the inc1usion of body forces (X(2), y(2»), satisfying the boundary
conditions U(2)(X
y'
0)=0' xU(2)(X 0)=0'
y' ,
(3) U(3) is the solution in the upper half-plane of the equations of elastic
equilibrium in the absence of body forces;
(4) U(4) is the solution of the equilibrium equations (without body forces)
in the lower half-plane.
The solutions (3) and (4) each contain two arbitrary functions which can
be determined by satisfying the prescribed boundary conditions on the
crack surface
uW (x, 0) + u~~) (x, 0) = u~;) (x, 0) + u~~) (x, 0) = f(x) H (I xl- c) ,
u~~(x, 0) = u~~) (x, 0) = g(x) H (Ixl- c) ,
where H denotes the Heaviside unit function and the functions fand gare
not known, and the continuity conditions
u~l) (x, 0) + U~3) (x, 0) = U~2) (x, 0) + U~4) (x, 0) , lxi> c ,
U~3)(X, 0) = U~4)(X, 0) , lxi> c .
When solutions of the type (6.1) and (6.2) are used for (3) and (4) it can be
easily established that the arbitrary functions entering into these solutions
must satisfy a set of relations which can be resolved into a set of integral
equations whose solutions can be obtained by a direct application of the
Fourier inversion theorem and a set of pairs of dual integral equations each
pair of which can be solved by the method outlined in section 6.2 above.
The analysis is fairly complicated but the final results turn out to be simple
and capable of yielding expressions for the stress intensity factor in special
cases.
An equation determining the stress intensity factor at the rim of a circular
crack in an infinite solid in which there is an axisymmetric distribution of
body forces acting in a direction perpendicular to the original plane of the
crack has been derived by Sneddon and Tweed [33]. If the body force is
always in the z-direction and has magnitude Z (p, z), the corresponding
formula for the stress intensity factor at the rim of a crack of radius c is
366 1. N. Sneddon

(O.h)

(O.-h)

Figure 6.24

(7 2 fOC) fOC)
k = - t Z(p, z)P(p, z, c)dpdz, (6.140)
neo 0

f:
where (7 is the density and

P(p, z, c) = {1 + tz/2(1-v)} e- tz Jo(tp) sin (tc)dt . (6.141)

As an example of the use of this formula Sneddon and Tweed consider the
effect on the crack of two point forces of magnitude F acting at the points
(0, 0, + h) in the positive and negative z-directions respectively (Cf. Figure
6.24). In this case it is found that
F C2 +Kh 2 2-v
k = - 2 ct . K - -- (6 142)
n (c 2 +h 2 )2' - 1-v' .
The variation of k with c and the corresponding variation of uz(o, 0), the
normal component of the surface displacement, are shown graphically in
[33J.

6.8 Cracks under shear

In the above pages considerations were given only to those crack problems
in which the deformation is produced by the application of pressure to the
faces of the crack. The same methods may, of course, be applied in cases
where an elastic solid containing one or more cracks is under shear. Examples
of this type of analysis are to be found in [34J, [35J and [36]. In each ca se
1ntegral transform methods 367

the procedure is the same, consisting of the four stages listed at the end of
section 6.2. The only difference is that, instead of getting a pair of dual
integral equations, we get a system of simultaneous dual integral equations.

References
[1] Sneddon,1. N., Proc. Roy. Soe. London, A187, p. 229 (1946).
[2] Sneddon, 1. N. and Elliott, H. A, Quart. Appl. Math., 4, p. 262 (1946).
[3] Lowengrub, M., Proc. Edinburgh Math. Soc., 15, p. 131 (1966).
[4] Sneddon, 1. N., Proe. Cambridge Philos. Soe., 61, p. 609 (1965).
[5] Lowengrub, M., Int. J. Engng. Sei., 4, p. 289 (1966).
[6] England, A H. and Green, A H., Proe. Cambridge Philos. Soe., 59, p. 489 (1963).
[7] Sneddon, 1. N. and Srivastav, R. P., Int. J. Engng. Sei., 9, p. 479 (1971).
[8] Lowengrub, M. and Srivastava, K. N., Int. J. Engng. Sei., 6, p. 359 (1968).
[9] Lowengrub, M. and Srivastava, K. N., Int. J. Engng. Sei., 6, p. 425 (1968).
[10] Ling, C B., MTAC, 11-12, p. 160 (1957-8).
[11] Sneddon, 1. N. and Srivastav, R. P., Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, A67, p. 39 (1965).
[12] Parihar, K. S., Proe. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, A69 (1971).
[13] Sneddon, I. N. and Das, S. C, Int. J. Engng. Sei., 9, p. 25 (1971).
[14] Khrapkov, A A., Int. J. Fraeture Meeh., 7, p. 373 (1971).
[15] Lowengrub, M., Int. J. Engng. Sei., 4, p. 69 (1966).
[16] Westmann, R. A, J. Math. Phys., 43, p. 191 (1964).
[17] Srivastav, R. P. and Narain, R., Proe. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 61, p. 945 (1965).
[18] Rooke, D. P. and Sneddon, 1. N., Int. J. Engng. Sei., 7, p. 1079 (1969).
[19] Sneddon, 1. N. and Das, S. C, Trends in Elasticity and Thermoelastieity: Witold Nowaeki
Anniversary Volume, pp. 235-247. Wolters-Noordhoff Publ. Co. (1971).
[20] Sneddon, 1. N. and Olesiak, Z., Areh. Rat. Meeh. and Anal., 4, p. 238 (1960).
[21] Barenblatt, G. 1., Prikh. Math. i Mekh., 23, p. 434 (1959).
[22] Olesiak, Z. and Wnuk, M., Bull. de l'Acad. Polon. des Sei. (Ser. des Sei. Tech.), 13, p. 445
(1965).
[23] Sneddon, 1. N. and Tait, R. J., Int!. J. Engng. Sei., 1, p. 391 (1963).
[24] Sneddon, 1. N. and Welch, J. T., Int!. J. Engng. Sei., 1, p. 411 (1963).
[25] Sneddon, 1. N. andLowengrub, M., Crack Problems in the Classical Theory of Elastieity,
(John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1969).
[26] Lowengrub, M., Quart. J. Appl. Math., 19, p. 119 (1961).
[27] Collins, W. D., Proe. Edinburgh Math. Soe., (2), 13, p. 317 (1962).
[28] Uflyand, Ya. S., Prikh. Math. i Mekh., 23, p. 101 (1959).
[29] Lowengrub, M. and Sneddon, 1. N., Int. J. Engng. Sei., 3, p. 451 (1965).
[30] Muki, R., Progress in Solid Mechanics, 1, p. 320 (1960).
[31] Sneddon, 1. N. and Tweed, J., Int. Jn!. Fracture Meeh., 3, p. 317 (1967).
[32J Sneddon, 1. N. and Tweed, J., Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh; A69, p. 85 (1971).
[33] Sneddon, 1. N. and Tweed, J., Int. Jnl. Fracture Mech., 3, p. 291 (1967).
[34J Westmann, R. A, J. Appl. Mech., 32, (1965).
[35J Keer, L. M., J. Meeh. Phys. Soljds, 14, p. 2 (1966).
[36] Keer, L. M. and Fu, W. S., Int. J. Engng. Sei., 7, p. 361 (1969).
 F~ Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

7 N umerical solution of singular

integral equations

7.1 Introduction

In this Chapter the numerical methods for the solution of two groups of
singular integral equations will be described. These equations arise from the
formulation of the mixed boundary value problems in applied physics and
engineering. In particular, they play an important role in the solution of a
great variety of contact and crack problems in solid mechanics. In the first
group ofintegral equations the kerneis have a simple Cauchy-type singular-
ity. After separating the dominant parts, these equations may be expressed as

A(x)ljI(x) + -1 fb B(t) ljI(t) -

dt
+ fb K(x, t) ljI(t)dt = f(x) , (a<x<b)
11: a t-x a
(7.1)
where ljI=(ljIJ, (i=l, ... ,N) is the unknown (vector) function, the square
matrices A = (a ij ), B = (b ij ), (i, j = 1, ... , N) are known with A + B nonsingular
in a< x< b, the elements kij(x, t) of the square matrix Kare Fredholm
kernels*, and the vector f = Ch), (i = 1, ... , N) consists ofthe known functions
satisfying a Hölder condition in the closed interval [a, b].
The system of singular integral equations (7.1) may be obtained, for ex-
ample, by considering the plane or the axisymmetric elastostatic problem
for layered materials containing N /2 non-coplanar cracks located parallel
to, and/or at the interfaces. Here, the unknown functions ljIi refer to the
derivative ofthe crack opening displacements (or the dislocation densities if
the crack is embedded in a homogeneous medium), and 1; are the crack
* That is, kij is square integrable in the square domain a< (x, t) < b. In practice these kerneis
are generally bounded and continuous in a< (x, t) < b. However, in axisymmetric problems kij
invariably contains a logarithmic singularity at x = t (see Erdogan [1], Arin and Erdogan [2]).
Numerical solution of singular integral equations 369

surface tractions. If there are no interface cracks, the matrix A is a null matrix
and the resulting system of singular integral equations is of the first kind,
otherwise at least some ofthe integral equations in (7.1) will be ofthe second
kind (see Erdogan and Gupta [3, 4J). As will be seen from the examples
given later in this Chapter, this will affect the nature of the singularity at the
crack tips.
Equation (7.1) mayaIso arise from the formulation of the elasticity
problems for the parallel layers compressed by stamps with arbitrary
profiles. In these problems if the contact between the stamp and the layer is
frictionless, the corresponding component of the matrix A is zero and the
related integral equation is of the first kind. In the ca se of constant coefficient
of friction or perfect adhesion between the stamp and the layer, the related
equation is a (pair of) singular integral equation(s) of the second kind. It
should be noted that, in general, the lengths of the cracks, or sizes of the
stamps are not equal. However, since in the crack and stamp problems
mentioned above the dominant parts of the integral equations are usually
uncoupled, (i.e., the matrices A and B are in general diagonal), the range fer
x can be normalized by simple changes in variable, and hence, the assumption
of constant a and b does not affect the generality of the problem.
The distinguishing feature of the first group of singular integral equations
given by (7.1) is that the dominant part ofthe system can easily be reduced to
a Riemann-Hilbert problem for a set of sectionally holomorphic functions
from which the matrix of the fundamental functions may be obtained (see
Muskhelishvili [5J). A particular technique of reducing the problem to an
eigenvalue problem and obtaining the fundamental matrix in a straight-
forward manner is described by Erdogan [6J.
The second group of singular integral equations which will be considered
in this Chapter is that in which the dominant part ofthe system has a general-
ized Cauchy kernel. A general form of such a system of singular integral
equations may be expressed as
1 fb dt 1 rb K
A~(x) +; a B!/J(t) t-x + ; J ~ Ck!/J(t)
a

dk 1 fb
X (x-a)k d k (t-Z 1 )-ldt + - L Dj~(t)
J

x 'TC a 0

+ J'b K (x, t) !/J(t)dt = f(x) ,

j
x (b - x)J. -d . (t - Z2)-ldt
dx J a
(a<x<b) (7.2)
370 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

where A, B, C k and Dj are (N x N) matrices which are generally constant,

the matrix K (x, t) consists of Fredholm kerneis kij(x, t), (i, j = 1, ... , N), and
f = (J;(x)), (i= 1, ... , N) is again the input vector which satisfies a Rölder
condition in a ~ x ~ b.
In equation (7.2) the variables Z1 and Z2 are given by
(7.3)
where 8 1 and 8 2 are known constants with 0< 8 1 < 2n and -n< 8 2 < n.
From equations (7.3) it is seen that as x varies between a and b, Z 1 and Z 2 will
move on the lines described by (7.3), for a< x< b the kerneis in the third and
fourth terms on the left-hand side of equation (7.2) are bounded, as x-a,
Z1-a, and as x-b, Z2-b. Rence, as x and t go to a simultaneously, the
kerneis in the third term, and as x and t go to b simultaneously, the kerneis
in the fourth term of equation (7.2) will become unbounded. These kerneis
are thus singular in a special sense, and (even though at only the end points)
since the corresponding singularities are still of the form x- \ the kerneis
are called a generalized Cauchy kernel. As will be shown in this Chapter,
the nature of the singularity of the unknown functions l/I j is strongly in-
fluenced by the presence of these additional kerneis.
A typical application of equation (7.2) which will be discussed in this Chap-
ter is the problem of a crack terminating at the interface of two bonded
dissimilar half planes. If there is a symmetry with respect to the plane of the
crack, there is only one unknown function which corresponds to the dis-
location density. In this problem, since one end ofthe crack is embedded into
a homogeneous medium, A and Dj are zero. In the plane strain problem
K = 2, and in the anti-plane shear problem K = O. In both cases 8 1 = n. A
slightly modified form of equation (7.2) is found in the formulation of the
torsion problem of a shaft bonded to a disk of finite dimensions (see Erdogan
and Gupta [7]). A system of singular integral equations with A = 0, B = 0,
Dj = 0, 8 11 = n12, and 8 12 = 3n12, and K = 1 (i.e., the dominant part of the
system of integral equations having the kernels of the form

0< (x, t) < CX))

is found in the formulation of the elasticity problem for a semi-infinite strip

(0< Y< C, x >0) c1amped along the boundaries y=O, y=c. A special case
of equation (7.2) has recently been treated by Bueckner [8] and Bierman [9J.
One of the characteristic features of the system of singular integral
Numerical solution 01 singular integral equations 371

equations given by (7.2) is that the dominant part of the system (i.e., the
equations without the terms containing the Fredholm kerneis, kij) cannot
readily be reduced to a Riemann-Hilbert problem. Hence, to obtain the
matrix of the fundamental functions (which characterize the nature of the
singularity of the unknown functions ljJ i)' a more direct application of the
function theoretic methods to the integral equations will be needed.
Sections 7.2-7.5 of this Chapter are devoted to the discussion of the
methods of solution of the singular integral equations of the first kind with
a simple Cauchykernel (equation (7.1 )withA - 0). The solution ofthe singular
integral equations of the second kind, as given by (7.1) is discussed in
sections 7.6-7.8. Sections 7.9-7.11 deal with the determination of the
fundamental function and the development of a method of solution for the
singular integral equations with a generalized Cauchy kernel as shown by
equation (7.2). One or more numerical examples for each dass of equations
are induded to demonstrate the application of the techniques developed.
The integral equations with a simple Cauchy kernel given by (7.1) may, in
principle, be regularized (i.e., may be reduced to a system of Fredholm-type
integral equations with weakly singular kernels), and hence, may be solved
numerically by conventional methods. The regularization may be accom-
plished either by using the method of Muskhelishvili and Vekua (see
M uskhelishvili [5J ) or by following the more direct method d ue to Carlemann
and Vekua (see Pogorzelski [10J, Gakhov [I1J). In the former method the
singular integral equation is operated upon by another singular operator
ofthe same form (usually the adjoint operator). In the method ofCarlemann
and Vekua the terms containing the Fredholm kerneis kij are assumed to be
part of the input functions and the method of solution of the dominant
equations is followed, reducing the system of singular integral equations to
that of Fredholm-type integral equations. In practice the difficulty arises in
evaluating the Fredholm kerneis in the regularized system (even in the simple
cases where the original Fredholm kernels, kij(x, t) are known in dosed
form, which, in crack problems, is seldom the case). Therefore, the primary
emphasis of this Chapter will be on developing reliable numerical methods
which preserve the correct nature ofthe singularity ofthe unknown functions,
and which are applicable to the most general case of singular integral equa-
tions with complicated Fredholm kerneis.
372 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

7.2 Singular integral equations of the first kind

In equation (7.1), let A be a null matrix and B be non-singular. Thus, by

multiplying (7.1) by B- \ the dominant part of the system may easily be
uncoupled. Therefore, any method deve10ped for the solution of a single
equation may easily be extended to apply to the most general case. For this
reason, and in order to simplify the manipulations in the derivations, in
sections 7.2-7.5 the numerical methods will be discussed for a single integral
equation only. Also, since the techniques are heavily based on the properties
of the related Chebyshev and Jacobi polynomials, without any loss in
generality, it will be assumed that the inter val (a, b) in which the functions
I/Ji andh are defined is normalized to be (-1, 1). Hence, the integral equation
to be considered is the following:
1
;
fl
-1
</J (t)dt
t-x +
fl
-1 k(x,t)</J(t)dt=f(x), (-1<x<1) (7.4)

where 4>(x) is unknown, and fand kare known functions which are H-
continuo'us in the closed interval [ - 1, 1].

The fundamental function. Since 4> (t) and k (x, t) are H -continuous functions,
the .second term in equation (7.4) is a bounded function of x. Hence, the
singular behavior of 4> may be obtained by studying the dominant part of
(7.4) only, namely

!
n
fl

-1
</J(t) dt = F(x) ,
t-x
(-1< x< 1) (7.5)

where F contains the input function fand the term coming from the part
of the integral equation with the Fredholm kernel.
Following Muskhelishvili [5], let

</>(z) = ~ fl 4> (t)dt (7.6)

2m -1 t-z
The boundary values of the sectionally holomorphic function, </>(z) are
related by the following Plemelj formulas:
</>+ (x)- </>- (x) = 4> (x) ,
(7.7)
+() _() 1 (1 4>(t)dt
</> x +</> x = -. I
7n~_1 t-x
Numerical solution 0/ singular integral equations 373

From equations (7.5) and (7.7) we obtain the following Riemann-Hilbert

problem to determine cP(z):

(-I<x<I). (7.8)

The solution of equation (7.8) vanishing at infinity may easily be expressed

as [5]

cP(z) = -
X(z)
~
Jl
-1
F(t)dt
(t-z)X+ (t) + CX(z) , (7.9)

where C is a constant and X (z) is the fundamental solution of the problem

satisfying the following homogeneous boundary conditions:
X+ (x)+X- (x) = 0, (lxi< 1) ,
(7.10)
X+ (x)-X- (x) = 0, (lxi> 1) .
Ignoring an arbitrary multiplicative holomorphic function, the most general
solution of equation (7.10) may be expressed as
X(z) = (z-I)++N(z+ lr++ M (7.11)
where X(z) will be taken as the branch for which Z-N-M X {z)---+ 1 as Z-HX).
It is c1ear that equation (7.10) is satisfied for any N and M provided they are
integers.
On the other hand, from equations (7.7) and (7.9) the solution of the
integral equation (7.5) is found to be
c/>(x) = cP+ (x) - cP- (x) = 2CX+ (x)

-x
+ 1
(x);
Jl
-1
F(t)dt
(t-x)X+(t)' (-I<x<I). (7.12)

It is seen that the singular nature ofthe unknown function c/>(x) is character-
ized by that of the fundamental solution X (z). In studying the boundary
value problems such as (7.8), the following restriction is usually imposed on
the integers N and M:
-1<~+N<I, -1<-~+M<I. (7.13)
This implies that at a given end -1 or 1 the unknown function c/> is either
bounded (having a value which is, in this case, necessarily zero) or has an
integrable singularity. In a very large majority of physical problems, this of
374 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

course is the case, that is, </> is generally either a "potential-type" quantity
(such as displacement, temperature, electrostatic potential, velocity poten-
tial), or a "flux-type" quantity (such as stress, dislocation density, he at flux,
charge density, velocity). However, there may be situations in which at the
end points the solution may be required to have a stronger zero (e.g., stress
function or lateral plate displacement) or astronger singularity (e.g., the
transverse shear in a fourth order plate theory). It is then c1ear that in selecting
the arbitrary integers N and M in (7.13), that is in determining the index of
the problem which is defined by
K= -(N+M) (7.14)
the physical nature of the singularity of the function </> at the end points - 1
and + 1 has to be considered.
The real function
(-1<x< 1) (7.15)
obtained from equation (7.11) is known as the "fundamental function" of
the singular integral equation (7.5).
The ca se OfK = 1. Ifthe function </> has integrable singularities at both ends,
then N = -1, M =0 in equations (7.13). Hence, equations (7.12), (7.14), and
(7.15) lead to
K = 1, X(z) = (z2-1t-t, w(x) = (1-x 2 )--t . (7.16)
In this case, an additional condition is needed to determine the arbitrary
constant C which appears in equations (7.9) and (7.12), and thus obtain a
unique solution. This condition is provided by the physics of the problem if
it is properly formulated. It is usually either an equilibrium condition (if,
for example, </> is a stress component), or a single-valuedness or compatibil-
ity condition (if</> is the tangential derivative of a "potential"). In either case,
in addition to equation (7.5), </> must satisfy an additional condition which is
invariably of the following form

f~ 1 </> (x) dx = A (7.17)

where A is a known constant which may be zero.

The case of K=O. If</>(x) is bounded at one end and has an integrable
singularity at the other, one has
Numerical solution 0/ singular integral equations 375

N=O, M=O, K=O,

(7.18)
X(z) = (z-l)t(z+ 1)-t, w(x) = (l-x)t(1 +xt t ,

or
N=-I, M=I, K=O,
(7.19)
X(z) = (z-I)-t(z+ l)t, w(x) = (l-xt t {1 +x)t .
In this case, the condition at infinity requires that in equation (7.9) the con-
stant C be zero, and with this, equation (7.12) gives the unique solution.
The case 01 K = - L If the function <fJ is bounded at both ends, then
N=O, M=I, K= -1,
(7.20)
X{z) = (z2-1)t , w(x) = {1-x 2)t .
In this case, the condition at infinity req uires that, in addition to C = 0, the
solution must satisfy the following consistency condition [5J :

J1
-1
F(t)dt
w(t)
= °. (7.21)

Finally, the general solution given by equation (7.12) indicates that the
unknown function <fJ (x) is of the following form
<fJ{x) = w(x)g(x) , (-I<x<l) (7.22)
where g (x) is a bounded continuous function in the closed interval - 1 ~ x ~ 1.
The next two sections will be devoted to the development of numerical
methods for the determination of g(x).

7.3 Solution by Gaussian integration formulas

Consider the following Fredholm integral equation:

J: w(t)k(x, t)h(t)dt =/(x) , (a<x<b). (7.23)

If equation (7.23) has no "closed form" solution, an effective numerical

solution may be obtained by using a quadrat ure formula of the Gaussian
type to evaluate the integral on the left-hand side for appropriately selected
values of Xi' (i= 1, ... , n), thereby reducing the problem to a system oflinear
algebraic equations in the unknowns h{tj ), (j= 1, ... , n). Thus, (7.23) may be
written as
376 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

n
L ltjk(x;, t j ) h(tJ+ Rn (Xi) = J(X i ) , (a< Xi< b, i = 1, ... , n), (7.24)
j= 1

where ltj, (j = 1, ... ,' n) are the weights and Rn is the remainder. In practice,
by selecting n sufficiently large, Rn can be made as small as required, and
hence, may be neglected. The locations t j , (j = 1, ... , n) correspond to the
zeros of the orthogonal polynomials related to the particular Gaussian
quadrature*.
It is seen that if an equivalent Gaussian integration formula for singular
integrals were to be available, the singular integral equation (7.4), or more
spedfically, by substituting from (7.22), the integral equation

~ f~l ;(t~ w(t)dt + f~l k(x, t)g(t)w(t)dt =J(x) , (-1<x< 1) (7.25)

could be solved by a method similar to (7.24), that is, (7.25) could be reduced
to a system oflinear algebraic equations in g(tj ), (j = 1, ... , n). In this section
it will be shown that appropriate Gaussian integration formulas for singular
integrals can be developed and equation (7.25) can be reduced to the following
algebraic system:

(i= 1, ... , n-K). (7.26)

Here, the related orthogonal polynomials are selected in such a way that
the fundamental function w(x) is the corresponding weight function. Since,
by equation (7.15) w(x) is of the general form
w(x) = (1-x)<X(1 +x)P , (-1< (Ci, ß) < 1, lxi< 1) , (7.27)
Jacobi polynomials pk<x· P)(x) are the related orthogonal polynomials**, and
it will be shown that t j and Xi are determined from
P(<x,P)(t.) = °
n

n-K
J
P(<X+K,P+K)(X.) =
'

1
° ,
for K= +1,
(7.28)
p~<X+l,P-l)(Xi)=O' for K=O, -1<Ci<O, O<ß<1,
p~<X-l,P+1)(Xi)=O, for K=O, O<Ci< 1, -1<ß<O.
* For a list of Gaussian quadrature formulas see Abramowitz and Stegun [12]. See also Stroud
and Seerest [13].
** whieh reduee to Chebyshev polynomials of first (T,,) and seeond (Un ) kind for K= 1 and
K= -1, respeetively.
Numerical solution of singular integral equations 377

In equations (7.26) the constants VJij are, again, the appropriate weights
corresponding to the particular quadrat ure formula. The development ofthe
Gauss-Jacobi integration formulas is, in part, based on the following
relations (see Szegö [14J)
1
-
fl dt
p~IX,ßl(t)w(t)-= -
r (ex) r(l- ex)
2-"P~-=-~-ß)(x), (-l<x< 1),
n -1 t-x n
(7.29)
for wand (ex, ß) as given by equation (7.27) (where K = - (ex + ß) is -1, 0, or 1,
otherwise ex and ß may be arbitrary), and

dm [P(IX,ßl( )J'= ~ r(n+m+ex+ß+1) p(IX+m,ß+ml(x) (7.30)

dx m n x 2m r (n + ex + ß+ 1) n- m

which is valid for -1< (ex, ß) < 1.

Gauss-J acobi integration formulas for singular integrals, K = O. Consider

the following integral
1
S(x) = -
f1 dt
g(t) w(t) - , (-l<x<l) (7.31)
n -1 t-x
where g is bounded in the c10sed interval -1 ~ t ~ 1, and w is given by
w(t) = (1- tti- (1 + t)-1- • (7.32)
Noting that w(t) is the weight function ofthe Jacobi polynomials Pj--htl(t),
it is assumed that the function g can be approximated with a sufficient degree
of accuracy by the following truncated series:

(-l<t<l). (7.33)

From equations (7.29), (7.31) and (7.33) it follows that

p
S(x) = L BjPjt, -i-l(x) . (7.34)
o
Now consider the following simple fraction expansion:

(7.35)

where
378 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

j< n, p~-t,t)(ti) = 0, (i = 1, ... , n) . (7.36)

By using the relations [12J

P(-t,t)(2z 2 -1) = r(n+t) T

n n ! nt z 2n + 1
(z) ! ,

(7.37)

and the recursion formula (see Erdelyi [15J)

Uk - i- 1 (x) = ~(x) Uk - 1 (x)- ~(x) Ui - 1 (x) (7.38)
the left-hand side of equation (7.35) can be modified and (7.35) may be
expressed as

(7.39)

From equation (7.39), it is seen that in the rational function on the left-hand
side of (7.35) the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the de-
nominator ; hence the partial fraction expansion indicated in equation (7.35)
is possible. By using equations (7.36), from (7.35) the coefficients ai may be
obtained as
p~t, -t)(ti)p)-t,t)(t i)
ai = p~(-t,t)(tJ (7.40)

On the other hand, using the recursion relations [14] for the Jacobi poly-
nomials, it can be shown that, if t i are given by p~a,ß)(ti)=O, the derivative
(7.30) at x = t i may be expressed as

p'(IZ, ß) (t.) = n + ß p(lZ+ 1, ß- 1) (t.)

n I l+t.I n I

(7.41)

Thus, from equations (7.40) and (7.41) we obtain

a. = 2(1 +tJp<.-t,t)(t.) (7.42)

! 2n+ 1 J I •
Numerical solution 0/ singular integral equations 379

Now if a discrete set of points Xk (k= 1, ... , n) is selected such that

n -t)(xk ) = 0
pa, , (k = 1, ... , n) (7.43)

equations (7.35) and (7.42) lead to

fi=l 2(12n+l
+ t i) p)--t.t) (ti) _1_ = p)t, -t)(Xk) .
ti-Xk
(7.44)

Substituting from equations (7.44), (7.34) becomes

S(X) = f f
i= 1 j= 0
B!1-t,t)(t i )2(1+ti)_._I_,
2n+ 1 ti-Xk
(7.45)

or using equations (7.32) and (7.33) it is found that

!f1
'TC -1
(l+t)t g(t) dt=
I-t t-Xk i=l 2n+1 ti-X k
f
2(I+t i) g(t i) (7.46)

where
p<-t,t)(t_) =0 2i-l ) (i = 1, ... , n) ,
n I , t i = cos ( 2n + 1 'TC ,

(7.47)
p<t, -t)(x k ) = 0 , 2k'TC ) (k = 1, ... , n) .
n Xk = cos ( 2n + 1 '

If one considers the Gauss-Jacobi integration formula for a bounded contin-

uous function f(t) given by [12J

! fl
'TC _ 1
f(t) (1 +t)t dt
1- t
~ ±
1
2(t i + 1) f(t i)
2n + 1
(7.48)

where t i is given by equations (7.47), it is seen that formally equation (7.46)

may be considered as a Gauss-Jacobi integration formula for singular
integrals which is valid only at certain discrete points X k , (k= 1, ... , n). Note
that if there is no approximation in equation (7.33), and if n > p, then the
formula (7.46) gives the exact value of the integral at x = X k •
Using now equations (7.46) and (7.48), the integral equation (7.25) may
be reduced to the following system of linear algebraic equations in g(t i)

(k = 1, ... , n) (7.49)

where t i and Xk are given by (7.47).

380 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

In the second case of K=O, i.e., for oe=!, ß= -!, instead of equation (7.32)
the weight function is given by
w(t) = (1- t)t(1 + t)-t . (7.50)
In this case, instead of equation (7.39), if the following partial fraction ex-
pansion is considered:

_ r(j+!) U2n-2j-1(Y) = ~ ~
., n t
.I. Y U2n (Y) L....
1 ti - X '
(7.51)
x=2y 2 -1 p<t,-tl(t.)=O
'n t ,

then it may be easily shown that

!Jl
n -1
(1-t)t g(t) dt=
1+t t-x k
±
i=l
2(1-t i) g(tJ
2n+1 ti-Xk
(7.52)

where t i and Xk are now given by

=0 2in )
n -tl (t.)
p<t. 1 ,
t i = cos ( 2n+ 1 ' (i = 1, ... , n) ,
(7.53)
(xk ) = 0 2k-1 )
p<-t,tl
n , Xk = cos ( 2n + 1 n , (k = 1, ... , n) .

Thus, equations (7.25) may be reduced to

(k = 1, ... , n) (7.54)

with t j and Xk as given by (7.53).

Gauss-Chebyshev integration formula for K = 1. If the solution of the

integral equation (7.4), or (7.25) has integrable singularities at the end points,
as shown in section 7.2, K = 1, oe = - 1= ß and w = (1- t 2 ) -t. In this case the
related orthogonal polynomials P~IX,ß)(t} reduce to ~(t), the Chebyshev
polynomials of the first kind. For this problem, following a procedure
similar to that just presented, and substituting from (7.22), the integral
equation (7.4) and the additional condition (7.17) may be expressed as

(7.55)
Numerical solution of singular integral equations 381

(i = 1, ... , n) ,
(7.56)
nk
Xk = cos-, (k= 1, ... , n-l),
n

(7.57)

Equations (7.55) and (7.57) provide n linear algebraic equations to determine

g(t i ), (i= 1, ... , n). The details of the derivation of equations (7.55) to (7.57)
are given by Erdogan and Gupta [16].

Gauss-Chebyshev integration Jormula Jor K= -1. If the function <fJ(t) is

bounded at both ends, in section 7.2 it was shown that K = - 1, (X =! = ß, and
w(t)=(I-t 2 )t. Here the related Jacobi polynomials, p~t,t)(t) reduce to the
Chebyshev polynomials ofthe second kind, Un(t), and one can again develop
a Gauss-Chebyshev integration formula for the singular integral involving
the particular weight function (see [16] for details). Thus, with equation
(7.22), (7.4) may be expressed as

n 1-t~
L --11 g(t i)
[1
--=- + nk(xb t i)
]= J(Xk) , (7.58)
n+
i= 1 ti Xk

(i = 1, ... , n),

(7.59)
(k = 1, ... , n+ 1).

By assuming that

(7.60)

and using the relations

(-I<x<l), (7.61)

(i # k)
(i = k = 0) (7.62)
(i = k> 0).
382 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

From equation (7.4) it is found that

(7.63)

Thus, using the present teehnique to solve the integral equation, the eonsis-
teney eondition (7.21) is seen to be automatieally satisfied.
Equation (7.58) is satisfied for n + 1 values of X k . Sinee there are only n
unknowns, g(t i ), in (7.58) an equation eorresponding to one ofthe Xk'S must
be ignored. In praetiee, the most harmless point to .negleet would be the one
dosest to x = 0, and usually n is se1eeted to be an even number and the equa-
tion eorresponding to Xl +n/2 =0 is ignored.

7.4 Solution by Jacobi polynomials

Another method to solve the singular integral equation (7.4) numerieally

would be to reduee it to an infinite system of linear algebraie equations. In
(7.4) let
-1«(X,ß)<I, IX+ß=-K=(O, +1},
<J>(t) = w(t)g(t) , w(t) = (l-qx{1 +t)P , (7.64)

I
<XJ
g(t) = Bj Pjl1,P)(t}.
o
Substituting from equations (7.64) into (7.4) and using (7.29) we obtain

(-I<x<l) (7.65)

where
Pj(x) = f~ 1 k(x, t) P)11,P)(t) w(t)dt . (7.66)

The funetional equation (7.65) may easily be redueed to an infinite system of

algebraie equations in the unknown eoefficients B j by multiplying both sides
of (7.65) by w( - IX, - ß, t) pi- l1 , -P)(t), (k=O, 1,2, ... ) and integrating In
( -1, 1). First, note the following orthogonality relations [12J:
Numerical solution 0/ singular integral equations 383

·f1 p~ct,P)(t)P~ct,P)(t)w(t)dt = {o()(ct,P>' n =1= k (k = 0, 1, ... ) (7.67)'

-1 k , n=k

where
()(ct,P) _ _ 2_ct_+_
P+_1_ r(k+ct+l)r(k+ß+l)
(k=O, 1, ... ). (7.68)
k - 2k+ct+ß+l k!r(k+ct+ß+l)

Equation (7.68) is valid in all cases except for k=O, K = 1 for which, noting
that p~,P)(t)=I, one has (Gradshteyn and Ryzhik [17J)

()(ct,P) =
o
f 1

-1
w(t)dt =
2ct+P+ 1 r(ct+ 1) r(ß + 1)
r(ct+ß+2)
. (7.69)

Thus, using equations (7.67) and defining the constants

bkj = f~ 1 P~-ct, -P)(x)pj(x)(I- x t ct (1 +x)-Pdx,

(7.70)
Ck = J~l f(x)P~-ct, -P)(x)(l-x)-ct(1 +x)-Pdx
from (7.65) it is found that
2- K
+
00

L bkjBj =
.
---,----_ ()( - ct, - P) B C k, (k = 0, 1, ... ) (7.71 )
sin nct k k+K j=O

where in the case of K= -1, B_ 1 =0.

The infinite system may be solved by the method of reduction (i.e., by
truncating the series at the n th term and in equations (7.71) considering only
the first n equations) provided the system is completely or quasi regular
(Kantorovich and Krylov [18J). If K=O then the n x n equations obtained
from (7.71) will give a unique solution. For K= 1 equations (7.71) contain one
more unknown than the number of equations, and the equilibrium or
compatibility condition (7.17) provides the necessary additional equation.
Substituting from equations (7.64) into (7.17), and using the orthogonality
relations (7.67) to (7.69), it is easily seen that
B O = A/()~' Pl (7.72)
and the remaining constants B 1 , ••• , B n are determined from (7.71) by letting
k=O, 1, ... , n-l.
For K = -1 the assumed solution must satisfy the consistency condition
384 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

(7.21). Since B_ 1 =0, p<o-a, -P)(x)= 1, from equations (7.64) to (7.66), and
(7.70) it is seen that the first equation in (7.71) obtained by letting k=O is
equivalent to the condition (7.21). This means that by using this method,
the consistency condition is automatically satisfied.
The special case ofthe technique described in this section for C(= -1.=ß
and C( = 1. = ßis considered by Erdogan [6]. In this case the related orthogonal
polynomials are Yn(x), Un(x), the Chebyshev polynomials offirst and second
kind, respectively. As a result, the manipulations are somewhat simpler and
the logarithmic part of k(x, t) (ifthere is one) can easily be treated separately.
The results for these special cases C(= -1.=ß and C(=1.=ß may be obtained
from those given in this section by simply substituting

p<-!, -!)(x) = r(n+1.) T. (x)

n 1 t n ,
n.n
(7.73)
- 2r(n+!) U (x)
- (n+ 1)! nt n •

It should be noted that the main part ofthe numerical work in this technique
involves the evaluation of the constants bkj and C k defined by equations
(7.70). However, since the related integrals are of the Gauss-Jacobi type,
these constants may be evaluated rather accurately without an extensive
computational effort. The quadrature formula 'which should be used for
this purpose is the following* [13]:

J
-1 N
-1 F(x)(1-x)-a(1 +x)-Pdx ~ k~l AkF(xk) ,

(k = 1, ... , N)
(7.74)
2N - C ( - ß+2 r(N - C ( + 1) r(N -ß+ 1)
~=- x
(N+1)!(N-C(-ß+1) r(N-C(-ß+1)

7.5 Examples

In this section the solution of some crack problems will be given in order to
demonstrate the application of the methods described in sections 7.3 and 7.4.
* For the special cases (C(, ß)=(+1, +1) see the quadrature formulas given in seetion 7.3.
Numerical solution of singular integral equations 385

A finite crack perpendicular to the interface in two bonded half planes. Con-
sider the plane elasticity problem described in Figure 7.1. Assume that the
composite plane is symmetrically loaded and, through superposition, the
perturbation problem is separated in such a way that in Figure 7.1 the normal

) -$- ;:
b c n
0
-

, (IJ.,.K,) 2(~.K2)
)
Figure 7.1. A finite crack perpendicular to the bi-material interface.

component of the crack surface traction is the only externaiload. Thus, the
problem has a plane of symmetry, and it is sufficient to consider only one
half (r ~O, 0< ()< n) of the medium. To derive the integral equation, first
consider the problem under the following boundary conditions:

aZ r 8 = 0, UZ8 = 0, (()=O,O<r<oo), (7.75)

a 180 = aZ80 , a lr8 = aZ r8' (() = n/2, 0< r< (0) , (7.76)
U 1r = UZ r , U 18 = UZO , (() = n/2, 0< r< (0), (7.77)

a1ro = 0, Tr
aU l 8
=
1
-24>b(r-ro), (()=n,O<r<oo) (7.78)

where 4> is a constant. This corresponds to two bonded half planes containing
an edge dislocation* at r=ro, ()=n.
Using the basic two-dimensional wedge solution (see, for example, Hein
and Erdogan [19]), all the desired field quantities may be expressed in terms
ofMellin inversion integrals. In particular, by evaluating the related inversion
integral for a I 88(r, n) by using the method of residues and summing the

* More appropriately, equations (7.78) may be expressed as

G1r9 = 0,
386 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

resulting infinite series, after some lengthy manipulations it is found that*

(see Cook [20J for details) .

(j lOO(r, ro, 11:) = cf> 2J.1-1 { -1- + 1

x
11:(1 +K 1) ro-r 2(1 + mK1)(m+ K2)

x [_1_
ro+r
{(1+mK 1)(m+K 2)-m(1+K )(1+mK 1 1)

(7.79)

where J.1-1' J.1-2 are the shear moduli, Ki =(3-v i )/(1 +v i ) for generalized plane
stress, K i = 3 - 4v i for plane strain, Vi' (i = 1,2) being the Poisson's ratio, and
m=J.1-2/J.1-1·
Now, ifthe medium contains a crack along ()= 11:, a < r< b, c1early cf> = cf> (r o)
is the unknown function satisfying

(0< ro < a, b< ro< 00), (7.80)

f~ (j lOO(r, r o, 1I:)dro = p(r) , (a< r< b) (7.81)

where (j loe(r, ro, 11:) is the "Green's Function" given by equation (7.79) with
cf> = cf> (r 0)' and

p(r) = (j lOO(r, 11:) , (a< r< b) (7.82)

is the crack surface traction. Using equations (7.79) and (7.80), the integral
equation (7.81) may be expressed as

1 fb cf>(ro) 1 fb 1 + K1
- - - dro + - H(r, ro) cf>(ro)dro = 2 p(r) , (a< r< b)
11: arO- r 11: a J.1-1
(7.83)
* In the inversion, for r > r0 and r< r 0 the contour is closed respectively to the right, and to the
left of the line s = c going through the strip of regularity which gives different expressions for
(J 199 in the two intervals. However, after summing the infinite series, the two expressions become

identical.
Numerical solution 0/ singular integral equations 387

For a >0, the kernel H(r, ro) is a bounded function, and the singular integral
equation (7.83) is identicaI to (7.4) the solution of which is discussed in the
previous sections. Since the Green's functions similar to (7.79) can easily be
evaluated for all the desired field quantities, these quantities may all be
expressed as definite integrals similar to (7.83) and may be calculated once
the density function </>(r o) is determined. Note that for the homogeneous
medium m= 1 which gives H(r, ro)=O in equation (7.84), and (7.83) reduces
to the singular integral equation for a plane containing a crack along
a< r< b. Similarly, withachangein variabler=c+r',r o=c+ro,c=(b+a)/2,
it is easy to show that for a fixed crack length, b-a, as C-H;tJ, H(r, ro)~O,
and the problem again reduces to that of a homogeneous plane.
To normalize the interval (a, b) let (see Figure 7.1)
x = (r-c)/a o , t = (ro-c)/a o , ao = (b-a)/2,
l+K l
2 p(r) = f(x) , </>(r o) = F(t) , (7.85)
/11
1 1
- H(r, ro) = - k(x, t) .
7! ao
Thus, equation (7.83) becomes
1
;
fl -1
F(t)dt
t-x +
fl
-1 k(x, t)F(t)dt =f(x) , (lxi< 1) . (7.86)

The density function </>(r) = aU18/ar or F(t) is a "flux-type" quantity. Therefore

it has integrable singularities at the end points, and from section 7.2 it
follows that
K = 1, a = -1 = ß, w = (1- t 2 )-t . (7.87)
The solution will then be determinate within an arbitrary constant C (see
equation (7.12)). Noting that in equation (7.83) the r-derivative of U 1 8 rather
than U 1 8 itself is assumed to vanish outside the interval (a, b), theoretically the
388 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

constant C must be determined from (or, the numerical solution of (7.86)

must be obtained under) the following compatibility condition

f~ 1 F(t)dt = 0 . (7.88)

If we let
(7.89)
from the analysis given in section 7.2, or from the study of the singular
behavior of stresses and displacements around the crack tips, the stress
intensity factors may be obtained as
k(a) = lim [2(a-r)]-t a188 (r, n) = 2f.ll lim [2(r-a)1~4>(r)
r ..... a 1+ K 1 r ..... a

(7.90)
k(b) = lim [2(r-b)]t a180 (r, n)= - 12f.ll lim [2(b-r)]-t4>(r)
r-+b +K 1 r-+b

2f.ll -"-
= - 1 a ü g(l).
+K 1
The numerical solution ofthe singular integral equation (7.86) is obtained
by using the Gauss-Chebyshev integration formula (7.55) given in section
7.3. The results are shown in Tables I, II, and III. Table I shows the stress
TABLE I
Stress intensity factors for the crack perpendicular to the boundary of a half plane

c/ao k(b)/po(ao)t k(a)/ Po (ao)t

1.00 (1.590) (<Xl)

1.01 1.330 3.720
1.05 1.254 2.159
1.10 1.211 1.759
1.15 1.183 1.575
1.20 1.163 1.464
1.25 1.146 1.388
1.50 1.097 1.204
2.00 1.054 1.091
5.00 1.009 1.011
10.00 1.002 1.003
<Xl 1.000 1.000
Numerical solution oJ singular integral equations 389

TABLE II
Stress intensity Jactors Jor two materials

Epoxy-aluminum, f.l2/f.ll = 23.08

Plane stress Plane strain

P= -Po P=-Po P= -PoX P= -Pox 2

k(b) k(a) k(b) k(a) k(b) k(a) k(b) k(a)

c/ao
Po (ao)t Po (ao)t Po (ao)t Po (ao)t Po (ao)t po(ao)t Po (ao)t Po (ao)t

1.00 0.8789 4.1760 0.8827 2.6237 0.5110 -1.6867 0.4699 1.6660

1.10 0.8957 0.6485 0.8985 0.6674 0.5084 -0.4058 0.4743 0.3916
1.15 0.9027 0.7046 0.9051 0.7178 0.5075 -0.4300 0.4760 0.4133
1.25 0.9148 0.7764 0.9165 0.7838 0.5062 -0.4564 0.4790 0.4380
2.00 0.9614 0.9344 0.9616 0.9349 0.5019 -0.4942 0.4904 0.4833
5.00 0.9929 0.9912 0.9929 0.9912 0.5002 -0.4997 0.4982 0.4978
10.00 0.9981 0.9979 0.9981 0.9979 0.5000 -0.4999 0.4995 0.4995

Aluminum-epoxy, f.lzl f.l 1 = 0.043

1.00 1.3525 0.0744 1.3552 0.0700 0.4243 -0.0303 0.6090 0.0314

1.10 1.1806 1.6451 1.1817 1.6487 0.4799 .-0.6692 0.5471 0.7032
1.15 1.1581 1.4942 1.1591 1.4971 0.4842 -0.6161 0.5407 0.6489
1.25 1.1275 1.3369 1.1283 1.3389 0.4892 -0.5661 0.5325 0.5960
2.00 1.0477 1.0808 1.0480 1.0813 0.4976 -0.5073 0.5120 0.5208
5.00 1.0082 1.0100 1.0082 1.0106 0.4998 -0.5003 0.5021 0.5025
10.00 1.0021 1.0023 1.0021 1.0023 0.5000 -0.5000 0.5005 0.5006

intensity factors for the special case of half plane, i.e., /12 = 0, and the crack
surface traction 0"100(r, n)= -po=constant. Here the value of k(b), cor-
responding to c = ao (the edge crack) is obtained from Koiter's paper [21 J.
Tables II and III show the results for two materials. In Table II the plane
strain results are obtained for a linear and a quadratic, as weIl as a constant
traction on the crack surface. In these tables k(b) and k(a) correspond to the
stress intensity factors at the end points band a, respectively.
With the exception of the values given for c = ao, the results of the tables
are self-explanatory. The case of c = a o corresponding to a crack which
terminates at the interface will be discussed later in this Chapter. The
details of the numerical analysis and the study of convergence of the results
390 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

TABLE III
Stress intensity factors for two materials

Epoxy-boron, 112/111 = 138.46, P = - Po

Plane stress Plane strain

k(b) k(a) k(b) k(a)

c/ao
Po (ao)t Po (ao)t Po (ao)t Po (ao)t

1.00 0.8706 4.9218 0.8751 3.0723

1.10 0.8879 0.6227 0.8915 0.6447
1.15 0.8953 0.6822 0.8984 0.6980
1.25 0.9080 0.7587 0.9104 0.7680
2.00 0.9581 0.9288 0.9586 0.9297
5.00 0.9922 0.9905 0.9923 0.9905
10.00 0.9980 0.9977 0.9980 0.9977

Boron-epoxy, 112/111 = 0.0072, P = - Po

1.00 1.5087 0.0079 1.5102 0.0078

1.10 1.2053 1.7383 1.2055 1.7383
1.15 1.1786 1.5605 1.1788 1.5608
1.25 1.1430 1.3784 1.1432 1.3787
2.00 1.0528 1.0894 1.0529 1.0895
5.00 1.0090 1.0110 1.0090 1.0110
10.00 1.0023 1.0026 1.0023 1.0026

may be found in [20J*. For this ca se (i.e., a >0) the convergence is extremely
good. Some results showing the convergence of the results for the more
important case of a = 0 will be given later in this Chapter.
In the problems using this method, the most stable values for g( + 1) were
obtained from a quadratic extrapolation employing g(t 2 ), g(t 3 ), g(t 4 ), and
g(tn - 3)' g(tn - 2 ), g(t n - 1 )· However, the difference between these results and
those obtained from the quadratic extrapolation using the last three points,
or the linear extrapolation using the last or the next-to-Iast two points were
insignificant.
* For convergence analysis and the comparison ofthe results obtained by using various methods,
see also [16].
Numerical solution 01 singular integral equations 391

A half plane containing a crack parallel to the boundary. As a simple

example for the application of a coupled system of singular integral equations
of the first kind the problem described in Figure 7.2, namely an elastic half
plane containing a crack parallel to its free boundary will be considered.
y

(Il. K)

x
p h

Figure 7.2. Crack parallel to a free boundary.

Assume that a uniform pressure applied to the crack surfaces is the only
external load. Thus, by defining
o
<P1(X) = OX [u(x, +O)-u(x, -O)J,

o
<P2(X) = OX [v(x, +O)-v(x, -O)J , (7.91)

O"yy{x,O)= -Po, O"Xy(x,O)=O, (-1<x<1)

and using Fourier transforms, the problem may be formulated as (see [3J
for the analysis of the general problem of layered materials)

l+K 1 51 -<Pi(t) dt + -1 51 L kiAx, t) <pAt)dt

2
-2- O"iY(X, 0) = -
f1 n -1 t-x n -1 1
=h(X), (i=1,2; -l<x<l; O"ly=O"xy, 0"2Y=O"YY)
(7.92)
where the crack length is normalized to be 2, h is the distance of the crack
from the boundary, and
392 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

t-x 8h 2(t-x)
k l l (x, t) = - (t-x)2+4h2 + [(t-x)2+4h 2]2

4h 2(t - x) [12h 2- (t - X)2]

[(t - X)2 + 4h 2]3

, t-x 8h 2(t-x)
k 22 (x, t) = - (t-x)2+4h2 [(t-x)2+4h 2]2
4h 2(t - x) [12h 2- (t - X)2]
(7.93)
[(t - xJ2 + 4h 2]3

The functions 4>i' again, have integrable singularities at the end points -1
and 1. Hence, the index for both equations in (7.92) is K = 1. The two arbitrary
constants resulting from the general solution of equations (7.92) must be
determined from (or, the numerical solution of(7.92) must be obtained under)
the following compatibility conditions:

J~l 4>dt)dt=O, f~l 4>2 (t)dt = 0. (7.94)

To solve the system of singular integral equations (7.92), use will be made of
the method described in section 7.4. The fundamental function for both
equations in (7.92) is w(t)= (1- t 2 )-t. Hence, the related orthogonal poly-
nomials are the Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind, ~(t). From
symmetry, it is seen that 4>l(X)=4>l(-X) and 4>2(X)= -4>2(-X). Then, the
unknown functions may be expressed as follows:
fX)

4>1 (x) = (l-t 2 )-t I An T2n (x) ,

o
(7.95)
fX)

4>2 (X) = (1- t 2)-t I Rn T2n - 1 (x) .

1

With equations (7.95), from the orthogonality conditions (7.62) it follows

that the second condition in (7.94) is satisfied and the first gives A o = 0.
Substituting from (7.95) into (7.92) and using the following relations
Numerical solution of singular integral equations 393

it is found that
00

I [AnUZn_t(x)+AnH~t(x)+BnH~Z(x)] =fl(X) ,
1
(-1< x< 1) (7.97)
00

I [B n UZn_z(x)+AnH;l(x)+BnH;Z(x)] =fz(X) ,
1

where

(7.98)

-
To solve the functional equations, (7.97) a weighted residual method will be
used (or simply both sides will be expanded into series of Chebyshev poly-
nomials and the coefficients will be compared) to reduce them to a system of
algebraicequations. Thus, multiplyingthefirst equation by UZk - t (x)(1- x 2 )+,
the second by Uzk _ z (x)(1-x Z)+, truncating the series at the Nth term and
integrating in (-1, 1) we obtain

(7.99)
(k = 1, ... , N)

where
394 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

akn = f~l U2k _ 1 (X)H;1(X)(1-x 2)tdx,

bkn = f~l 1
U2k _ (x)H;2(X)(1-x 2)tdx,

Ckn = f~ 1 U2k - 2(x) H;l (x)(1-x 2 )tdx ,

(7.100)
dkn = f~l U2k _ 2(x)H;2(x)(1-x 2)tdx,

(k = 1, ... , N),

'TC l+K
F21 = - "2 Po ~, F2k = 0 , (k = 2, ... , N).

After obtaining the constants A k and Bk from equations (7.99), any desired
field quantity may be ca1culated by evaluating the related definite integral.
For example, noting that equations (7.92) give the stresses on Y= 0 for lxi> 1
as weIl as lxi< 1, using (7.95), the second relation in (7.96), and (7.98),
it is found that

(x> 1). (7.101)

12+ K O'yy(x, 0) =
f..l
I [RnG2n - (x) + A nH;l(x)+ BnH; (X)] ,
1
1
2

Since H~(x), (i,j= 1,2) are bounded functions, from equations (7.101) and
(7.96) the stress intensity factors may be obtained as

x - I )t 0' yy (x, 0) -_ - -12/1

k 1 -- l'1m (2 ~ Rn ,
- L..
x-+ 1 +K 1
(7.102)
k 2 -- l'1m (2 -~
x - I )+ 0' xy (x, 0) -_ - -2/1 L.. An .
x-+l 1 +K 1
These expressions can also be obtained from equations (2.95) by noting that
~(1)= 1, (n=O, 1, ... ) and using the following relations between the stress
intensity factors and the displacement derivatives (see equations (7.90)):
Numerical solution 0/ singular integral equations 395

TABLEIV
Stress intensity Jactors Jor the crack parallel to the boundary

h 0.2

N 2 4 6 8
kl 4.6298 4.6981 4.7621 4.7600
k2 2.0294 1.6925 1.7173 1.7181

h 0.4

N 2 4 6 8
kl 2.5437 2.5949 2.5957 2.5956
k2 0.7649 0.7364 0.7376 0.7375

h 0.6 0.8

N 2 4 6 2 4 6
kl 1.9226 1.9616 1.9608 1.6386 1.6610 1.6609
kz 0.4265 0.4298 0.4296 0.2678 0.2716 0.2715

h 1.0 1.2

N 2 4 6 2 4 6
kl 1.4741 1.4860 1.4860 1.3660 1.3722 1.3722
k2 0.1775 0.1796 0.1796 0.1223 0.1234 0.1234

h 1.5 2.0 3.0 00

N 2 4 2 4 2 4 1
k1 1.2603 1.2628 1.1615 1.1621 1.0778 1.0778 1.0
kz 0.0743 0.0746 0.0366 0.0367 0.0123 0.0123 0

k 1 = - 1211 lim (1- Xz)! 4>z (x) ,

+K x .... l
i7.103)

For Po = 1 and a = 1 some of the ca1culated results are shown in Table IV*.
* Alternatively, h, k l , and k 2 shown in the table rnay be interpreted as h/a, kd(poa t ), and
k 2 /(po a t ), respectively.
396 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

For h= 00, kij(x, t)=O and from equations (7.95), (7.99) and (7.100) the exact
solution of (7.92) is obtained as

1+ K ( 2) _
4>l (X) =O, 4>2 (x ) =-P02J;:x1-x ,-
1
(7.104)

which gives

k1 = Po, k2 = 0.
This is shown in the last column of Table IV. The table shows the rapid
convergence of the results even for relatively small values of N.

A simple example Jor K = O. As an application for K = 0 consider the punch

y ~P

x
a

( )l,K)

Figure 7.3. Rigid punch on an elastic half plane (K=O).

problem shown in Figure 7.3, where a rigid half cylinder of radius R is

pressed on an elastic half plane. Neglecting the friction and defining the
pressure in the contact area as p(x)= -Üyy(x, 0), the integral equation of
the problem may be written as
1
-
Ja p(t) -
dt
= - - 4f.l -;;-
0
v(x, 0) = - - 4f.l -X , (0< x< a) (7.105)
n 0 t-x 1 +K OX 1 +K R
where the unknown constant a is determined from

r p(t)dt = P .
a
(7.106)
~ °
Here the unknown function p(t) has an integrable singularity at t=O and is
Numerical solution 0/ singular integral equations 397

bounded at t = a. Hence, theindex and the fundamental function ofthe integral

equation, and the unknown function may be expressed as
K = 0, w(t) = (a-t)tt-t, p(t) = w(t)g(t) , (O<t<a) (7.107)
where g(t) is a bounded function.
Defining
2t 2x
r=--1, s = - - 1, g (t) = G (r) (7.108)
a a

one obtains

~ J1
11: _ 1
G(r) (1-r)1
1+ r
~ - - ~ ~ (1+s)
r- s - 1 + K 2R '
(lsl<1),
(7.109)
a J1 (1-r)t
"2 _ 1 G (r) 1+ r dr = P .

If one further defines

I
00

G(r) = Cnp~t, -t)(r) (7.110)

o
and substitutes into equations (7.109), using (7.29) and observing that
Pb-t,t)(s) = 1, Pl--ht)(s) = s-t,
the result can be written as

(-1<s<1).
(7.111)
From (7.111) it is seen that
3~ a 2~ a
Co = - 1 + KR' Cl = - 1 + KR' cn = 0, (n = 2, 3, ... ) ,

(7.112)

or from equations (7.107), (7.108), and (7.111) the pressure may be expressed

as p(t) = - 2~ - 1
1 +K R
a( + -2t) (a-
- t)t
a - t
(7.113)
398 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

Substituting from equation (7.112) into (7.109) and using the orthogonality
condition (7.67) a relation between a and Pis obtained as follows:
3nf.L a 2
P=---. (7.114)
1+K 2R
Here it should be emphasized that since G (r) can be expressed as a truncated
series of Jacobi polynomials in an exact form (see equation (7.112)), by
applying the method of Gauss-Jacobi integration formulas described in
seetion 7.3 (i.e., the formula (7.52)) to this problem, the exaet value of G (r) at
eaeh Ioeation r i , (i= 1, ... , n) would be obtained for any n provided n > l.
This is implieit in the assumption (7.33) and the subsequent analysis.

7.6 Singular integral equations of the se co nd kind

In the general system of the singular integral equations (7.1), diagonalizing

the matriees A and B simultaneously, the dominant part of the system ean
be uneoupled. Thus, any numerieal teehnique developed for the solution of
a single equation may easily be generalized to apply to a system of equations.
It will then be suffieient to eOllsider the solution of the following singular
integral equation:

a</J (x) +;
b f1
-1
dt
q>(t) t _ x +
f1
-1 k{x, t) </J(t)dt = f(x) , (-1<x< 1)
(7.115)
where the interval is again normalized to be (- 1, 1) without any loss in
generality, and it will be assumed that a and bare eonstant and the known
funetions fand kare H-continuous. In equation (7.115) the funetions </J,
k, f, and the eonstants a, b may be real or eomplex.

The fundamental function. The fundamental funetion of the integral

equation (7.115) may again be obtained by eonsidering only the dominant
part of (7.115), or by writing (7.115) as

a</J(x) + -b f1 <f;{t) - dt = F(x) ,

(lxi< 1) (7.116)
n -1 t-x
where F eontains the input function fand the bounded term containing the
Fredholm kernel k(x, t). Defining the sectionally holomorphic function

4>(z) = ~ f1 </J{t) dt (7.117)

21[1 -1 t-z
Numerical solution 01 singular integral equations 399

and using the Plemelj formulas, (7.116) becomes

(-1<x<1). (7.118)

The fundamental solution of equation (7.118) may be obtained [5] as

1
(1. = -2 (a-ib) + N
. log --.b
7!1 a+l

ß = - -2. log (a-ib)

1
a+l
7!1
+M --·b (7.119)

-1 < Re{(1.) < 1, -1<Re(ß)< 1

K = -{(1.+ß) = -(N +M)
where X (z) is the branch for which ZK X (z)~ 1 as z~rh, N and M are integer,
and again it is assumed that </J is either a "potential" or a "flux", hence the
restrietion on the real parts of (1. and ß. In this problem too the index K is - 1,
0, or + 1, and is determined by the physics of the problem. The following
function of x obtained from equations (7.119) is known as the fundamental
function of the integral equation:

w(x) = (_1)-Gt X+ (x) = (1-x)Gt{1 +x)ß . (7.120)

Similar to the singular integral equation ofthe first kind, in this problem, too,

(1) for K = 1 the solution contains one arbitrary constant which is determined
from an equilibrium or a compatibility condition of the form

f~ 1 </J(t)dt = A , (7.121)

(2) for K=O the inversion ofequation (7.115) does not contain any arbitrary
constants, and
(3) for K= -1, there is no arbitrary constant to be determined; however, the
solution must satisfy the following consistency condition:

(7.122)
400 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

Solution by J ac obi polynomials. Onee the fundamental funetion, w (t) of

the integral equation is detennined, the solution of (7.115) may be expressed
as
cjJ(t) = g(t) w(t) , (-1<t<1) (7.123)
where g(t) is a bounded eontinuous funetion and ean always be represented
by an infinite series. Observing that w(t) defined by (7.120) is the weight
funetion of p~.P)(t), (n=O, 1, ... ), one may write

L C w(t) p~~.P)(t)
00

c/>(t) = n (7.124)
o

where C m (n = 0, 1, ... ) are undetermined eonstants.

Before substituting equation (7.124) into (7.115) note that for K= (-1,0, 1)
(see Trieomi [22], Szegö [14J)

-1 f1 w(t)P~~·P)(t) - dt = eot nIXw(x)P~~'P)(x)

n -1 t-x

2~+P T(IX) T(n+ ß + 1) ( I-X)

- nT(n+IX+ß+I) F n+l, -n-IX-ß; I-IX; -2- ,

( -1< X < 1, Re (IX) > -1, Re (ß) > -1, IX+ ß = - K, Re (IX) #= (0, 1, ... ) ,

eot nlX = eot n( 1

2ni log a+ib + N )
(a-ib) = -
a)
b ' (7.125)

and
T(n-K-IX+I) ( I-X)
P~-=-i-P)(x)= T(n-K+l)r(I-IX)F n+l, -n+K; l-IX;-2- . (7.126)

Combining equations (7.125) and (7.126) yield

-1 f1 w(t)P~~·ß)(t) - dt = - -a w(x)P~~' P)(x)

n -1 t-x b

(lxi< 1) . (7.127)

If equation (7.124) is substituted into (7.115) and use is made of (7.127), there
results
Numerical solution of singular integral equations 401

(7.128)

(-1<x<1). (7.129)

The functional equation (7.128) can be reduced to an infinite system of

algebraic equations in C n by expanding both sides into se ries of J acobi
polynomials Pk- IX , -P)(x) (k= 0, 1, ... ), and comparing the respective coef-
ficients. Thus, using the orthogonality relations (7.67) to (7.69) and truncating
the series give

where

dnk = f~ 1 Pk- IX , -P)(x) w( - a, - ß, x) hn (X) dx , (7.131)

Fk = r
.' - 1
Pk-IX,-P)(x)w(-a, -ß, x)f(x)dx,
(7.132)

(1) K= -1. In th,is case note that the first term in the series (7.128) is a
constant times COP\-IX, -P)(x). Hence, in solving (7.130) it can be formally
assumed that C- 1 =0. Also, from (7.128) to (7.132) it is seen that, since
Pb-IX, -Pl(x)= 1, the first equation obtained from (7.130) for k=O is seen to be
equivalent to the consistency condition (7.122). Thus, (7.130) provides N + 1
linear algebraic equations for the unknown constants Co, ••• , CN'

(2) K = O. In this case there are no additional arbitrary constants or condi-

tions, and (7.130) gives the unique solution.

(3) K= 1. In this ca se the N + 1 equations given by (7.130) contains N +2

unknown constants, co, .", CN+ l' The additional equation for a unique
solution is provided by the equilibrium or compatibility condition given by
402 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

(7.121), from which, by substituting from (7.124) and using the orthogonality
condition (7.130), one finds
(7.133)
The method described in this section is valid for the most general singular
integral equation given by (7.115), and may easily be reduced to the special
case described in section 7.4 by substituting a=O, b= 1. A Gauss-Jacobi
type integration method similar to that described in section 7.3 mayaiso be
developed for the solution of (7.115). However, in this case because of the
existence of the free term a</>(x) in the integral equation (which has zeros or
singularities at the end points), such a method may not be as effective as that
described in this section. The application of the method will be demonstrated
by considering the following two examples:

Example 1: Layered materials with an interface crack. Consider the plane

strain problem for two semi-infinite elastic media bonded through an elastic
layer ofthickness h. Let the composite medium contain a crack oflength 2a
between the layer and the material 3 as shown in Figure 7.4. Assurne that the
crack length is normalized to be 2 and the symmetrie tractions on the crack
surface
O"yy(x, 0) = P1(X) = P1( -x),
(7.134)
O"Xy(x, 0) = P2(X) = - P2( -x), (lxi< 1)
are the only extern al loads applied to the medium. Using the Fourier
transforms, the integral equations of the problem may be obtained as (see
[3, 4J for details)

Y11 (x)
1
+-
f1 12 (t) -
dt c
+-
f1 L2 k Ax, t).fj(t)dt
1
n -1 t-x n -1 1

(-1<x<l),
(7.135)

1+7<:3
--CP2(X), (-1<x<1)
/13
where
Numerical solution of singular integral equations 403

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4 2

0.2

O~----~----~-----L----~----~

-0.2

Figure 7.4. Stress intensity factors and the strain energy release rate vs. hl2a. Materials:
(1) Aluminum, (2) Aluminum, (3) Epoxy.

c = Ct!(1+2C 1 -C 1 C 2 ) (7.136)

Cl = (J.l3 + 1l2 K3)/(Jl2 - Jl3)

C 2 = (K 21l3 - K3Jl2)/(Jl2 + K2Jl3)
and the bounded functions kij(x, t), (i,j = 1, 2) are given in [4]. The expressions
for k ij are rather lengthy and will not be repeated here.
From the definitions (7.136) it is seen that the unknown functions, /1 and
12 are ~'flux-type" quantities, and hence, will have integrable singularities at
404 FErdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

the end points -1 and + 1. From equations (7.119) it then follows that the
index for both equations in (7.135) will be K= -(a+ ß)= 1, and the solution
of the system will contain two arbitrary constants. Also, the physics of the
problem requires that the solution satisfy the< following compatibility
conditions:

f~l fl(t)dt = 0, f~1 f2(t)dt = 0 (7.137)

which are used to determine the two arbitrary constants in the solution.
The system ofintegral equations (7.135) may be solved directly by applying
the method in the previous section. However, the problem may be somewhat
simplified by combining the two equations as follows:
1
-y4>(x) + -.
nl
Jl
-1
4>(t) - dt +
t-x
fl-1
[K l (x, t)4>(t)

+ K 2(x, t)4>(t)] dt = F(x) , (-1<x<1) (7.138)

where
4> (x) = f2 (x) +ifl (x),

(7.139)

By letting
a= -"I, b= -i, -1<Re(a)<0, -1<Re(ß)<0

from equations (7.119) and (7.120) the fundamental function of (7.138) is

o btained to be

w(t) = (1- tYX(1 + t)P ,

())
1 (1 +"1)
.' 2n log 1 - 'Y •
(7.140)

If the unknown function is expressed as

Numerical solution of singular integral equations 405
N
4>(t) = L c w(t) p~.P)(t),
n (7.141)
o
the equations (7.137) and (7.133) give co=O. The remammg constants
Cl' ..• , CN are obtained from (7.130). In the special case when h""-H:!::J, kij~O
and the singular integral equation reduces to its dominant part. For the case
of uniform surface tractions, one has
(7.142)

From equations (7.131) and (7.132) one finds

dnk = 0 , (n, k = 0, 1, ... )

(k = 1,2, ... )

and (7.130) gives

c 1 = -2croc(1-y2)--!-(1+K3)/J13' c~=O, (n > 1)
or
4>(x) = 2ccro(1 + K3) w(x)P<Gt.P)(x) (7.143)
J13(1- y2)-!- 1 .

In general, defining the stress intensity factors k l , k 2 by

k 1 +ik 2 = lim (x-1)-Gt(x+1)-ß(cr yy +icrxy) (7.144)
X""" 1

it was found that (see Erdogan and Gupta [4J, Erdogan and Ozbek [23J)

k 1 +ik 2 = lim (1 J13 ) (1- y2)-!-W- 1 (x)4>(x)

X""" 1 C +K3

_
c(1 +K3)
J13 (1_ y2)-!- I: CnP~a.ß)(1) .
1
(7.145)

In the special case considered, noting that

P\Gt.ß)(x)=![a-ß+(a+ß+2)xJ = ~ - im,

one finds from equations (7.143) and (7.145) that*

(7.146)
* Here, k l , k z should be multiplied by a3 if ao 1= 1, 2a o being the crack length.
406 F. Erdogan,G: D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

TABLE V
Stress intensity factors for the interface crack

h/2a = 0.2

N 4 6 8 10 12
k1 0.4245 0.4357 0.4455 0.4449 0.4448
k2 -0.1669 -0.1648 -0.1617 -0.1620 -0.1621

h/2a = 0.4

N 4 6 8 10 12
k1 0.5576 0.5542 0.5524 0.5525 0.5525
k2 -0.1611 -0.1603 -0.1598 -0.1598 -0.1598

h/2a= 0.6

N 4 6 8 10 12
k1 0.6513 0.6497 0.6484 0.6484 0.6484
k2 -0.1478 -0.1476 -0.1475 -0.1476 -0.1476

h/2a=0.8 h/2a=1.0

N 2 4 6 2 4 6
k1 0.7356 0.7311 0.7300 0.7795 0.7931 0.7927
k2 -0.1383 -0.1379 -0.1378 -0.1313 -0.1326 -0.1326

h/2a=2.0 hl2a = 00

N 2 4 6 1
k1 0.9289 0.9302 0.9302 1
k2 -0.1295 -0.1297 -0.1297 -0.1342

For the external loads (7.142) and the material combination Aluminum
(E= 107 psi, v=O.3)-Epoxy (E=4.5 x 10 5 psi, v=0.35)-Aluminum, the
results obtained from (7.130) and (7.145) are shown in Table V and Figure 7.4.
The table indicates that the convergence of the ca1culated results is quite
rapid*. Other results for different material combinations and configurations
are shown in Figures 7.5 to 7.8. The quantity, W2 _ 3' shown in these figures
is the measure of the strain energy release rate, (aU/da) for the crack lying
* The values of k 1 and k 2 shown in the table are calculated for Cf 0 = 1, ao = 1 ; if ao #- 1 they
should be multiplied by Cfoai.
 1.2 i 1.2

~(OO) _L 3_(00)
~
~
""I

1.01 - - \ - - -----
------ 1.0
L.
k, (00) \ k, (00) ~
-ff
~
....
0"0 Va 0"0 Va ~
-.
0.81- ~ 0.8 ~

~
c..,
~
-.
~
0.6 0.6 ~
~
""I

5'
......
2 , ~
0.4 2 0.4 ~
~
~
h 3
-
~
§
0.2 0.2 ....
(5'
~
c..,

o t-I -"----L--'-_"---L_....L..._.l..---1._-'-----J
0
2
h 120 I h/2a
-
-0.2 L \ -\~2(1)O) -0.2 L (00)
~k2__ _ \ k2 -\k~
cr;,Va 0;, Va 0"0 Va ~Va

Figure 7.5. Stress intensity factors and the strain energy release Figure 7.6. Stress intensity factors and the strain energy release
rate vs. hl2a. Materials: (1) Steel, (2) Aluminum, (3) Epoxy. rate vs. hl2a. Materials: (1) Aluminum, (2) Steel, (3) Epoxy. ~
-.)
408 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

4.0 16

3.0
Cj 2
12
h 3

k1
2.0 CT'o Va 8
k 1 (00)
W2 - 3
%Va
1. 0 f - - - 4
W2 - 3

01--__ 0
k 2 (00)
CT'o Va
h!2a 2
Figure 7.7. Stress intensity factors and the strain energy release rate vs. h/2a. Materials:
(2) Aluminum, (3) Epoxy.

1.8 2.0

h 2 1.8
1.6
W2- 3
h 3 1.6
1.4 W2 - 3
__
k_1_
1.4
cJo Va
1.2
1.2

- 1.0

- 0.2 O~--'---7--l...---'-2-....L...--'3L---'--....l4-......L..._..l.5-....L...----'6
h/2a
Figure 7.8. Stress intensity factors and the strain energy release rate vs. h 2 /2a for h/h 2 = 3.
Materials: (2) Steel, (3) Aluminum.
Numerical solution of singular integral equations 409

between materials 2 and 3 and is calculated from (see Malyshev and Salganik
[24])

(7.147)

For a homogeneous medium, c= -! and equation (7.147) becomes

(au)
aa 3
= n(1 + 1(3) (ki + ki).
4,u3
(7.148)

Note that for h = 0 one has

lim
h-+O
(au)
oa 2-3
= (au)
oa 2-1

or
(7.149)

which gives the points on the figures corresponding to h = O.

Example 2: A punch with constant friction on an elastic halfplane. Consider

the plane elasticity problem for a punch pressed on a half-plane at an angle.

x
I ----r-I
~
( \.L,K )

Figure 7.9. Rigid cylindricaI punch on an elastic half plane with constant c.oefficient offrietion.
410 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

x
2 .1
(!.l..K) ( K.!.l.)

Figure 7.10. Flat punch on an elastic half Figure 7.11. Rigid punch on an elastic
plane with constant coefficient of friction. half plane with constant coefficient
of friction (1<=0).

Let the coefficient offriction, 1'] be constant (Figures 7.9 to 7.11). From the
following equations for a half plane y < 0 subjected to tractions (J xy and (J yy
at y=O (Figure 7.9)

+ -1 foo
4,u 0
-1- ~ u(x, 0) = Y(Jyy(X, 0) (JXy(t, 0) -dt
-,
+K uX 11: -00 t-x
(7.150)
4,u 0 1 foo dt
-1- ~ v (x, 0) = -Y(JXY(x, 0) + - (Jyy(t, 0) - ,
+KuX 11: -00 t-x
by letting
(J yy(t, 0) = - p(t) , (-c<t<d),
(7.151)
(t< -c, t >d)
the integral equation of the problem may be obtained as
4,u 0 1 fd dt
- - v(x, 0) = ap(x) - - p(t) - , (-c<x<d) (7.152)
1+K OX 11: -c t-x
where
I' = (K-1)/(K+ 1), a = 1'11 • (7.153)
(a) K = - 1. First consider the case of a spinning cylinder of radius R
Numerical solution of singular integral equations 411

(Figure 7.9) for which the input function is

4,u OV 4,u x
f(x) = 1 + K OX = 1 + KR' (-c<x<d). (7.154)

To normalize the interval (- c, d) the following changes in the variables

rand s are made:
r = (2t-d+c)/(d+c) , s = (2x-d+c)/(d+c). (7.155)
Let p(t) = cjJ(r). With equation (7.154), (7.152) becomes

acjJ(s) - -1 J1
cjJ(r) - dr = As+B, (-1<s<1) (7.156)
n -1---- r-s
where
2,u d+c 2,u d-c
A=l+KR' B=l+KR' (7.157)

Here, because of the smooth contact, the real parts of rY. and ß must be
positive*. Thus from equations (7.119) and (7.120) the fundamental function
of (7.157) is found to be
w(r) = (1- r)(.((1 + r)P ,
(7.158)
tan nrY. = 1/a, ß = 1- rY., K = -1.

Assuming a solution to (7.156) of the form (7.124), (7.128) be comes

2
L.
OCJ
c P(~(.(·-P)(s) = As+B
o SIn nrx 1n n

or
2
. [coPl-(.(,-P)(S)+C1P~-(.(·-P)(s) + ... ]
sm 7rrY.
(7.159)
Comparing the coefficients of the Jacobi polynomials on both sides of
equation (7.159) gives
B-(1-2rx)A = 0, (7.160)

* Physically the cylinder spins ab out a shaft fixed to the cylinder and the load P is applied to
the cylinder through the shaft in - y-direction. The shaft is also under a torque M (see Figure
7.9). In order to hold the cylinder in equilibrium a force Q = r,P must also be applied to the shaft
in - x-direction which is the x-component of the bearing reaction.
412 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

co =Asin1[ex, cn=O, (n = 1, 2, ... ) . (7.161)

In this problem c and d, which determine the contact area, are unknown.
Equation (7.160) with (7.157) gives one expression relating c and d, namely
d -c-(1-2ex)(d +c) = o. (7.162)
A second equation for c and d may be obtained by considering the following
equilibrium condition:
d d+CJl
J -c p(t)dt = - 4> (r)dr = p . (7.163)
2_ 1
Using now (7.161), the solution of the integral equation is obtained as
(7.164)
or
4J.l sin 1[ex
p(t) = 1 +K R (d-t)Cl(C+t)P. (7.165)

Substituting from equations (7.164) and (7.157), (7.163) becomes

~ sin 1[ex B(iZ, ß) (d )2 = P

I+K R 0 +c ,
(7.166)
B~,ß) = 21[~(1-ex).
Sin 1[('1.

Finally, the external torque M which has to be applied to the cylinder is

obtained from the following moment equilibrium* :

M = l1 PR + J~c p(t) tdt (7.167)

which, by using equations (7.165), (7.164), and the orthogonality condition,

becomes
J.l (d+C)2 1-2ex
M=rt PR +1[ex(l-ex)'1+K R [d-c + 3 (d+c)]. (7.168)

(b) K= 1. As the next example consider the rigid flat punch of width 2
which is constrained against rotation and is und er the loads P and Q = l1P
as shown in Figure 7.10. In this problem the integral equation (7.152)
becomes
* Note that P and M are loads per unit thickness of the cylinder.
Numerical solution 0/ singular integral equations 413

ap(x) - -
1 f1 p(t) -
dt
= 0, (-I<x< 1) (7.169)
n -1 t-x
subject to

f~l p(t)dt = P. (7.170)

Here, p has integrable singularities at + 1, K= 1, and from equations (7.119)

and (7.120) it is found that
w(t) = (1- t)IX(1 + t)p ,
(7.171)
0: = - (1- 81n) , ß = - 81n, tan 8 = l/a .
In this case since f = 0, from (7.128) it follows that Cn = 0, (n = 1, 2, ... ), and
equations (7.124) and (7.133) give the solution as
Pw(t)
p(t) = 80 (0:,
ß) (7.172)

(c) K=O. Consider the contact problem shown in Figure 7.11. The integral
equation of the problem is given by (7.52) to (7.54), with 0< x< d. With the
following change in variables

r = (2t - d) / d, s = (2x - d) I d ,
(7.173)
p(t) = 4>(r) ,

equation (7.52) becomes

a4>(s) - -
1 f1 4>(r) -
dr
=-
4,u d
- (s+ 1) , (-I<s<I). (7.174)
n -1 r-s I+KR

4> has an integrable singularity at - 1 and is bounded at + 1 ; hence from

(7.119) and (7.120) it follows that
w(r) = (l-r)IX(1+r)P ,
(7.175)
K = 0, 0: = 81n, ß = - 81n, tan 8 = l/a .
Using
s+ 1= P\ -IX, - ß)'(s) + (1 + 0:) P~
-IX, - ß) (s)
from equation (7.128) it is found that
414 F. Erdogan,G. D. Gupta and T; S. Cook

4.u d ( )' 4.u d .

Co = 1 + K R 1 + (X sm 1!(X , Cl = -1- - SIn 1!(x,
+K R .
(7.176)
Cn = 0, (n>l), cfJ (s) = [cop<g·P) (s) + Cl P\IX,P) (s) ] w(s) ,

or the pressure may be expressed as

p(t) = -t- (d-t)1X [ CO +c 1 (2t-d)]

+ -d-. .
(X (7.177)

The constant dis obtained from

P = fd

o
p(x)dx
d
= :2 j
·1

-1
cfJ(s)ds

which gives

C e(IX,P) -d = p (7.178)
o 0 2 .

In Figure 7.11 if the direction of the tangential load Q is reversed, in a = Y11

the sign of the coefficient of friction, 11 must be reversed. In this case the fore-
going analysis remains valid with the following change:

(X
1 e
= 2: + -, tan e= IJY11, ß = - (X
1!

where the coefficient of friction, 11 is a positive constant.

7.7 Singular integral equations with generalized

Cauchy kerneIs

In some physical problems, in addition to the part having a Cauchy singular-

ity (t - x)- \ the kernel of the integral equation may contain terms which
may be unbounded only if t and x simultaneously approach one or both
end points of the interval. For example, in the first problem considered in
section 7.5, if a = 0, that is, if one end of the crack terminates at the interface,
theh it is clear that H (r, r 0) is no longer a Fredholm kerneI, since for r = r 0'
ro~O, H becomes unbounded at ro=O as r ö 1. In this section it will be shown
that such additional terms in the kernel affect the nature of singularity of
the unknown function at the related end point. The general problem was
considered by Erdogan [25]. Here, the discussion will be restricted to one
singular integral equation having a kernel which becomes unbounded at one
Numerical solution 0/ singular integral equations 415

end onIy. Thus, the dominant part of the integral equation to be considered
IS

(7.179)
. ZI = a+(x-a)e i61
where ck , (k=O, 1, ... , n) and 8 1 , (0< 8 1 < 2n) are known constants. As x
varies on L, z 1 varies on LI (see Figure 7.12) such that as x- a, Z 1 --* a.

iy

o a x
Figure 7.12. The branch cut Land the line L 1 in the complex plane.

The fundamental function. The integral equation (7.179) cannot be reduced

to a simple Riemann-Hilbert problem in order to obtain the fundamental
function of the solution. For this, the function-theoretic method outlined by
Muskhelishvili [5J has to be applied directly to the integral equation.
Following Muskhelishvili, the most general dass Cf solution of equation
(7.179) may be expressed as

c/>(t) " g(t)w(t) . g(t)(b-t)O!(t-a)ß

(7.180)
= g(t) e -niO!(t - b)O!(t - a)ß
where g(t) is H-continuous in a~ t~ b, (t-b)O!(t-a)ß is any definite branch
which varies continuously on a< t< b, and

(k = 1,2) . (7.181)

Now consider the following sectionally holomorphic function

<p(z) = -
IJb -c/>(t) dt = -e -niO! fb (t-b)O!(t-a)ßg(t) -dt. (7.182)
n a t-z n a t-z

Following the technique outlined by Muskhelishvili [5, Chapter 4J, the

416 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

singular behavior of <P(z) near the end points may be examined and <P(z) may
be expressed as
e -niß
<P(Z) = -g(a)(b-a)l%. ß (z-a)ß
smn

(7.183)

where the function <Po is bounded everywhere except possibly at the ends near
which

(7.184)

C k and db (k = 1, 2) being real constants.

From equation (7.183), using the Pleme1j formula
,
![<p+ (x) + <P- (x)] = ! fb 4J(t) dt (7.185)
n a t-x
we obtain

!fb
n
4J(t) dt = -g(a)(b-a)1% cot nß(x-a)P
t-x
a

+g(b)(b-a)P cot nct(b-x)1% + Fo(x) , (a< x< b) (7.186)

where the behavior of Fo near the ends is similar to that of <Po as given by
(7.184).
From equation (7.182) it is c1ear that L is the line of discontinuity and <P(z)
is holomorphic everywhere on LI except at the end point Zl =a. Thus,

1
-
fb -4J(t)- dt = <P(Zl) , (7.187)
n a t-z 1

or substituting Zl -a=(x-a)e i91 , from equation (7.183) we obtain

The behavior of Fdx) near the end x=a is similar to that of <Po given by
(7.184), otherwise F1 is a bounded function.
Since <P is holomorphic at Z=Zl' using (7.188) the second group ofterms
in equation (7.179) may be expressed as
Numerical solutionof singular integral equations 417

-niß
= -g(a)(b-a)O! ~ ß eiß1h ß(ß-1) ... (ß-k+1)(x-a)ß
smn

dk
+(x-a)k dx k F1(x), (a<x<b). (7.189)

Substituting now from equations (7.186), (7.188), and (7.189) into (7.179)
gIves
-g(a)(b-a)O! cot nß(x-a)ß+g(b)(b-a)ß cot no: (b-x)O! + Fo(x)
-niß
-cog(a)(b-a)O! ~ ß eiß61 (x-a)P+F1(x)
sm n

+ ±
1
k [-g(a)(b-a)O!
C ~-ni~ eiP61 ß(ß-1) ... (ß-k+1)(x-a)P
sIn n
k
d k F i (x) ]
+ (x- a)k dx = f(x) , (a<x<b). (7.190)

Observing that g(a) and g(b) are nonzero and

-1< Re (0:) < 0 , -1< Re (ß) < 0 ,
lim (x-at ß [f(x) , Fo(x) , (x-at F\k> (x)] = 0, (k = 0, 1, ... , n) ,
x->a

(k = 0, ... , n),
x-+b

from equation (7.190), by multiplying both sides first by (x - at ß and

letting x-a, and then by (b-xto! and letting x-b, the following character-
istic equations for the unknown constants 0: and ß are obtained:
cot no: = 0 , 0: = -! (7.191)

cosnß+eiß(61-n>[co+ ~Ckß(ß-1) ... (ß-k+1)J = o. (7.192)

With 0: and ß determined from equations (7.191) and (7.192), the fundamental
function of the singular integral equation with a generalized Cauchy kernel
may be expressed as
w(t) = (b - t)O!(t - a)ß . (7.193)
418 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

From the foregoing derivation, it is obvious that, instead ofthe simple case
of Zl =a+(x-a)i6 1 varying on LI' if the kernel contains terms involving
Zlj=a+(x-a)i6 1 j , 0<8 Ij <2n, ZljEL 1j , and z2p=b+(b-x)e i62p , -n<
(J 2p < n, Z2p E L zp , one could easily extend this derivation and obtain a
pair of characteristic equations to determine (X and ß (see [25J). Also, the
case of a coupled system of singular integral equations with generalized
Cauchy kernels may be treated in the same manner. Such a case, for example,
arises from the analysis of two bonded half planes containing a finite crack
which makes an arbitrary angle with and terminates at the interface. Instead
ofhaving an integrable singularity, ifthe function 4>(t) is bounded at an end,
say x = a, then the foregoing analysis remains the same, except that the
corresponding exponent ßin the fundamental function must now be replaced
by 1-ß.

Solution by Gaoss-J acobi integration fonnula. Consider now the following

singular integral equation with a generalized Cauchy kernei:

+ f~ I k(x, t) 4> (t)dt = f(x) , (-1<x<1) (7.194)

where, without any loss in generality, the interval (a, b) has been normalized
to be (-1, 1), k(x, t) is a Fredholm kernei, f(x) is H-continuous in (-1 ~
x ~ 1) and is known, and
n dk
K(x, t) = Io cdx + 1)k dx k (t-Zl)-l

(7.195)

Zl= -1+(x+1)e i61 , Zz= 1+(1-x)ei62 ,

-l«x,t)<l, 0<8 1 <2n, -n<8 2 <n.

If the function 4> has integrable singularities at the end points, in addition to
equation (7.194) it must satisfy an equilibrium or a compatibility condition
of the form
Numerical solution 0/ singular integral equations 419

(7.196)

where A is a known constant.

To obtain a numerical solution of equation (7.194), first following the
derivation given in section 7.9, the fundamental function w(t) = (1- t)lX.
(1 + t)p of the integral equation is deterrnined. Then noting that the singular
behavior of the unknown function c/>(t) near the end points -1 and + 1 is
completely characterized by that of w(t), it is assumed that
c/>(t) = w(t)g(t) , (-I<t<l) (7.197)
where g(t) is a bounded function in the c10sed interval (-1 ~ t~ 1). Note that
w(t) is the weight function ofthe Jacobi polynomials P~IX,P)(t). Thus, equation
(7.194) may be solved by using a numerical method based on a Gauss-Jacobi
integration formula similar to that outlined in section 7.3. In this case, the
basic quadrat ure formula is (see [13J)

5 1
-1
F(t, x)(l-t)IX(I+t)Pdt ~ f ~F(tk' x),
1
(-1< [Re(a) , Re (ß)] < 1) (7.198)
where t k are the roots of

(k = 1, ... , N) , (7.199)
and the weights are given by
VV; = _ 2N +a+ß+2 r(N +a+ l)r(N +ß+ 1) x
k (N+l)!(N+a+ß+l) r(N+a+ß+l)

21X + ß
(7.200)

For -1< [Re (a), Re(ß)] < 0, substituting from (7.197) into equations
(7.194) and (7.196), and formally using (7.198) we obtain (see section 7.3)

(7.201)

(7.202)
420 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

where tk and x j are given by

(k = 1, ... , N),
(7.203)
(<X+ 1,P+ 1)(X')
P N-1 J
= 0
'
(j= 1, ... , N-1)

and the weights mare given by (7.200). Equations (7.201) and (7.202)
provide N linear algebraic equations to determine g(t 1 ), ••• , g(t N ).
For other combinations of a and ß, the equation (7.201) and the first
equation of (7.203) remain valid. However, the points xj must be se1ected as
folIows:

O<Re(a)<l, 0< Re (ß) < 1: p(<x-1,P-l)(X)

N+ 1 j -- 0 ,

O<Re(a}<l, -l<Re(ß}<O: p~-1,P+1)(X)=0,

-l<Re(a}<O, O<Re(ß)<1: p~+l,P-l)(X)=O.

There is no additional condition in any ofthese three ca ses. In the case where
the function is bounded at both ends, (i.e., for 0< [Re (a), Re (ß)] < 1),
equations (7.201) may be expressed at N+1 points Xj' (j=1, ... , N+1).
Since there are only N unknowns 9 (t k ), (k = 1, ... , N), in this case the equation
corresponding to one of the x/s (usually the point dosest to x=O) must be
ignored.

Example: Two bonded halfplanes with a crack terminating at the interface.

The elasticity problem in Figure 7.1 for two bonded half planes containing a
finite crack located perpendicular to the interface will now be reconsidered.
In that problem it was assumed that the "symmetrie" surface traction
(J 188 = - P (r 0) acting on the crack is the only external load. The ca se of a

crack fully embeddedin one ofthe homogeneous half planes, (i.e., b > r > a > 0)
was considered as the first example in section 7.5. In that case, aside from a
term having a Cauchy singularity, the kernel was continuous and bounded
in the dosed domain a ~ (r, r0) ~ b.
If one end of the crack terminates at the interface i.e., by letting a-O, it is
dear that the integral equation (7.83) or (7.86), and the compatibility condi-
tion (7.88) are still valid. However, the kernel H(r, ro) given by (7.84) is no
longer a Fredholm kerneI, as it becomes unbounded for r-O, ro-O with
r=ro. Thus, letting a=O and with the following change in variable
Numerical solution of singular integral equations 421

t = (ro - ao)1 a o , x = (r-ao)1 a o , 2ao = b,

(7.204)
1+K 1
2 p(r) = f(x) , 4> (r o) = F(t),
/11

from equations (7.83), (7.84), and (7.88) one obtains

-1 51 F(t) - dt + -1 f1 K(x, t)F(t)dt = f(x) , (-1<x<1), (7.205)

n -1 t-x n_ 1

f~ 1 F(t)dt = 0 (7.206)

where
K(x, t) = Co 2 + cl(1+x) dd (t+x+2t 1
t+x+ x

(7.207)

6(1-m) 2(1-m)
c = - C = - ---'---'- m = /121/11 .
1 1 + mK l ' 2 1 + mK 1 '

It is seen that K(x, t) is ofthe form (7.195) with (J1=n, L l =(-3, -1).
Assuming now the solution of equation (7.205) to be
F(t) = w(t)g(t) = (1-t)C%(1 + t)P g(t) , (Itl< 1) (7.208)
and using Co, Cl' c 2 as given by (7.207), after some manipulations, the
characteristic equations (7.191) and (7.192) are obtained as
cot ncx = 0, rt. = -1, (7.209)
(7.210)
where
d l = (m+ K2 )(1 + mK 1 )
d 2 = -4(m+K 2 )(1-m) (7.211)
d3 = (1-m)(m+ K2 )+(1 +mK 1 )(m+K2 )-m(1 +K 1 )(1 +mK 1 ).
Since the end t= 1 is embedded into a homogeneous medium, (7.209) gives
422 F. Erdogan, G.D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

TABLE VI
The first root of the characteristic equation, (7.210)

Material pair m = J-l2/J-ll -ß

Plane strain Plane stress

Aluminum-rigid 00 0.2888 0.24i7

Epoxy-rigid 00 0.3203 0.2616
Epoxy-boron 138.46 0.3234 0.2666
Epoxy-aluminum 23.08 0.3381 0.2890
Aluminum-steel 3.00 0.4007 0.3892
Aluminum-aluminum 1.00 0.5000 0.5000
Steel-aluminum 0.333 0.6205 0.6210
Aluminum-epoxy 0.043 0.8248 0.8242
Boron-epoxy 0.0072 0.9258 0.9251
R~gid-aluminum 0 1.0000 1.0000

the expected cx= -!singularity. It can be shown that (7.210) is identical to the
characteristic equation obtained from the analysis ofbonded wedges through
the use of Mellin transforms (see, for example, [19, 20J), or from the eigen-
function expansion (see Zak and Williams [26J). The examination of
equations (7.210) and (7.211) shows that the first acceptable root of(7.210)
is always real for-all possible material combinations. Tables VI and VII show
the roots of equation (7.210) for various material combinations.
After determining the constants cx and ß, equations (7.201) and (7.202)
give the solution of the integral equation. The values of the function g(t)
at theend points are related to the stress intensity factors. This relationship
can be established by obtaining the asymptotic expressions for (J 166(r, n) and
(J266(r, 0) near the pointsr=b and r=O, respectively, by using the respective
Green's functions and the density function 4>(r o) (see [20J). The stress
intensity factors can also be obtained directly from the following general
expression relating the asymptotic values of displacement derivative
aU 16 /ar and the c1eavage stress (J266 (see [20J):

().>O) ,
(7.212)
Numerical solution 01 singular integral equations 423

TABLE VII
The first root of the characteristic equation, (7.210)

VI = V2 =0.30 VI = 0.35, V2 = 0.30

Plane strain Plane stress Plane strain Plane stress

J.l2/ !-ll -ß -ß J.l2/ J.ll -ß -ß

1000 0.2893 0.2424 1000 0.3207 0.2623
100 0.2939 0.2490 100 0.3246 0.2684
44.44 0.2999 0.2578 46.15 0.3295 0.2759
22.22 0.3013 0.2724 23.07 0.3381 0.2890
10 0.3328 0.3033 10.0 0.3583 0.3186
1.02 0.4980 0.4979 1.02 0.5094 0.5038
1.0 0.5000 0.5000 1.00 0.5114 0.5059
0.98 0.5021 0.5022 0.98 0.5134 0.5080
0.10 0.7536 0.7513 0.10 0.7608 0.7548
0.045 0.8258 0.8230 0.043 0.8344 0.8289
0.01 0.9148 0.9130 0.01 0.9178 0.9146
0.001 0.9728 0.9722 0.001 0.9738 0.9727

Equation (7.212) is valid for small values of r, i.e., for the stress and the dis-
placement derivative around the end point r=O. For the end point r=b
equation (7.212) is modified as

0"1I10(r, O)I,>b = 211* :r u 10(r, n-O)I'<b+O[(r-b))"]. (7.213)

From the definition of cJ> given by (7.78) it follows that (see equation (7.90))
0"200(r, 0) = 11* cJ>(r) + o (r'o) , (r >0),
(7.214)
0"100(r, O)I,>b = - 12111 cJ>(r)I'<b+O[(r-b)A].
+K 1

Now defining the stress intensity factors as

' .... b
(7.215)
k(a) = lim 2t. r- ß 0"200\r, 0),
' .... 0
- ~

from equations (7.214) it is found that

424 F. Erdogan, G. D. Gupta and T. S. Cook

k(b) =
(7.216)
k(a) = lim /1* 2+· r- ß <jJ (r) .
r->O

To solve equation (7.205), define

<jJ(r) = h(r)rß(b-r)a = F(x) = g(x)(l-x)a(l +x)ß . (7.217)
Prom equations (7.204) and (7.217) it is seen that h(r)= g(x)ao(a+ ß). Sub-
stituting now ct= -t and using (7.216) and (7.217) result in

k(b) = - 1~~1 2t +ß a~ g{l) ,

(7.218)
k(a) = /1* aoß g( -1),

where the bielastic constant /1* is defined by equation (7.212).

The numerical solution of (7.205) and (7.206) is obtained by using equa-
tions (7.201) and (7.202) (where A =0). The resulting stress intensity factors
for various material combinations and loading conditions are shown in
Tables II and III as the first line corresponding to c = ao. In this problem, to~,
the most stable results for g( + 1) are obtained by ignoring the last point
(i.e., g(t 1 ) and g(tN )) and using a quadratic extrapolation formula based on
the next three values of g(t k ), (i.e., k=2, 3, 4 and k=N -3, N -2, N -1).
In order to have some idea about the convergence of the results, in equa-
tions (7.201) the number of points in the Gauss-Jacobi quadrature formula,
TABLE VIII
The effect of the number of points in the Gauss-J acobi quadrature formula on the stress intensity
factors

p(x) = -Po )J.2!)J.l = 23.08

k(b) k(a)
N
Po (ao)t Po (ao)t

20 0.883063837 2.63008398
40 0.882810532 2.62481953
48 0.882759563 2.62447473
60 0.882716454 2.62417608
98 0.882649609 2.62365727
Numerical solution oJ singular integral equations 425

N was varied between 20 and 98. The effect of this variation is shown in
Table VIII. The speed of convergence appears to be the same at both ends,
and is quite satisfactory*.

References
[lJ Erdogan, F., J. Appl. Mech., Trans. ASME, 32, p. 829 (1965).
[2J Arin, K. and Erdogan, F., Int. J. Engrg. Sei., 9, p. 213 (1971).
[3J Erdogan, F. and Gupta, G. D., Int. J. Solids, Structures, 7, p. 39 (1971a).
[4] Erdogan, F. and Gupta, G. D., Int. J. Solids, Structures, 7, p. 1089 (1971b).
[5J Muskhelishvili, N. 1., Singular Integral Equations, P. Noordhoff, Groningen, The Nether-
lands (1953).
[6J Erdogan, F., SIAM J. Appl. Math., 17, p. 1041 (1969).
[7J Erdogan, F. and Gupta, G. D., Int. J. So lids, Structures, 8, p. 93 (1972a).
[8J Bueckner, H. F., J. Math. Anal. Appl., 14, p. 392 (1966).
[9J Bierman, G. J., SIAM J. Appl. Math., 20, p. 99 (1971).
[lOJ Pogorzelski, W., Integral Equations and their Applications, Pergamon Press, New York
(1966).
[11] Gakhov, F. D., Boundary Value Problems, Pergamon Press, New York (1966).
[12J Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A, Handbook of Mathematical Functions, National
Bureau of Standards, Appl. Math. Series 55 (1964).
[13] Stroud, A H. and Secrest, D., Gaussian Quadrature Formulas. Prentice-Hall, New York
(1966).
[14] Szegö, G., Orthogonal Polynomials, Colloquium Publications, 23, Am. Math. Soc. (1939).
[15J Erdelyi, A, Higher Transcendental Functions, Vol. 2, McGraw-Hill, New York (1953).
[16J Erdogan, F. and Gupta G. D., Quart. Appl. Math., 30, p. 525 (1972b).
[17J Gradshteyn, 1. S. and Ryzhik, I. M., Table of Integrals, Series, and Products, Academic
Press, New York (1965).
[18J Kantorovich, L. V. and Krylov, V. L, Approximate Methods of Higher Analysis. Inter-
science, New York (1958).
[19J Hein, V. L. and Erdogan, F., Int. J. Fracture Mechanics, 7, p. 317 (1971).
[20] Cook, T. S., Ph. D. Dissertation, Lehigh University (1971).
[21J Koiter, W. T., J. Appl. Mech., Trans. ASME, 32, p. 237 (1965).
[22J Tricomi, F. G., Integral Equations, Interscience, New York (1957).
[23J Erdogan, F. and Ozbek, T., J. Appl. Mech., Trans. ASME, 35, p. 865 (1969).
[24J Malyshev, B. M. and Salganik, R. L., Int. J. Fracture Mechanics, 1, p. 114 (1965).
[25] Erdogan, F., Treatise on Continuum Physics, edited by A C. Eringen, Academic Press,
New York (1972).
[26] Zak, AR. and Williams, M. L., J. Appl. Mech., Trans. ASME, 30, p. 142 (1963).
* F or a more general discussion of the question of convergence of this and the other methods
considered in this Chapter, and for a technique of estimating the values such as g (=+= 1) as N --+ 00
see Erdogan and Gupta [16].
For another example in which the kernel K(x, t) in equation (7.205) becomes unbounded at
both ends, see Erdogan and Gupta [7].
 P. D. H ilton and G. C. Sih

8 Applications of the finite element

method to the calculations of stress
intensity factors

8.1 Introduction

According to linear elastic fracture mechanics theory in two-dimensions,

a crack will begin to pro pagate when the amplitude of the stress field in the
immediate vicinity of the crack tip, the stress intensity factor, reaches a
critical value. This is equivalent to the original concept of Griffith based on
energy considerations. Thus, the prediction of strength for a specimen
requires the knowledge of the stress intensity factor in terms of the specimen
geometry and loading conditions. While analytic solutions for crack
problems are available for many configurations [1 J, they are limited to
idealized geometries. Hence it is important to develop a numerical approach
which is capable of determining accurate values for stress intensity factors
for a wide range of specimen geometries and loading conditions. The problem
is complicated by the fact that the quantity of primary interest is the amplitude
of a singular solution; and the accuracy of most standard numerical tech-
niques without special treatment of this singularity deteriorates quickly in
the neighborhood of the crack tip.
One approach for the numerical determination of stress intensity factors
which has received considerable attention because of its ability to treat very
general geometric and loading conditions is the finite element technique.
Many articles and a number of books have been written about various
aspects and applications of the finite element methode These will not be
reviewed here; rather, the reader who is unfamiliar with this technique, is
referred to [2J as a starting point for learning the finite element methode
8.2 Some aspects of finite element method
Abrief description of some aspects of the finite element displacement method
Calculations of stress in tensity ; finite element method 427

........., _-Ir)
U 3

o x
Figure 8.1. A typical finite element idealization of a two-dimensional solid.

for two-dimensional plane problems which will be used to discuss fracture

calculations folIows. The two-dimensional body is divided into a number of
sub-regions called elements, Figure 8.1. Triangular elements are frequently
employed because they lead to a relatively simple mathematical formulation
while giving some flexibility for the choice of subdivisions and thus the ability
to solve a rather large set of problems. A functional representation of the
displacement components in each element known as the displacement shape
function is then chosen which contains a number ofundetermined parameters.
The most elementary choice for the displacement shape function associated
with triangular elements gives a linear displacement field in the element and
the coefficients can be determined as a function of the displacement com-
ponent values at the corners of the triangle, the nodal points. Higher order
428 P. D. Hitton and G. C. Sih

polynomial expressions for the displacement field in an element are generally

associated with a larger number of nodes for that element [2J. This is ac-
complished by either including additional nodes along the edges of the
element or by considering polygonal elements with a larger number of
corners. There are alternative approaches but these will not be discussed
here. It suffices to observe that once the nodal point displacements have been
determined for an element, the complete behavior ofthat element is known.
If the displacement shape functions are chosen such that continuity of
displacement components across element boundaries is insured and dis-
placement boundary conditions are satisfied, then the "best" choice for the
undetermined parameters is that which minimizes the potential energy ofthe
body. The potential energy, V, can be written as the sum over the elements
ofthe strain energy in each element, u(r), minus the work done by the surface
tractions T~, T; acting through the corresponding displacement com-
ponents u x ' uY • (Body forces are left out for simplicity).

V= rtl u(r) - 1, (T~ux+ T;uy)ds (8.1)

where N is the number of elements and S' is the portion of the surface on
which tractions are prescribed. For an elastic body, the strain energy of an
element is a quadratic function of the nodal values for the dis placement
components, i.e.,
M M
u(r) = L..
" "L.. k(r.)u~r)ii.r)
I) 1 )
(8.2)
i= 1 j= 1

where ur)
is the jth nodal displacement component of the rth element, M is
the number of nodal displacement components associated with that element,
and k~') is the (i, j) component of the element stifTness matrix, [k(r)J. The
traction integral can be evaluated in a mann er consistent with the finite
element approach by expressing the displacement components on the surface
sr in terms of the nodal displacement components as prescribed by the
displacement shape functions for those elements which are in contact with
S'. Integration over S' gives the result in the form

L, (T~ux+ T~uy)ds = L~l j~l prlurl]s, (8.3)

where N' is the number of elements in contact with the portion of the surface
on which tractions are applied, S', and pr)
may be regarded as the contribution
from element r to the equivalent force at node j.
Calculations of stress intensity; finite element method 429

The potential energy is now expressible in terms ofthe nodal displacement

components as

V = "L.,N (M
" M
L., "
L., k~~) ü~r) ü<r)
J l) l
-
M)
"L . ,per)
) ü<r)
J . (8.4)
r= 1 j= 1 j= 1 j= 1

Here, pr) is understood to be zero for elements not in contact with S'. A
global numbering system is introduced for the nodal displacement compo-
nents, i.e., each component is given a number, independent of the elements
with which it is associated, to identify it in the grid pattern. The order of
summation in Equation 8.4 is inverted to give
N
Kij =
r= 1
I k~'/
where (i, j), which now refer to the global numbering system, vary from 1
to n, the total number of nodal displacement components (or degrees of
freedom) in the finite element grid and K jj are the elements of the master
stiffness matrix [KJ. Thus the potential energy of the body, as approximated
by the finite element procedure, is expressed in terms of the nodal displace-
ment components as
n n n

V = I I
i= 1 j= 1
KijüjÜ j - I
j= 1
RjÜ j (8.5)

and the equivalent nodal force, R j , associated with the ith degree offreedom,
is given by
N
Rj = I p~r).
r= 1

Displacement boundary conditions are satisfied by constraining appropriate

nodal displacement components. For definiteness, let us say that the numbers
ofthe constrained components are Cl' C2' ••• , Cm where m is the total number
of such constraints. Then minimization of the potential energy with respect
to the undetermined parameters (unconstrained nodal dis placement compo-
nents) leads to a set of(n - m) linear algebraic equations for these dis placement
component values, i.e.,

i = 1, 2, ... , n but not Cl' C 2 , ••• , Cm • (8.6)

Substitution into the expression for the potential energy, Equation (8.5),
gives
n

I 1 Kaü
j=
j = R1 • (8.7)
430 P. D. Hilton and G. C. Sih

If the. known values uq , U C2 ' ••• , U Cm are substituted into this system of
equations, the result is a set of symmetrie equations of the form
n-m
I
i= 1
K;jb i = Bj (8.8)

where [K'J is known as the reduced master stiffness matrix and

C..,

bi=U i , Bi=R i -
I=Cl,C2 ••••
I Ki.1UI for i<c 1
Cm
(8.9)
b i =Ui+l' B i =R i +1 - I
I =Cl,C2 ....
K i +1 •ZUl for cl~i~c2,etc.

Solution of these equations completes the procedure; stresses and strains

within an element can then be determined direct1y from the corresponding
displacement shape functions.
The finite element formulation for axisymmetrical problems is similar to
that for the plane theory of elasticity discussed above, except that, in this
case, the elements are toroidal in shape, Figure 8.2. The cross section of the
toroidal elements, which results from intersecting an element with a plane
that contains the axis of symmetry, has the same shape as the corresponding
two-dimensional element, i.e., triangular, quadrilateral, etc. The stresses,
strains, and displacement components within each axisymmetric element
are expressible in terms of the nodal values of the radial and axial dis-
placement components via the displacement shape function. Thus the strain
energy of an element will again be quadratic in these nodal displacement

Ii \
/ \
I \
/ \
I \
I
{ . \
\

( /~ .~_J
'...J.,-- ./
Figure 8.2. A typical finite element for an axi-symmetric problem.
Calculations of stress intensity; finite element method 431

components as expressed by Equation (8.2), hut, the numerical values of the

coefficients for the axisymmetric element will, in general, differ from those
for the corresponding two-dimensional one for two reasons:
(1) There is a non-zero contribution to the strain energy density associated
with the circumferential stress and strain components which does not
exist for the planar elements.
(2) Integration to obtain the strain energy öf an element from the strain
energy density distribution is performed over the toroid as opposedto
the corresponding cylinder for the plan ar case.
With these changes, the formulation described för thetwo-dimensional
problems is applicable to the axisymmetric case. A set of linear algebraic
equations for the nodal values of the unconstrained radial and axial dis-
placement components, of the form given by Equation (8.8), governs the
finite element calculation.

8.3 Basic equations of linear fracture mechanics

The character of the stress, strain, and displacement fields in the vicinity of
the crack tip is known for the linear two~dimensional theory of elasticity [1]
under the conditions of generalized plane stress, plane strain, aIKf knti-plane
shear. The local behavior of the in-plane solution also holds for the axi-
symmetrie case. F or all but the axisymmetric case, it suffices to consider a
through crack directed along the x-axis (the out-of-plane direction is denoted
by z). For in-plane loading situations, the stress and displacement compo-
nents asymptotically elose to the crack tip are

U xx = (;;)t cos (8/2) [1- sin (8/2) sin (38/2)]

U yy = (2;)t cos (8/2)[1 + sin (8/2) sin (38/2)]

k .
u xy = (2;)t sin (8/2) cos (8/2) cos (38/2) (8.10)

k (2 t
Ux = 1
8: 2 [(2K-1) cos (8/2)-cos (38/2)]

uy = kl~~)t [(2K+1)sin(8/2)-sin(38/2)]
432 P. D. Hilton and G. C. Sih

for the symmetrie case associated with the opening mode of crack extension;
while those for the skew-symmetric case of in-plane sliding of one crack
surface over the other are

(Jxx= - ;)t sin (812)[2+ cos (812) cos(3812)J

(2k

(Jyy = (2;)t sin (812) cos (812) cos (3812)

(Jxy = (2;)t cos (812) [l-sin (812) sin(3812)] (8.ll)

Ux = k2~~)t [(2K+3) sin (812)+ sin (3812)J

k (2p)t
uy = - 28fJ. [(2K-3) cos (812)+cos (3812)]

where K = 3 - 4v for plane strain and (3 - v)/( 1 + v) for generalized plane stress;
(p, 8) are polar coordinates centered at the crack tip with 8 measured from
the line of expected crack extension. The corresponding expression for the
only non-zero displacement component associated wit4 a crack in a body
governed by the theory of anti-plane shear is

(Jxz= k 3 sm
- (2p)t . (1l/2)
(J (Jyz =
k3
(2p)t COS
(1l/2)
U
Uz = k 3 (2p)t
fJ.
SI·n (1l/2) .(8.12)
U

Figure 8.3. A circumferential crack in asolid of revolution.

Calculations of stress intensity; finite element method 433

For axisymmetric problems concerned with a body ofrevolution containing

a penny-shaped crack centered on the axis, the radial and axial displacement
components near the crack edge are identical to the plane strain results,
Equation (8.10), with U x and uy interpreted as the radial and axial components
of displacement, Ur and U z respectively, and () measured from the direction
of increasing radius. If instead a circumferential crack emanating from the
surface of the body is to be considered, then the radial component Ur of
displacement becomes the negative of uy , Equation (8.10), and () is measured
from the direction of decreasing radius, Figure 8.3.

8.4 Conventional finite element method applied to

crack problems

Early studies on fracture mechanics problems involving the finite element

method have been carried out by Swedlow [3], Tuba [4], and Kobayashi
[5]. They attempted a straight forward application of the technique with no
special attention given to the stress singularity. The specimen was con-
ceptually divided into finite elements with a relatively high element concen-
tration near the crack tip (Figure 8.4 shows a typical grid pattern). The bound-
ary conditions were specified and the resulting equations were solved. The
character of the finite element method is such that the numerical values of
the displacement components at the element corners are solved for directly

(jO

2b

<JO

Figure 8.4. A typical finite element grid pattern for a crack problem.
434 P. D. Hillon and G. C. Sih

from which the displacement, strain, and stress fields within each element
are determined. The stress intensity factor is then found by comparing a
displacement component at anode elose to the crack tip to the asymptotic
solution for the displacement component at the position of that node,
Equations (8.10)-(8.12).
Computational experiments indicate the need to inelude a very large
number of degrees of freedom in order to obtain reasonable accuracy
[3,4,5]. Further study ofthis technique [6, 7, 8] brings up serious questions
about its convergence, reliability, and convenience. The numerical value of
the stress intensity factor, determined in the manner described above, varies
over a considerable range, depending upon which node is chosen for its
ca1culation. This problem is illustrated by results obtained for the case of a
solid cylinder with a circular notch subjected to tensile loading*. Values
for the stress intensity factor are obtained by comparing the asymptotic
solution for a displacement component at a nodal position with the finite
element result for that displacement component at that node. In Figure 8.5,
the stress intensity factor, normalized by the product ofthe net section stress

O"net = 0"0 (D~2Cr

(jO
2.8

1
Bueckner [27]

2.4

2.0
~ c
~ 1.6
\:5
...... Circumferential
~ Crack
1.2

o 0.2c 0.4c 0.6c 0.8c 1.0 c

dc
Figure 8.5. Numerical values for the stress intensity factor determined by comparing the nodal
point displacement from a conventional finite element ca1culation to the first term of the asymp-
totic expansion for that displacement component at that position.

* Ca1culations performed by J. Oglesby, Naval Ship Research and Development Center.

Calculations of stress intensity: finite element method 435

and the square root of the cylinder diameter, is plotted against the distance,
de, from the crack tip to the node employed for that calculation of the stress
intensity factor. Bueckner's result [27] for the stress intensity factor as-
sociated with this problem, which is be1ieved to be within one percent of the
exact value, is indicated for comparison.
The results based on nodes very near the crack tip and those based on
nodes relatively far from it are highly inaccurate. The large errors in numer-
ical values of the stress intensity factor which were obtained via nodes very
near the crack tip are directly attributable to the inaccuracy of the finite
element method in that region. Specifically, the polynomial form assumed
for the displacement fields within the elements does not properly describe
the square root behavior of the displacement components near the crack
tip. Approximations of this kind obviously lead to finite stress and strain
fields at the crack which is not a satisfactory representation of the asymptotic
solution, Equations (8.10)-(8.12), of infinite stress and strain. The poor
resuIts observed for calculations based on nodes farther from the crack tip
are, at least in part, attributed to the inaccuracy of the one-term asymptotic
expansion in this region.
Somewhat more reIiable results can be obtained by taking an average of
the predicted values for the stress intensity factor from the nodes on a
circular ring centered at the crack tip. The averaging process is carried out
for a number of different ring radii and the results are plotted against
distance from the crack tip in the mann er shown in Figure 8.5. An extra-
polation scheme is then applied.
For a given finite element calculation, significant improvements on the
values of the stress intensity factor can be obtained by retaining high order
terms in the asymptotic expansion of the displacement components about
the crack tip. For example, in the case of a crack in an axisymmetric body
subjected to Mode I loading these expansions become [9]

k (2p)t
Ur = 18.u [(5 - 8v) cos (8/2) - cos (38/2) ]

+ ~: (1- v) cos 8 + (8.13)

u z = k 1 (2p)t [(7-8v)sin(8/2}-sin(38/2)] - rJ. Pv

2 sin 8 +
.u .u
436 P. D. Hilton and G. C. Sih

where r:x is the coefficient of the second term in the asymptotic expansion.
Equating these expressions to the nodal point, displacement component
values obtained via the finite element procedure at a number of nodes equal
to the number of terms retained in Equations (8.13) results in a set of simul-
taneous equations for k 1 , Cl, etc. Solution gives the stress intensity factor.
Inclusion of terms of order beyond pt in Equations (8.13) increases the
accuracy of the asymptotic expansions at moderate distances from the crack
tip where the finite element results are more accurate. Thus the resulting
values for the stress intensity factor are expected to be bett er than those
obtained with the one-term expansion and the best numerical results will be
associated nodes which are a bit further from the crack tip than was the case
before.
To illustrate the effect of including higher order terms, such as p, pt etc.,
stress intensity factors are recalculated employing the first two terms of the
asymptotic expansion (i.e., containing pt and p) for the solid cylinder with a
circumferential crack, Equations (8.13). Identical grid patterns were used
for both calcul~tions. A comparison of the results is shown in Figure 8.6 in
the form of a plot ofthe calculated value for the stress intensity factor against
the distance from the crack tip to the nodes used for the calculation.
Note that improvement in the numerical values of the stress intensity
factor is observed for nodes further from the crack tip and that the peak
value obtained is considerably more accurate than that obtained using the

2.8
Bueckner [27]

2.4
Two term expansion

- \~n: ;:r~ ~xpansion

dc
Figure 8.6. A comparison of numerical values obtained for the stress intensity factor via con-
ventional finite element calculations in conjunction with one and two term asymptotic expan-
sions.
Calculations 0/ stress intensity .. finite element method 437

one-term expansion. This result supports the explanation given above for
the large errors which were observed when using a one-term expansion in
conjunction with nodes that were not very near the crack tip to determine
the stress intensity factor.
It is appropriate to briefly review the convergence statements for the finite
element method to determine whether they are applicable to the calculations
described above. Namely, the finite element displacement method with
compatible elements (those which enforce continuity of the displacement
components across element boundaries) can be shown to have the properties
of the Ritz technique. Therefore the convergence theorems for the Ritz
method [10J are applicable to such finite element procedures and, in particu-
lar, to the crack solution calculations described. The consequence of these
theorems is that convergence can be assured only when the approximate
dis placement field and its first derivatives canbe made arbitrarily dose to
the corresponding true fields everywhere in the region by increasing the
number of elements. This condition is violated by any of the standard
elements in the immediate vicinity of the crack tip where the dis placement
derivatives of the exact solution become unbounded. Thus there is no as-
surance that the finite element solution is accurate near the crack tip and that
errors in this region do not propagate into the entire solution.

8.5 Finite element method with embedded

singularity

As was observed, the direct application of the finite element method to

crack problems has a number of drawbacks induding the need for an ex-
cessively large number of degrees of freedom, the difficulties in determining
the stress intensity factor from the finite element results, and the lack of
assurance of convergence. In an attempt to eliminate some of these undesir-
able features, an alternative approach has been developed by Wilson [6J
for elastic problems and by Hilton and Hutchinson [11 J for elastic-plastic
crack problem calculations. It direct1y incorporates both the finite element
method and the analytical crack tip expansions. The philosophy behind this
approach is based on the mathematical properties of the two numerical
techniques employed, i.e., the asymptotic expansion becomes increasingly
more accurate as one approaches the singularity, while the finite element
approximation can be made to be very accurate everywhere except ne ar the
crack tip. Thus it is natural to attempt to combine these two numerical
438 P. D. Hillon and G. C. Sih

tools so that each is used in the region it is most accurate and not employed
where its accuracy becomesquestionable. This thought process has led to
. a special finite element technique for fracture problems which embeds the
asymptotic expansion into the finite element grid at the crack tip.

Cracked bodies subjected to anti-plane loading. The embedded singularity,

finite element approach to crack problems will first be illustrated for ModelII
fracture, i.e., crack growth under out-of-plane or longitudinal shear loading,
because the mathematical description of the anti-plane theory is somewhat
simpler than that for plane problems. Briefly, the displacement field for
longitudinal shear problems is assumed to be of the form
Ux = u y = 0; Uz = uz{x, y). (8.14)
Substitution into Hooke's Law and the strain-displacement relations gives
the stress components as

()xz = Il}'xz = 1l(8u z/8x) (8.15)

()yz = Wlyz = 1l(8u z/8y)
where the shear modulus of elasticity is denoted by Il=E/[2{1 +v)J. This
formulation describes the state of a cylindrical body of infinite height
subjected to loading along the generators of the cylinder. Note that the
entire theory is expressible in terms of one unknown which is dependent on
the two in-plane coordinates, i.e., uz=uz(x, y).
In particular, consider the problem of a rectangular solid with in-plane
dimensions 2a by 2b, containing a crack of length 2c, which is subjected to
anti-plane shear tractions as illustrated in Figure 8.7. The variational

Figure 8.7. A cracked body subjected to anti-plane shearing tractions.

Calculations of stress intensity; finite element method 439

principle of minimum potential energy forms the bases of this analysis.

Symmetry conditions permit consideration of the first quadrant alone with
the following additional requirements:

0" yz (x, 0) = 0, x<c (8.16)

uz(x, 0) = 0, C < x < a.
F or purposes of analysis the first quadrant of the solid is conceptually
divided into two regions by a circular arc Tl of radius R l centered at the
crack tip, Figure 8.8.
The first term ofthe asymptotic expansion about the crack tip, expressible
in polar coordinates centered at the tip as

(8.17)

is employed to describe the fuH solution on and within Tl ; thus it is necessary

Y} a
"'[0 '\
G G G G (!) G G G (!)

"'[yz·O
~ Core
Region R1
uz·O x
o I. c .1
Figure 8.8. Division of the specimen geometry into the core region associated with the asymp-
totic expansion and the outer region where finite elements are employed.
 440 P. D. Hilton and G. C. Sih

Figure 8.9. A typical embedded singularity, finite element grid pattern. (See also Figure 8.10).

Core Region
A
Figure 8.10. Enlarged detail in shaded region near the crack tip in Figure 8.9.

to choose R 1 sufficiently small SO that this is a good approximation. The

region outside Tl is divided into finite elements as illustrated in Figures 8.9
and 8.10. For clarity, the fine mesh in the vicinity of the crack tip is shown
Calculations of stress intensity; finite element method 441

separately at an enlarged scale, Figure 8.10. Discussion ofthe number, type,

and distribution of these elements is deferred until the formulation is co m-
pleted.
The purpose here is to construct the potential energy for the first quadrant
ofthe solid as the sum ofthe contributions from the core region (that encIosed
by Tl) and those from the finite elements. With this in mind, the strain energy
per unit thickness associated with the core region Ue is ca1culated as

Ue = 4f Core regIon
. O"ijeijds

(8.18)

_2111
- - J~Rl f1l:
0 0
[(au-- )2 + (1- -au 2J pdedp
z
ap,
z)
p ae
where 'Yij = 2eij' i i= j. Substitution of the first term of the asymptotic expansion
for uz{p, e), Equation (8.11), into the above equation and performance ofthe
indicated integrations gives
k~
Ue = 411 nR l . (8.19)

The finite element method is used to describe the solution everywhere outside
the core region. The strain energy per unit thickness in each element can be
ca1culated in the standard manner as described by Equation (8.2) to give

U {r) ="M
~
M
"k~~) u(r) u-(r)
l..J 1) Zi Zj·
(8.20)
i= 1 j= 1

The potential energy per unit dimension in the z-direction ofthe first quadrant
of the solid as obtained by summing the contributions from the core region
and the finite elements is

v= ~! nR l + rtl [~1 j~l k~j)u~)ü~]J - f: ~ouz{x, b)dx. (8.21)

The traction integral can be evaluated explicitly in terms ofthe displacements

at the nodes along y=b, x on (0, a) by using the appropriate displacement
shape functions to describe uz{x, b) between adjacent nodes.
The nodes of Tl are treated separately. On these nodes, the displacement
is required to match that given by the asymptotic expansion. Using the
442 P. D. Hillon and G. C. Sih

Core Region

2(N I) NI
Figure 8.11. AglobaI numbering system for nodes in the vicinity of the core region.

numbering system shown in Figure 8.11, the displacement of the ith node
on the first ring is

(8.22)

Thus the displacement field along the first ring is prescribed except for one
unknown parameter, the stress intensity factor. In this way, the asymptotic
expansion is connected to the finite element grid. The question of compatibility
along Tl arises but discussion is deferred, to be included in a more complete
study of convergence. Minimization of the potential energy expression leads
to the following set of equations which will govern this calculation :

av av = 0 (8.23)
U
~k3 = 0, "" i
OÜ

where i go es over the unconstrained nodes (not those on Tl)' The potential
energy of the quarter plane will have the form
v = Ak~ + L B i k 3 ü i + L L CijÜiÜj + Li Diüi
i i j
(8.24)

where the coefficient ofthe first term, A, includes contributions from the co re
region and the first ring of nodes. The second set of terms with coefficients Bi
represents the coupling ofthe first and second ring ofnodes through the first
ring of elements. The last two sets of terms are of the standard finite element
form, being associated with the nodes beyond the first ring and the traction
boundary conditions, respectively.
It is not difficult to alter a general anti-plane shear, finite element program
so as to embed the asymptotic expansion discussed above at the singularity
Calculations of stress intensity: finite element method 443

Yf a
0 0 0 0 0
"Co
0 0 0 <:>
'<:>I
,-

Traction
Free L
.l
"Cyz·O uz·O x
01. c-R, 2R, .'
Figure 8.12. The auxiliary problem for embedded singularity, finite element calculations.

and thereby make the program direct1y applicable to crack problems [6J.
To do this, consider the auxiliary problem for which the co re region is
replaced by a traction-free hole, Figure 8.12.
This problem is amenable to solution by a standard finite element program.
It is convenient to use a grid pattern which contains a number of rings of
elements about the void in conjunction with the numbering system shown
in Figure 8.13.

Stress Free

Free
Figure 8.13. The global numbering system in the vicinity ofthe hole for the auxiliary problem.
444 P. D. Hilton and G. C. Sih

The reduced master stiffness matrix and the nonhomogeneous terms are
obtained via the standard program, i.e., the set of equations relating the
unconstrained nodal displacements to the loading conditions (K;ju j = B)
are determined.
To solve the actual crack problem it is necessary to add the equation
associated with the fact that k 3 is to be chosen so as to minimize the potential
energy, i.e., 8V/8k 3 = 0, and then to eliminate the equations corresponding
to the nodes on Tl' With this in mind, recall

V= Ue + rt1 u(r)-To J: uz(x, b)dx (8.25)

and

where N g is total number of unconstrained nodes for the auxiliary problem.

Thus

(8.26)

The nodal displacements on the first ring are given by

(8.27)

where N 1 is the number ofnodal points on the boundary ofthe core region.
Thus

8u j = 1(2:1 )! sin (8)2) j ~N 1

8k 3 (8.28)
° j>N1
The partial derivati~e of V with respect to k 3 can be rewritten as

8V _ k 3 nR 1 ~ ~ K' (2R 1 )t . (8/2)-

.. k - + L.. L.. ij sm j U i (8.29)
o 3 2/1 i=l j=l /1

which can be further separated into

Calculalions of stress inlensity: finite element method 445

a
. . kV = k 3 [nR
- 21 + L~ L~ Kij,2R . (8 /2) . (8 /2)J
-z-1 sm i sm j
o 3 . J1 i= 1 j= 1 J1
Z(Nd NI ,(2R 1 )t. _
+ I I Kij sm (8)2)u i • (8.30)
i=N I +1 j=l J1

The goal is to determine the master stiffness matrix for the crack problem
which will be denoted as [K*]. The elements of [K*] can now be found
directly from the auxiliary problem as
nR 2R
----f-
NI NI
Ki 1 = _1 + I I K~j sin (8;/2) sin (8)2)
2J1 i=l j=l J1
and
K *1i -- ~
L
K'i + N I - I, j
. (8/2)
(2R 1 )t sin j , i = 2, NI + 1 .
j=l J1
The remaining terms in the master stiffness matrix are unchanged, so that
K *-K'
ij - i+NI-1,j+Nl-1'. (8.31)
The nonhomogeneous terms are shifted correspondingly by the trans-
formation
B *-B
i -
.
i+NI' (8.32)
The standard finite element program is readily augmented, as shown above,
to give the governing equations of the embedded singularity-finite element
technique for crack problems.
The ca1culations described above were carried out* for the cracked
rectangular body shown in Figure 8.7. Figures 8.9 and 8.10 are typical of
the grid patterns employed. A sequence of results is reported for the particu-
lar body dimensions a/c = b/c = 2.0 to demonstrate the sensitivity of this
approach to the various approximations involved and to show the kind of
accuracies attainable via the embedded singularity, finite element method.
In particular, the influence of the size of the co re region and the number of
nodes along the asymptotic expansion-finite element grid pattern interface,
Tl' is studied. Numerical values of the stress intensity factor are given in
Table I for various numbers of nodal points along r l and corresponding
numbers of degrees of freedom at a constant core radius of R l =O.Olc.
In all cases, the grid patterns are chosen so that the shapes of the triangular
* Ca1culations were performed by Marlin Kipp, Research Assistant, Lehigh University.
446 P. D. Hillon and G. C. Sih

TABLE I
Variations of k 3 with the number of nodes

Number of nodes N umber of degrees k 3 (cal)/(r8ct )

along TR offreedom

11 227 1.15581
13 272 1.15972
16 386 1.16552
19 550 1.16902
21 639 1.17051

TABLE 11
Variations of k 3 with Rdc

Rdc Number of degrees k 3 (cal)/('t"8ct )

offreedom

0~OO8 550 1.16846

0.01 550 1.16902
0.012· 550 1.16940
0.02 550 1.17044

elements do not change drastically from one ca1culation to the next and
should not appreciably affect the numerical results. The ca1culated values
for the stress intensity factor are seen to increase as the grid pattern is refined
and the maximum change in its value over this set of ca1culations is less
1.5 % of the lowest result.
N ext a test of the core size is made; i.e., ca1culations are performed for
19 nodes along r 1 at various values ofthe co re radius R i . Results are shown
in Table Ir.
The stress intensity factor is found to be very in sensitive to the actual
value chosen for R 1 within the range considered and thus the c()re radii
considered are assumed to be sufficiently small so that the one-term ex-
pansion is a good approximation to the true solution everywherein the core
region~ Note, however, that as the core radius is decreased, presumably
increasing the accuracy of the approximations, the ca1culated values for the
stress intensity factor actually decrease.·· This may occur because the one-
term expansion underestimates the strain energy in the core region which
may force correspondingly large values for the stress intensity factors in
Calculations 0/ stress in tensity ; finite element method 447

the numerical calculation. In anycase, it should be realized that the embedded

. singularity, finite element results may not alwayS' bound the true solution
from either above or below. These results do, however, appear to be con-
vergent to the true solution as will be discussed later.
With this background, the embedded singularity, finite element procedure
is used to determine the variation of the stress intensityfactor with the geo-
metricparameters of the cracked, rectangular body subjected to anti-plane
shearing tractions, Figure 8.7. Graphs of the stress intensity factor against
cla for blc= 1.0,2.0 areshown in Figure 8.14.

2.4

2.2

2.0
o b/e=1.0
• b/e -2.0
1.8 x Sih and ehen [12]

o
.t::1.6
'"
.;:,:

1.4

12 b/e-1.0

1.0

0.8 1.0
e/a
Figure 8.14. The stress intensity factor against the specimen width for a body with an interior
crack.

The limiting values of these results as cla approaches zero can be compared
to those obtained via a different procedure by Sih and ehen [12J for the
corresponding infinite strip problem as indicated in Figure 8.14. Note that
448 P. D. Hilton and G. C. Sih

in both the cases of b/c = 1.0, 2.0 the values calculated here for the stress
intensity factor are below those reported by Sih and Chen.
Computation times for the calculations reported were about 20 seconds
per run on a CDC 6400 computer.

Cracked bodies subjected to in-plane loading. The procedure for obtaining

stress intensity factors for anti-plane shear by using the finite element tech-
nique with an embedded asymptotic expansion is also applicable to problems
with crack opening Modes I or II for generalized plane stress, plane strain,
and axisymmetric problems. Minor alterations are necessary to accommodate
the second degree of freedom present in these problems. These changes will
be illustrated via the problem of a rectangular plate with dimensions 2a by
2b containing a crack of length 2c on its line of symmetry subjected to tensile
loading, Figure 8.15. The first quadrant is considered with the following con-
ditions:
O"Xy(x, b) = O"Xy(a, y) = O"Xy{O, y) = O"XY(x, 0) = 0
O"y (x, 0) = 0 for x< c
uy (x, 0) = °für x > c
(8.33)

ux(O, y) = 0, O"y{x, b) = 0"0.

'L
20

( .---- 2b~
I. 2c .1

(j'0

Figure 8.15. An illustrative problem for embedded singularity finite element ca1culations
associated with the theories of plane stress and plane strain.

Note that as a result of the symmetry conditions, displacement of the crack

tip in the y-directiün is prevented; however, the tip may displace in the x-
Calculations of stress intensity; finite element method 449

direction. This is accounted for by writing the near-tip displacement

components as
Ux = b+ux(p, 8)
(8.34)
u y = uy(p, 8)
and choosing b so as to minimize the potential energy. The asymptotic
behavior of the displacement components uAp, 8) and uy(p, 8) relative to
the crack tip is given in Equations (8.10) for generalized plane stress, plane
strain and axisymmetric problems. Spatial derivatives of the displacement
components are independent of b, so b can have no effect on the strain,
stress, or strain energy in the core region. The potential energy of these
two-degree of freedom problems is functionally dependent on k 1 , band ü j '
l.e.,
v = V(k 1 , b, ü)
where
Üj = (UX)(j+ 1)/2' .i odd
Üj = (U Y )(j/2) ' .i even

and .i varies over the unconstrained degrees of freedom. The governing

minimization equations are
av av av
ak 1 = 0, ab = 0, aÜj = 0. (8.35)

Standard two-dimensional finite element programs can be augmented to

inc1ude the embedded singularity for plane crack problems. To accomplish
this, consider the auxiliary problem for which the co re region is replaced by
a hole with a traction-free boundary; all other boundary conditions for the
actual and auxiliary problems are identical. A grid pattern which includes
a number of rings of elements about the void with the numbering system
shown in Figure 8.13 is again used for convenience. Let [K'] be the reduced
master stiffness matrix with elements K;j and B j the set of corresponding
nonhomogeneous terms for the auxiliary problem, i.e.,
av Ng

aU-
-
i
= "~ K~·ü·-B·=
j= 1
I) j 1 0, (8.36)

where N g is the number of unconstrained degrees of freedom.

For the actual problem, all the nodes adjacent to the core region are
450 P. D. Hilton and G. C. Sih

constrained to the extent that their behavior is completely determined by

the two parameters k 1 and b. Thus the number of degrees offreedom for the
actual problem is N g -2(N1 )+2 where NI is the number ofnodes along the
ring surrounding the core. The governing equations for the crack problem
can be written as (the superscript * is used to indicate the actual problem
as contrasted to the auxiliary one).
Ng -2Nl+2
av*
-ak= . K*
111+
k K*
12 U
5:
+ I
j= 3
K'LÜj+2Nl-2 = 0
1
Ng -2Nl+2
av*
~=
K*
211+
kK* 5:
22 U + I
j=3
K t Üj+2Nl-2 =0

(8.37)

where i=3, N g -2(N1 )+2. The elements of the master stiffness matrix for
the crack problem can be determined from the corresponding quantities
associated with the auxiliary problem as

2Nl-l 2Nl-l

I I
i= 1,3,5 j= 1,3,5
K~·
lJ

1 2Nl
K *Ij -- -k "
L K 'i,j+2Nl-2 U- i
1 i= 1
j = 3, 4, ... , 2N1 + 2
2Nl-1
K *2j -
- "L
i= 1,3,5

(8.38)

where

(8.39)
Calculations 0/ stress intensity: finite element method 451

i odd
i even

uAR 1 , 8) and u y{R 1, 8) are given by their one term expansions in Equations
8.10 for generalized plane stress, plane strain, and axisymmetric problems,
and (Jij' 8ij can be calculated from them.
Consider the axisymmetric problems of either a penny-shaped crack
centered on the axis of a body of revolution or a circumferential crack in an
axisymmetric body. There is a elose similarity between the axisymmetric and
planar problems which enables almost identical embedded singularity,
finite element formulations for the two cases. For example, the problem of
asolid circular cylinder, containing a penny-shaped crack, subjected to
tensile loading on its end surfaces corresponds to the plane strain problem
considered previously if the (x, y) co ordinate system in Figure 8.15 is
interpreted as a measure of position in the radial and axial directions,
respectively. The variations of the displacement components with angle
about the crack tip, ur(p, 8) and ut(p, 8) employed in Equation (8.34), are
given by Equation (8.10) with K=3-4v (note the comments pertaining to
axisymmetric problems in Section 8.3). For numerical calculations, the only
distinction that need be made between the penny-shaped crack problem
and the plane strain formulation for the through crack problem is that the
strain energy in the core region will differ as a result ofthe different shapes of
that region for the two cases {for the axisymmetric problem the core region
is a toroid; while, it is cylindrical for the plane strain problem}. Clearly, the
standard finite element stiffness matrices for the two cases will be different
as discussed in Section 8.2. Thus a standard axisymmetric, finite element
program can be altered to give the embedded singularity, finite element
procedure for the penny-shaped crack just as the planar program was
changed to inelude the special element for the two-dimensional crack
problem.
There is a similar correspondence between the axisymmetric problem of a
body of revolution containing an exterior circumferential crack and the
double notched, plane strain specimen problem.
Results of a number of embedded singularity, finite element calculations
for plane strain and axisymmetric crack problems are presented in the
Appendix. They tend, in a limited way, to illustrate both the accuracy and
versatility afforded by the use of the embedded singularity, finite element
approach for solving crack problems.
452 P. D. Hitlon and G. C. Sih

8.6 Finite element procedures for infinite regions

Solutions to infinite region problems are of interest in that they provide a

means of comparison with available analytic solutions so as to determine
the accuracy of the numerical technique. To accomplish this by the finite
element method, calculations are usuaUy carried out for large finite bodies
whose boundaries are sufficiently far away from the crack so that the results
are a good approximation to the infinite region solution. Such an approach
c1early requires a large number of elements and correspondingly long
computer times.
Alternatively, it is possible to deal direct1y with boundary value problems
over infinite regions. The example of an infinite plate with a finite crack in a
uniform far anti-plane shear field, Figure 8.16, will illustrate the approach.
The potential energy of this problem is infinite, however, the problem can be
expressed as the superposition oftwo problems, Figure 8.16. The solution to
problem (1) is trivial (u z = ('[00 / jl) y) and the potential energy of problem (2)
is finite. Thus a solution to problem (2) is sought.
The first quadrant is considered with the boundary conditions shown in
Figure 8.17. The potential energy is given by

V= U- '[00 f: uAx, O)dx (8.40)

where U is the strain energy of the quarter plane. For the evaluation of U,
the quarter plane is conceptually divided into three regions, Figure 8.17,
to be associated with three different numerical techniques. A circular are,
T 2 , centered at the crack midpoint and of radius R 2 (R 2 > c) separates the
space exterior to the core region into two portions, denoted as Al and A 2
respectively. As before, the asymptotic expansion is employed in the core
region and finite elements are used in region Al' In considering region A 2 ,
note that there are no singularities in the quarter plane outside the circular
arc T 2 ; thus the anti-plane shear solution can be expressed in terms of one
function which is analytic on T 2 and in A 2 (two analytic functions are required
for plane stress and plane strain problems), i.e.,
V 2 uz = 0 (8.41)
implies that U z is equal to the real part of an analytic function, 4> (z)/ jl of the
complex variable z=x+iy. The stress components are given by [13J
(8.42)
Calculations of stress intensity; finite element method 453

1: 00 1: 00
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Y1 YL
I. 0
2c
•
.I
•x -
0 x +

(1)

1: 00
e e e
c==~)­
(;) (;) (;) x
o

(2 )
Figure 8.16. The superposition principle for an infinite body containing a line crack.

1: -0
xz

1: yz =-1: 00 uz·O
Figure 8.17. Division ofthe quarter-plane into three regions; each is associated with a different
numerical procedure.
454 P.D. Hillon and G. C. Sih

Since 4J (z) is analytic for Izi ~ R 2 , its Laurent series must be convergent there
and thus, in A 2. 4J{z) can be expressed as .
00

4J(z) = I ia1z- 1 (8.43)

1=0

where i=( -1)+. The condition uz{x, 0)=0 requires the coefficients al to be
real and '!xAO, y)=O causes al=O for 1 even; thus
00

4J(z) = I ia1z- l .
l= 1,3

The coefficients of the Laurent series can be re1ated to the displacement fie1d
along r 2 (z=R 2 eiP , 0:::::;; ß:::::;; n12) as

uAR 2 , ß) = - !
f1-
f:
l= 1,3, ...
alR z sin (l8) .
l (8.44)

Multiplication by sin (kß)dß and integration in ß from 0 to nl2 gives

4 f1t/2
ak = - R~ uz {R 2 , ß) sin (kß)dß (8.45)
n 0

The strain energy in region A 2 is

00
n ~
8" _ L..
2
al R 2
- 21
. (8.46)
1- 1,3, ...

Thus the potential energy of the quarter-space is given in terms of an asymp-

totic expansion in the neighborhood of the crack tip, a Laurent series far
from the tip and finite elements connecting the two expansions as

V =
k~ nR 1
4f1-
N
+ r~1 u<r) + 8"
n 00

1= Ij, ... a? R Z2l - '!oo

Je uz(x, O)dx .
0 (8.47)

To perform the numerical calculation, the Laurent series is cut-off at a finite

number of terms, the coefficients a l are ca1culated in terms of the nodal
displacements along r 2 by using Equation (8.45), and the potential energy is
minimized with respect to the stress intensity factor and the dis placements
of the unconstrained nodes, i.e.,
Calculations of stress intensity; finite element method 455

GV = GV = O.
Gk 3 GÜ j
This ca1culation was performed under the following conditions:
546 elements
R l = 0.02c
N l = 11
11 nodes along rz
11 terms retained in Laurent series
The numerical result was
k 3 (ca1culated) = 0.994r oo ci = 0.994k 3 •

The percentage error is less than 1 %.

8.7 Convergence and accuracy of the singularity

embedded finite element approach

Convergence of the finite element displacement method for compatible

elements follows from the theorem of minimum potential energy and the
convergence theorems for the Ritz technique. The potential energy theorem
states that of all displacements satisfying displacement boundary conditions,
the displacement field which satisfies equilibrium renders the potential
energy functional an absolute minimum. Further, it can be shown from the
potential energy function that if a sequence of approximations for the dis-
placement field and its first derivatives can be made arbitrarily dose to the
true fields everywhere in the body by induding a sufficient number ofparam-
eters (nodal displacement components), this sequence of solutions will
converge to the true solution.
For the embedded singularity, finite element scheme described above the
approximate displacement field and its first derivatives can be made arbitrar-
ily accurate everywhere, except in the immediate vicinity of the circular arc
r l , by decreasing thesize ofthe finite elements and the radius R l ofthe core
region. F or infinite region problems it is also necessary to increase the number
of terms retained in, the Laurent series. Along r l the displacement field as
given by the asymptotic expansions, Equations (8.10)-(8.12) differs from
that which results from the finite element approximation (a piecewise linear
function) except at the nodal points. Thus the displacement components are
456 P. D. Hilton and G. C. Sih

not, in general, continuous across r 1 and the compatibility condition is

violated there. Further, the strain energy in the region between the circular
arc r l and the sequence of line segments approximating this arc for the
adjacent finite elements has been included twice in the potential energy
expression. Both the displacement incompatibility and the error in the
potential energy will vanish as the number of finite element nodes along r R
approaches infinity. Thus, the embedded singularity, finite element approach
is expected to converge in the limit to the exact solution. The numerical
results presented indicate the high degree of accuracy attainable with this
technique.
The parameters which affect the accuracy of the embedded singularity,
finite element method are the core radius, R l' the number of nodes on the
first ring, N 1 , the number and distribution of finite elements, the number of
nodes in r2 , and the number of terms included in the Laurent series. In
particular, R 1 must be chosen sufficiently small in comparison with all
other geometric parameters so that the one term asymptotic expansion is an
accurate description of the solution in the core region. For the calculations
discussed, this requirement was met by choosing R 1 small enough so that
the solution was insensitive to small changes in R 1.
An improved version of the embedded singularity, finite element is
discussed by Wilson [7J. Higher order terms are retained in the asymptotic
expansion used to describe the solution within the core regions; thereby
permitting the choice of a larger radius for the core and the use of corre-
spondingly fewer finite elements. It is not yet clear how many terms should
be included in the asymptotic expansion in order to obtain the highest degree
of accuracy for a given amount of computation time.

8.8 An alternative finite element approach to crack

problems

In arecent paper, Tracey [14J has introduced an alternative technique for

applying finite elements to crack problems. This approach is based on the
development of"special" triangular elements which enable the representation
of the near tip displacement field with approximately the same degree of
accuracy as the usual finite element representation away from the crack tip.
Tracey employs quadrilateral isoparametric elements [2J which can be
made tri angular for use at the crack tip by requiring that two nodes coincide.
The elements are mapped to a square in the auxiliary coordinates (~, 11),
Calculations 0/ stress intensity; finite element method 457

1\

y C B
r('-0,-1)---' (1,11

~(0,0)
~D-.I.=-A
C.. - _ - - - - , B (1.0)
_

o
o x
Figure 8.18. Mapping for isoparametrie quadralateral elements.

Figure 8.18, by the transformation

e}~ C} W-~) + e:}(~~) + C} (1-~)~ + e:}(l-~)(l-q)

(8.48)
Thus along each edge of the element one of the auxiliary coordinates is
constant while the other varies linearly with respect to x and y. The dis-
placement field within each element is expressed in terms of the transform
coordinates (~, 7]) in such a way that, the displacement components along an
edge of the element are uniquely determined by the dis placements of the
nodes adjacent to that edge, and thus, displacement components are conti nu-
ous across element boundaries. It is customary to satisfy this condition of
compatibility by requiring a linear variation of displacement components
along element edges. The displacement components within an element are
then of the form
ux(~, 7]) = (X11 +(X12~+a137]+(X14~7]
(8.49)
uy(~, 7]) = (X21 +(X22~ +a237]+(X24~7]

where the constants a ij are expressible in terms of the nodal displacement

components. Indeed, Tracey does use elements of this type everywhere
except very near the crack tip. He employs the grid pattern shown in Figure
8.19 in the neighborhood ofthe crack tip and chooses displacement functions
of the form
458 P. D. Hilton and G. C. Sih

Figure 8.19. Near-tip grid pattern.

uA~, 11) = ßll + ß 12 ~t + ß13~t11

(8.50)
uy(~, 11)= ß21 +ß22~t+ß23~t11
for the triangular elements. The line segment, ~ = 0, in the auxiliary plane
corresponds to the crack tip. The coefficients ßij are determined from the
nodal values of the displacement components. Note that this dis placement
field satisfies the conditions described above resulting in compatible dis-
placements both between adjacent triangles and from the triangular elements
to the quadrilateral elements with displacement functions given by Equation
(8.49).
Through this procedure, Tracey has obtained a compatible finite element
grid which requires the near-tip displacement components to be proportional
the square root of the distance from the crack tip. He has suggested that
improved accuracy can be gained by using "special" quadrilaterals for a few

1)

1.01----.---r---,
CD
~--~--~~~~-+~
y 1.0 2.0 3.0

x
Figure 8.20. Mapping of special elements.
Calculations 01 stress in tensity .. finite element method 459

rings of elements surrounding the tip; i.e., these elements have the displace-
ment function
uA~, t'/)= Yll +Y12~t+Y13~tt'/+Y14t'/
(8.51)
uy(~, t'/) = Y21 +Y22~t+Y23~tt'/+Y24t'/·
In order to model a displacement variation which is proportional to the
square root of the distance from the crack tip it is necessary to map these
elements without radial translation as shown in Figure 8.20.
Ca1culations are reported for the doubly-notched plate specimen and for
the solid cylinder with a circumferential edge crack, both subjected to
uniform tensile loading. With the procedure described above, it is necessary
to again compare the asymptotic expansions for displacement components
with the finite element nodal results. Tracey averages the values obtained
for k 1 from each node on the first ring using each displacement component.
Sampie results are given for the doubly cracked, plane strain specimen under
uniform tensile loading, Figure 8.21. The length of the edge cracks is c. The
stress intensity factor for this problem is usually expressed in the form

y 0'0

c
o
c
- x

20
Figure 8.21. Double-notched tensile specimen.
460 P. D. Hillon and G. C. Sih

TABLEIII
Correction factor

N umber of degrees C
offreedom

Bowie 1.02
Tracey 248 1.02±5%
Tracey 548 1.06

k 1 = ero (nc)t [!~ tan (~:) ] C (8.52)

where C is the correction factor multiplying the solution for a periodic array
of cracks in a body under a remote uniform tensile stress, ero. Tracey's
averaged numerical values for C are compared with those obtained by
Bowie [15J (which are believed to be within 1 %ofthe exact value) in Table
III. The calculations by Tracey also give excellent results for the circum-
ferential variation of the stress components about the crack tip.
In comparing the embedded singularity approach to crack problems with
that suggested by Tracey it should be observed that the embedded singularity
technique results in an approximate displacement field which is asymp-
totically exact at the crack tip but whichlacks compatibility along the asymp-
totic expansion-finite element interface. On the other hand, Tracey's ap-
proach of incorporating special triangular elements about the crack tip
satisfies compatibility everywhere but approximates the circumferential
variation of the displacement components near the crack tip by a piecewise
linear function. The special quadrilateral elements, which admit a square-
root stress singularity, used by Tracey to surround the triangular crack tip
elements are a c1ear improvement over the constant strain triangles employed
by Wilson and Hilton in that region. This disadvantage of the embedded
singularity approach is eliminated by the use of a larger core region which
inc1udes higher order terms in the crack tip expansion of the displacement
component~ [7]. Finally, the direct calculation of stress intensity factors
made possible by the embedded singularity technique appears preferable
to the averaging scheme necessitated by Tracey's method.

8.9 Elastic-plastic crack analysis

There have been studies by a number of authors related to the extension of

Calculations 01 stress intensity: finite element method 461

fracture mechanics to take into account the effects of nonlinear material

behavior in the vicinity of crack tips [16, 17]. In particular, Hilton and
Hutchinson [11] have carried out an analysis concerned with the amplitude
of the plastic singularity at the crack tip, the plastic intensity factor. This
analysis is based on a small strain deformation theory of plasticity.
The material behavior is mode1ed by the non-dimensional tensile stress-
strain relations
(J', (J~1
e- { (8.53)
(J~; (J>1

where p is the hardening coefficient. Here, the non-dimensionalized stress

((Jij) and strain (eij) components are re1ated to the actual stresses andstrains
by

(8.54)

where (j yd is the yield stress in tension and 8y d = (j ydl E. The plastic deformation
is assumed to be independent of the hydrostatic component of stress, (J kb
and complete1y determined by the first invariant of the stress deviator,
Sij= (Jij-1(Jkk6ij' This invariant, the "effective stress" (Je is defined by
(J; = i SijSij' F or simple tension (Je = (J and the Mises yield condition is
(J e = 1. The generalized stress-strain relationship which reduces to Equation
(8.53) for simple tension is

(8.55)

where eij is the strain deviator eij = eij -·tekk6ij and e; = ieije ij . It is assumed
that no unloading will occur for the problems to be considered and solutions
based on this formulation must be checked to assure that the assumption is
not violated.
For the plasticity theory described, it has been shown that the dominant
singular term describing the asymptotic beha vior of the stress and strain
components at the crack tip for Mode I, II, and III can be written in the form
[18J
(J ..
U
=k U
p1/(P+ 1) SI).. (8)
(8.56)
eI).. = ke p-P!(P+l)E I).. (8)
462 P. D. Hillon and G. C. Sih

where Sij(8) and Eij(8) describe the angular distribution of the stresses (Jij
and strains Eij' The plastic strain intensity factor k, is related to the plastic
stress intensity factor, kq by k e= (kq)P and (p, 8) are polar coordinates
centered at the crack tip. This expansion is independent of the plastic zone
Slze.
Note that this singular solution is proportional, i.e., the relative magnitude
of the stress components do not change with increasing applied load. Thus
it is valid for flow theory as wen as deformation theory; however, in general,
the amplitudes k q and k e will depend on the theory employed. Additional
information concerning the character ofthese solutions for each ofthe modes
of crack opening will be presented in conjunction with separate descriptions
for each case in the sections to follow.
Before attempting to study the elastic-plastic crack analysis in detail, it
is worthwhile to study the general implications ofthe results when the plastic
region at the crack tip is small in comparison with the characteristic geo-
metrie parameters of the specimen. When this occurs, it is known that the
current theory oflinear fracture mechanics is applicable to fracture initiation
predicting even though the material ahead of the crack tip flows plastically.
This situation has been referred to as "small scale yielding" by Rice [16]
based on the solution of a special elastic-plastic crack problem in Mode IIl.
A necessary condition of small scale yielding is that there exists a region
outside the crack tip plastic zone where the elastic-plastic solution can be
characterized by the singular solution (equations (8.10)-(8.12)) of the
corresponding elastic problem. Hence the elastic stress intensity factor is
a measure of the amplitude of the elastic-plastic stress field. In fact, it can
be shown that in this case the plastic stress or strain intensity factors can be
expressed in terms of the elastic stress intensity factor normalized by the
yield stress, i.e., ke=ke/(JYd' in the form [16, 18J
q
k = C P (k e )2 J(p+ 1)
(8.57)
k e = (kq)P
where C p is a constant depending on the hardening coefficient p. (Refer to
the forthcoming sections for the derivation of equations (8.57).) Mathematic-
ally, equations (8.57) represent the condition of small scale yielding; but
they are only correct for vanishingly small plastic zone sizes. Such a strong
restriction obviously has no practical value in deciding the limitations on
the application of linear fracture mechanics.
In a given problem, it is proposed that an elastic-plastic analysis be
Calculations of stress intensity; finite element method 463

carried out with no apriori restrietions on the plastic size. The embedded
singularity, finite element method may be used to take into account the
effect ofplasticity [llJ. In what folIows, this method will be applied to solve
the problem of an infinite body with a crack subjected to anti-plane shear
and that of an infinite cracked plate in a far uniform tensile field. For these
examples, good agreement was observed, at even moderately large plastic
zone sizes, between the numerical results obtained for the plastic intensity
factors from the large scale yielding, finite element ca1culations and the
small scale yielding values of the plastic intensity factors as given by equa-
tions (8.57). Thus there appears to be a significant range over which the small
scale yielding conditions, as described above, are violated ; yet, the value
obtained for the plastic stress intensity factor from equation (8.57) is still
accurate. This result explains, at least in part, the success that has been observ-
ed in applying elastic fracture mechanics to situations in which plastic
deformation is observed in the vicinity of the crack tip.

Elastic-plastic solution procedure for anti-plane shear crack problems.

Consider first the problem of a body containing a crack which is subjected
to out-of-plane shear loading. Neuber [19J has shown that the particular
form of the dominant solution in the plastic zone near the crack tip, Equation
(8.57), for this case is
h(e)]
p
-(p+l)-l
uz(p, 8) = k e [ sin e
7: xz (p, 8)] ~ k. [h~>]" + 0- ' [- sin Eil
eJ
[
7: yz (p, 8) cos
(8.58)

YXz(P' 8)] ~ k, [h~>]'(P+o-' r- Sin

e1
eJ
[
Yyz (p, 8) cos

where
kt = (ku)P,
sin (2e)
e = 8/2 + ±arcsin [ (; + ~) sin 8] ' h(e) = 2sin(8)
464 P. D. Hillon and G. C. Sih

Rice [16] observed the exceptional implications of this particular solution

for the small scale yielding problem. Specifically, if k(T = (k 3 )2/(p+ 1), then
Equation (8.58) matches the elastic singular solution exact1y on a circular
arc of radius (k 3 /2)2 centered a distance (k 3 /2)2 [(p-1)/(p+ 1)] ahead of
the crack tip. Thus, the first term of the asymptotic expansion is the complete
solution throughout the plastic zone, which in turn, is bounded by the cir-
cular arc just described. As this deformation theory solution is proportional
throughout the plastic region, Equation (8.58) is also the solution to the
corresponding flow theory formulation for the case of monotonically
increasing applied load.
Note that in the small scale yielding range, the amplitude of the plastic
singularity, k(T' is related to the stress intensity factor k(T by [k(T = (k 3 )2/(p+ 1)].
When the plastic zone increases in size, the relationship ofthe plastic behavior
to the elastic singular solution breaks down. The plastic stress intensity
factor, while no longer related directly to k 3 , is still the amplitude of the
plastic singularity, and as such, is a measure of the load transfer to the crack
tip for elastic-plastic problems.
The embedded singularity finite element procedure described for elastic
crack problems will be modified so that it is applicable to the calculation
of plastic intensity factors for situations where the small scale yielding
conditions may be violated. Specifically, a finite element grid will be employed
to connect the plastic singular solution, through the elastic-plastic region to
the material boundaries. Consider again the problem of a rectangular body
containing a crack subjected to out-of-plane shear loading, Figure 8.7, as
an illustrative example. The potential energy of the first quadrant can be
written in the form:

(8.59)

where the strain energy of the core region as calculated from Equation (8.58)
is
(8.60)

and Sp is a constant which depends on the material hardening parameter p.

The displacement field along the first ring of nodes, Tl' is
h(e)] -(p+ 1)-1
uAR 1 , 8) = k e [R, sin e (8.61)
Calculations of stress intensity: finite element method 465

Since the first term of an asymptotic expansion within the plastic zone is
used to describe the complete solution in the core region, it is necessary that
the radius of the core, R 1 , be small with respeet to the plastie zone size as
weIl as the geometrie parameters of the speeimen, e.g., the craek length.
Thus for elastie-plastie calculations, R 1 is dependent on the loading condi-
tions as weIl as the speeimen geometry.
Consider the finite element grid next. The strain energy of element (r) is
u(r) = f
Area (r)
dA fGii
0
O"ijdeij = r
JArea (r)
dA

(8.62)

Substituting from the stress-strain relations for L xz and L yz into Equation

(8.62) yields

u(r) (f dA f l' y
-dy,
1 +v
)(1-
= Area(r) 0

f f
(8.63)
l' ( y p)p-
1
Y
dA - -dy
Area (r) 0 1+ v 1+ v '
where y = (Y;z + y;z)t. Because this result will be substituted into a variational
principle, it is only neeessary to determine the variation ofthe element strain
energy. This quantity can be expressed in the eonvenient form

J [u(r)J·
- I
1+ V
( 1
i Area(r)
[yJ(y)JdA,
(8.64)
y
[C + v) J,
(l-p)p-l
- - yJ(y) dA
1+ v Lrea (r)
y>yyd'

F or constant strain triangular elements

y
- J(y) Area ,
l+v
J[u(r)J = ( (8.65)
v) (1 : v) J (y) Area ,
(l-p)p-l

( 1: y < yyd .

Thus, finally the variation of the strain energy for an element can be written
in the form

J [u(r)J = D(r)(y) J L~l j~l kijüiüjJ (8.66)

466 P. D. Hillon and G. C. Sih

r-
where
, { 1.0,
D"'(Y) ~ (1: v p'P-'
Y > Yyd .

The governing equations for this numerical ca1culation are

~kV
u e
= 0, ~~
OU i
= 0, i = 1, n-m. (8.67)

When the hardening coefficient p is equal to 1.0 this formulation reduces

exact1y to the elastic problem described earlier. For pi=- 1.0 an iterative
technique is employed; initial values for kf!(l- p ) and D(r)(y), r-'1, N are
chosen, the resulting set of equations are solved and new values for kf/(l - p)
and D(r)(y) are ca1culated. The ca1culation is repeated, using values obtained
for kf/(1 - p) and D(r) (y) from the previous iteration, until convergence is
attained.
Such a calculation was performed for the problem of an infinite plate with
a line crack in a remote anti-plane shear field [11 Jand an accuracy study was
made by comparing the results with those reported by Rice [16J using an
alternative technique. This calculation required the use of a modified
potential energy functional which remains finite for all admissible dis-
placement fields over the infinite region. With this aim in mind, the quarter
plane is divided as shown in Figure 8.22 and R z is chosen sufficiently large
so that the plastic zone is contained within Tz. In A 2 , the displacements are
written as the sum of u~O) and U~l), u~O) is chosen so that far from the crack,

1: 00
0000000

Uz ( X,O )-0
x>c
Figure 8.22. Division of quarter-plane into regions for numerical computation.
Calculations of stress intensity; finite element method 467

U~l) decays as the inverse of the distance from the crack. For this problem
u~O) = 1'00 Y and the corresponding stress components are 1'~~) = 0, 1'~~) = 1' 00 .
The modified potential energy functional V' is

V' = JI" U(uz)dA

Al
+ f
A2
U(u~1))dA - f
T2
1'oou~1)dx (8.68)

f:
where
i
U (u z ) = O'ijdcij'

It can be shown that the modified potential V' for hardening materials is
minimized by the exact solution among admissible displacement fields U z in
Al and U~l) in the infinite domain A z which pr es erve continuity of displace-
ments across Tz.
As in the elastic case, a Laurent series description ofthe displacement field
is used in A z ; otherwise the procedure follows exactly as that employed for
the finite plate, elastic-plastic calculation described above. Calculations
were performed using 546 elements, 11 nodes on the first ring and a value of
R 1 equal to 2 % of the half crack length. Convergence was attained in six
iterations and the calculated values for the plastic strain intensity factor were
less than 2 %below Rice's result for p = 10/3 and up to 5 % low at p = 10 for
large values of the applied load.
For the problem of an infinite body with finite line crack, the plastic strain
intensity factor has the special form k e = f{1'OO)c pf(p+ 1). Thus the ratio of k(;
to the sm all scale yielding result, k~S) = k~pf(p+ 1), only depends on 1'00. The
numerical values obtained for the normalized plastic strain intensity factor,

1.2

TOO/LYd
Figure 8.23. The plastic strain intensity factoi as a function of the applied stress for anti-plane
shear.
468 P. D. Hilton and G. C. Sih

2(r oo )= kt:lk~S), are plotted against the ratio of the applied stress to the yield
stress in Figure 8.23 (reproduced from [11]). Observe that for the problem
under consideration, the magnitude ofthe stress and strain fields in the plastic
zone at the crack tip is accurately predicted by the elastic analysis via the
small sc ale yielding argument for applied stresses below about half the yield
stress. F or large values of the applied stress, the elastic calculation is seen to
underestimate the magnitude of the near tip field.

In-plane loading of cracked bodies. The approach employed to consider the

elastic-plastic behavior of cracked bodies subjected to anti-plane shearing
tractions is also applicable to the case of in-plane loading. Hutchinson
[18, 20] and Rice [21] have shown that the asymptotic character of the
solution within the fully plastic region near the crack tip is of the form given
by equations (8.57). Hutchinson has numerically solved the nonlinear
ordinary differential equations which describe the circumferential variation
of the near tip fields under plane stress and plane strain conditions for a
number of values of the hardening coefficient p.
The plastic stress (or strain) intensity factor for problems of plane stress or
plane strain can be related directly to the J-integral [20] for deformation
theory plasticity with no unloading, where

J = Ir U dy- (J'ijnjUi,xds (8.69)

and
U =
f Öij
.
o
·dl:;"
(J'.I). ,)'

Und er these conditions, J is zero for any c10sed path which enc10ses no
singularities for any solution to the equations of generalized plane stress or

Sr
Su (Tract ions
(Displacements - Prescribed)
Prescribed)
o x

Figure 8.24. The J-integral has the same value on all contours r, from one crack edge to the
other.
Calculations 0/ stress intensity; finite element method 469

plane strain. Further J has a constant value for any contour T enclosing the
crack tip, Figure 8.24. Thus J can be evaluated via the plastic singular
solution, equation (8.57) by choosing a contour sufficiently elose to the crack
tip. Therefore the plastic stress intensity factor is related to the J-integral by
an expression of the form
k u = A p (J)l(P+ 1) (8.70)
where values of A p can be calculated for either generalized plane stress or
plane strain conditions. As a consequence ofthis relationship, the J-integral
may be considered as a measure of the intensity of the near tip stress and
strain fields. F or the special case of small scale yielding it is convenient to
use the J-integral for the determination of plastic intensity factors as a
function of the elastic stress intensity factor. To do this, simply evaluate J
from the elastic singular solution and substitute into equation (8.70). The
result is
ku = C p (k 1 )2(P+ 1) (8.71)
and values of C p are reproduced in Table IV from reference [18].

TABLE IV
Va lues oj C p [18J

p 3 5 9 13

Cp 0.949 0.987 1.004 1.006

The embedded singularity finite element technique was employed to

solve the problem of an infinite plate with a crack subjected to a far tensile
field under generalized plane stress conditions. The procedure paralle1s that
for the anti-plane, elastic-plastic calculation in much the same manner as
the in-plane elastic procedure followed from the anti-plane e1astic one. Thus,
only results will be presented and the reader is referred to reference [11] for
details. The input data used is:
R 1 = 0.02c
21 nodes on Tl
1,066 tri angular elements.
The same general behavior was observed for the mode I calculation as has
been reported earlier for the corresponding mode III problem. Graphs of
470 P. D. Hilton and G .. C. Sih

1.2

"101
-.x
--
~. '0

0.6 0.8 1.0

~oolr:fyd

Figure 8.25. The plastic strain intensity factor as a function of the applied stress for tensile
loading.

2.4

2.0

1.6

--
u 1.2
:>.

0.8

0.4

o
x/c
Figure 8.26. Elastic-plastic boundaries for a crack subjected to a remote field.

the plastic strain intensity factor normalized by the small scale yielding
results k~/k~S) against the applied stress over the yield stress (0- 00 / (J yd) are
presented in Figure 8.25*. Further, these calculations yield the information
necessary to determine the elastic-plastic boundaries and some representa-
tive curves are included in Figure 8.26.
* Reproduced from Reference [11].
Calculattons of stress intensity.- finite element method 471

Note, the results presented indicate that the numerical values obtained
for the plastic strain intensity factor, with no restriction on the plastic zone
size, are in elose agreement with those given by the small scale yielding
formulation for applied loads up to approximately fifty percent of the yield
stress for the particular problem considered. In this loading range, the
maximum extent of the plastic zone can be approximately equal to the
quarter crack length, a elear violation of the usual definition for small scale
yielding given in the beginning of this section. These results suggest that, for
engineering purposes, the range of applicability of elastic fracture mechanics
can be extended beyond the conditions of sm all scale yielding to inelude an
situations where the numerical values of the plastic strain intensity factor do
not differ appreciably from the small scale yielding results, equation (8.71).
In the case considered above, for which the specimen boundaries are
sufficiently far from the crack tip so that they do not significantly influence
the near tip solution, the results based on linear elasticity are accurate for
applied loads up to about fifty percent ofthe yield stress. The range ofvalidity
of elastic fracture mechanics, in terms of applied stress to yield stress, is
expected to be strongly influenced by possible interactions of the specimen
boundaries with the plastic zone emanating from the crack tip. Thus, the
solution for applied loads of fifty percent of yield is only known to be
accurate for situations where the size ofthe plastic zone is small in comparison
with the distance from any point in it to the nearest material boundary. The
range of validity for elastic fracture mechanics and the influence of plasticity
for finite specimens containing cracks is currently under consideration.
A brief summary of some of the research contributions which have been
discussed in this chapter for elastic-plastic crack problems follows. For small
strain, deformation theory plasticity associated with a power-hardening
model of the material behavior, the form of the near tip solution to crack
problems based on the two-dimensional theories of generalized plane stress,
plane strain and anti-plane shear have been determined [16-21]. The
amplitude of the singular solution, the plastic stress (or strain) intensity
factor, can be related directly to the elastic stress intensity factor under the
conditions of sm all scale yielding [18-21]. The embedded singularity,
finite element method is applicable to the determination of the plastic
intensity factors in a manner which is independent of the plastic zone size
[11]. Calculations have been carried out for the elassical problems of(l) an
infinite body with a line crack in a remote, uniform, anti-plane shearing field
and (2) an infinite plate with a line crack subjected to a uniform, far tensile
472 P. D. Hilton and G. C. Sih

field. In both cases, the calculated values of plastic intensity factors are in
agreement with the corresponding semi-analytical, small scale yielding
results for applied stresses below about fifty percent of the yield stress. For
higher values of the applied stresses, the finite element calculations indicate
that small scale yielding underestimates the magnitude of the near tip
solution .

. Biaxial loading of a cracked plate. Based on the information presented in

the previous sections, it is possible to consider other e1astic-plastic crack
problems of interest. One such problem, which was recently studied by
Rilton [22J, is that of an infinite plate with a line crack subjected to biaxial
tension. The purpose here is to study the experimental observation that the
component of loading parallel to the crack affects the elastic-plastic crack
solution [23]. It can be seen that the linear e1astic solution, being free from
any plastic flow around the crack tip, does not account for the interaction
between the local plastic flow and paralle1loading as shown in Figure 8.27.

er,
+ - --
er,

(2)

Figure 8.27. Superposition principle for the elastic solution of the biaxial Ioading problem.

The solution to problem (2), loading parallel to the crack edge, is non-
singular, given by

and thus can have no effect on the elastic singular solution for loading normal
to the crack face.
Thus the interaction of the two loading components in the biaxial tension
problem for a cracked plate is inherently nonlinear and as such an elastic-
plastic analysis is expected to give results which differ qualitative1y from the
Calculations of stress intensity: finite element method 473

Y1

> -<Tl

.
[
0
2c J

Figure 8.28. Cracked plate subjected to biaxial tension.

1.4

1.3
<T2 =o.a} ~w

--
p=3 .x
w
.x

-0.4 -02 o 0.2 0.4

er1
Figure 8.29. The plastic strain intensity factor as a function of the applied stress components.
474 P. D. Hillon and G. C. Sih

p=3
cr2 = 0.8

\. c

Figure 8.30. Elastic-plastic boundaries for the material hardening coefficient, p = 3.

J?.:..§...
er;" =0.8

er, =-0.2

I~ c
Figure 8.31. Elastic-plastic boundaries for the material hardening coefficient, p = 9.

elastic solution. The problem of an infinite plate with a li ne crack subjected

to biaxialloading components CI 1 and CI 2' Figure 8.28, has been solved via
the embedded singularity, finite element approach under the identical
assumptions that were made in the uni axial loading problem described
earIier.
Plots of the plastic strain intensity factor normalized by the small scale
yielding result against (j 2/ CIyd are presented for a number of values of (j dCIyd
in Figure 8.29 for the hardening coefficients p= 3,9.
Calculations of stress iiztensity: finite element method 475

The elastic-plastic boundaries corresponding to some of the loading

conditions considered above are shown in Figures 8.30 and 8.31 for p = 3,9
respectivel y.
These results indicate that tensile loading parallel to the crack direction
has the effect of increasing the "strength" of the specimen, i.e., it increases
the magnitude of the loading component applied normal to the crack for
which the amplitude of the near tip solution reaches a specified value. In
this sense, the load transfer to the crack tip is reduced by the addition of a
tensile loading component parallel to the crack edge. Note that the corre-
sponding plastic zone size is decreased as a result of this tensile load; It
appears that for a given component of applied stress normal to the crack
edge, further increases of the tensile load parallel to the crack edge will
continue to decrease both the plastic strain intensity factor and the plastic
zone size such that the small scale yielding conditions are approached in the
limit. Compressive loading parallel to the crack is observed to have the
opposite effect, i.e., it lowers the magnitude of the normal stress (J2/ayd for
which the plastic strain intensity factor reaches a prescribed value and
increases the plastic zone size. These results are in qualitative agreement with
the experimental observation of Kibler and Roberts [23J.
The indusion of nonlinearity in the stress-strain relations into the
mathematical model results in some behavior predictions which were
observed experimentally butcould not be explained by linear fracture
mechanics; However, ·a caution is required in the interpretation of these
results; possible nonlinearities in the strain-displacement relations have not
been included in this·fdrmulation and the range over which their effects are
imporümt is not yet known.

Future research on elastic-plastic crack problems. The effects of plasticity,

as modeled in thischapter, on cracks in finite bodies is a subject of current
research by the authors and it is hopefully anticipated that some numerical
results will be available in thenear future. For finite bodies with cracks, the
deviation of the actual values for the plastic intensity factors from the small
scale yielding results may be (1) observed at lower values of the applied
tractionsand (2) more pronounced at any given load as a consequence ofthe
boundary influence. In particular, the authors are interested in comparing
the situation where the plastic zone is completely contained within an elastic
region to that where theplastic zone extends to a material boundary.
Elastic-plastic analysis of combined mode, crack problems with the aim of
476 P. D. Hitton and G. C. Sih

predicting fracture initiation is clearly important. The extension of the work

presented he re to include the simultaneous application of normal and shear-
ing tractions to a cracked specimen is nontrivial because of the inherent
nonlinearity of the model and the consequence that the superposition
principle does not apply.
The range of validity of the small strain, plasticity approach should be
examined. It is necessary that there exists a region near the crack tip but
beyond the zone of finite strains where the smaH strain plastic singular
solution is an accurate representation of the fuH solution. For example, the
analysis presented here is not applicable to large ductile fracture phenomena
associated with gross blunting of the crack tip. In general, corresponding
finite strain caIculations will be necessary to determine more precisely the
range of applicability of small strain theory, plasticity and to predict crack
growth outside that range.
The present analysis is based on deformation theory plasticity with no
unloading. The results of such a theory are identical to those obtained from
the corresponding flow theory when the deformation is proportional, i.e., the
relative magnitudes of the stress components do not change with loading.
Careful examination ofthe numerical results, associated with the caIculations
presented in this Chapter, indicates that the stress field at most points in the
body did not deviate significantly from proportionality*; and further for
the anti-plane shear problem, where comparison with flow theory is possible,
the numerical results of deformation and incremental theory caIculations
were in close agreement. In general, it is believed that deformation theory
caIculations will give an accurate description of the solution for bodies
containing stationary cracks, that are subjected to loading distributions
whose magnitude is monotonically increased. The accuracy ofthe numerical
solutions reported here for the anti-plane shear problem was observed to
decrease slightly for applied stresses which approached the yield stress. On
the other hand, for situations which involve substantial slow crack growth
before ultimate failure, large deviations from proportionality in the stress
field and significant unloading will occur, thus incremental theory analysis
is clearly required. Fatigue crack propagation is an excellent example
because 1) the loading is not monotonically increasing and 2) a large range
of stable crack growth is observed.
* Deformation theory is known to be inadequate when there are large departures from propor-
tionality; however when tbis does not occur, results from deformation theory are considered to
be as good as those from the corresponding flow theory [24].
Calculations of stress intensity: finite element method 477

8.10 Appendix: Elastic stress intensity factor

solutions

A number of numerical solutions to plane strain and axi-symmetric problems

are presented to demonstrate the versatility as weIl as reliability of the
embedded singularity, finite element procedure [8J. Where applicable, these
numerical results are compared to those obtained by alternative techniques.
PLANE STRAIN

Single edge-cracked specimen. Consider a single edge-cracked body with

height band width a subjected to a uniform tensile load (Jo, in the direction
normal to the crack. The pertinent parameters for the finite element calcula-
tions are:
b/a = 1.4
Core radius R1/c = 0.02
Number of nodes on FR = 21"
Total number of nodes = 297
Computation time::::: 2 minutes on CDC 6400
where K1 =k1/((J0 ei ). Comparative values for K1 in Table V were obtained
by Gross and Brown [25J using a collocation procedure.
(j0

TABLE V

c k 1 for a single-edge crack system

b
c/a k 1 (calculated) k 1 (comparative)

a 0.3 1.59 1.66

0.5 2.70 2.82

0'0
Figure 8.32. A single-notched specimen.

System oj double-symmetrie edge cracks. Consider the case of two edge

cracks each of length c in a specimen as shown in Figure 8.21. For this
problem, it is assumed that
478 P. D. HiltonandG. C.Sih

bja = 1.4
Co re radius R1/c = 0.02
Number of nodes on TR = 21
Total number of no des = 340
and

Comparative values for k 1 were obtained by Bowie [15].

A comparison of the theoretical and numerical values for the radial and
circumferential components of displacement (u p , ue) described in polar

o Finite Element Displacements

Asymptotic Solution (Eguation(S.10))
S

....
.
<:)

";4
::J

0 45° 90°
e
c/a=0.5

ue(e,e}, /ue(e,e)

1
.di
<D
.-:>
,..
CIl
::J

o 90°
e
Figure 8.33. Cemparison of finite element and analytic results from the displacement compo-
nents near the crack tip.
Calculations of stress intensity .. finite element method 479

TABLE VI
k 1 for a double-edge crack system

c/a 1(1 (calculated) 1(1 (comparative)

0.3 1.13 1.13

0.5 1.15 1.15

coordinates (p, 8) centered at the crack tip, is shown in Figure 8.33 for points
along the second ring of nodes about the crack tip.

Central-cracked specimen subjected to tension. For this crack problem, the

following information

b/a = 1.4
Core radius Rdc = 0.2
Number of nodes on lR = 21
Total number of nodes = 340

is to be observed with K1 =k1/uO ci::. The two values of K1 used for comparison
are respectively, 1.04, an approximate result derived by Paris and Sih [1 J
from the solution for a periodic array of cracks, and 1.07 obtained by Isida
[26J via a mapping procedure.

erO

TABLE VII
k 1 for a central crack
2b
c/a 1(1 (ca1culated) 1(1 (comparative)

0.3 1.03 1.04

20
1.07

(j0

Figure 8.34. Specimen with an internal crack.

480 P. D. Hillon and G. C. Sih

AXI-SYMMETRIC CRACK PROBLEMS

Solid circular cylinder with a circumferential edge crack. Referring to the

crack geometry in Figure 8.35; the cylinder is subjected to a uniform tensile
loading and
h/R o = 1.4
Core radius R 1/c = 0.02
Number of nodes on rR = 21
Total number of nodes = 297
Here, the normalized stress intensity factor is
- k1
k 1 = Cio(2Ro)t
with R o being the radius of the cylinder and Ci 0 the stress in the neck section.
The comparative values for k 1 were obtained from Bueckner's work [27].

Circumferenti al
Crack

Figure 8.35. Asolid cylinder with a circumferential crack.

TABLE VIII
k 1 for an external crack in cylinder

c/R o Kl (ca1culated) Kl (comparative)

0.4 0.250 0.255

0.5 0.235 0.240
Calculations 0/ stress intensity: finite element method 481

Circu mferen tial

Crack

Ro
Figure 8.36. A hollow cylinder with a circumferential crack.

H ollow circular cylinder with an extern al circumferential crack. Let a

hollow circular cylinder with external radius R o and thickness t be subjected
to a uniform tensile loading a O as shown in Figure 8.36. More specifically,
using the given information
h/R o = 0.265
Rm/t = 10
c/t = 0.5
Core radius R 1/c = 0.02
Number of nodes on rR = 21
Total number of nodes = 297
the stress-intensity factor is found as
k 1 (ca1culated) = 2.70 a O c-t
where c is the crack depth. For equivalent crack face loading (i.e., uniform
tension applied to the crack surfaces), the ca1culated value of the stress
intensity factor was k 1 =2.60 a o c-t. The discrepancy observed appears to be
due to the difficulty of approximating the continuous load by equivalent
nodal forces in the vicinity ofthe crack edge. The solution for remote loading
is believed to be more accurate; however, the crack face loading result is
given for comparison with the next example.

H ollow spherical shell with an external circumferential crack. Referring to

Figure 8.37, a hollow spherical shell with an external radius of R o and wall
482 P. D. Hilton and G. C. Sih

~o ~o

Circumferential
Cross Sectional View A-A Crack

Figure 8.37. A hollow sphere with a circumferential crack.

thickness t is pressurized uniformally. Using the numerical values

Rm/t = 10
c/t = 0.5
Core radius RtJc = 0.02
Number of nodes on FR = 21
it is found that
k 1 (calculated) = 1.700'° ct
A comparison with the previous example indicates that the stress intensity
factor for the spherical shell is substantially lower than that for the corre-
sponding circular cylinder.

References
[1 J Sih, G. C. and Paris, P. c., Symposium of Fracture Toughness Testing and itsApplications,
ASME STP 381 (1965).
[2J Zienkiewicz, O. C. and Cheung, T. K., The Finite Element Method in Structural and
Continuum Mechanics. McGraw-Hill (1968).
[3J Swedlow, J. L., Williams, M. L. and Yang, W. H., Proc. First Int. Conf. Frac., 1, p. 259
(1966).
[4J Chan, S. K., Tuba, 1. S. and Wilson, W. K., Engrg. Fracture M echanics, 2, No. 1, p. 1 (1970).
[5J Kobayashi, A S., Maiden, D. E. and Si mon, B. J., ASME Paper No. 69-WA/PVP-12
(1969).
[6J Wilson, W. K., On Combined Mode Fracture Mechanics. University of Pittsburgh, Ph.D.
Dissertation (1969).
[7J Wilson, W. K., Crack Tip Finite Elements for Plane Elasticity, Westinghouse Report
71-1E7-FMPWR-P2 (1971).
[8J Oglesby, J. J. and Lamacky, 0., An Evaluation ofFinite Element Methods for the Compu-
tation of Elastic Stress Intensity Factors. NSRDS, Report No. 3751 (1972).
Calculations of stress intensity; finite element method 483

[9] Williams, M. L., J. of Applied Mechanics, 24, No. 1, p. 109 (1957).

[10] Kantoravich, L. V. and Krylov, V. L, Approximate Methods of Higher Analysis. Noordhoff
Ud., Groningen, The Netherlands (1964).
[11] Hilton, P. D. and Hutchinson, J. W., Journal oI Engineering Fracture Mechanics (to
appear).
[12] Sih, G. C. and Chen, E. P., Journal oIthe Franklin Institute, 290, No. 1, p. 25 (1970).
[13] Sih, G. C. and Liebowitz, H., Fracture. Vol. II, edited by H. Liebowitz, Academic iress,
New York, p. 67 (1968).
[14] Tracey, D. M., Finite Elements for Determination of Crack Tip Elastic Stress Intensity
Factors. Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center TR 71-27, Watertown,
Massachusetts (1971).
[15] Bowie, O. L., J. of Applied Mechanics, 31, p. 208 (1968).
[16] Rice, J., Fracture. Vol. H, edited by H. Liebowitz, Academic Press, New York, p. 191
(1968).
[17] McClintock, F., Fracture. Vol. III, edited by H. Liebowitz, Academic Press, New York,
p. 47 (1968).
[18J Hutchinson, J. W., J. of Mechs. and Phys. oI SoNds. 16, p. 13 (1968).
[19J Neuber, H., ASME Trans., Series E, p. 544 (1961).
[20J Hutchinson, J. W., J. of Mech. Phys. Solids. 16, p. 337 (1968).
[21J Rice, J. R. and Rosengren, G., J. oI Mech. Phys. oI So lids. 16, p. 13 (1968).
[22J Hilton, P. D., Int. J. Fracture Mechs. (to appear).
[23] Kibler, J. J. and Roberts, R., J. of Engrg. for Industry (to appear).
[24] Budiansky, B., Trans. ASME (Series E), Vol. 81, p. 259 (1959).
[25J Gross, G. J., Srawley, J. and Brown, W., Stress Intensity Factors for a Single-Edge-Notch
Tension Specimen by Boundary Collocation of a Stress Function. NASA TN-D-2395
(1964).
[26J Isida, M., Proc. Fourth Congress on Applied Mechanics. Vol. II, p. 955 (1962).
[27] Bueckner, H. F., Coefficients for Computation of the Stress Intensity Factor K for a
Notched Round Bar. ASTM STP 381, p. 82 (1965).
 W. K. Wilson

9 Finite element methods J'or elastic

bodies containing cracks

9.1 Introduction

One of the most powerful methods of numerical stress analysis presently

available is the finite element method [1,2]. In the past decade, the develop-
ments and refinements in this field of analysis have been very impressive.
By means of the finite element method approximate solutions can be
calculated for a wide range of structures of complex geometry and loading
conditions and rat her general material properties. The method has been
applied to three dimensional bodies, plane bodies, axi-symmetric bodies,
plates, shells, etc. Linear and non-linear materials, time independent and
time dependent materials, and non-homogeneous and anisotropic bodies
can be analyzed with alm ost equal ease.
When applying finite element methods of solution to cracked bodies
nearly all of this versatility remains available. Thus, by use of the finite
element method, the engineer can caIculate elastic crack tip stress intensity
factors within acceptable accuracy for a wide range of practical problems.
There are two general approaches which can be used in the application of
finite element method to cracked elastic bodies. In the first, the cracked body
is represented geometrically by the more conventional finite elements such
as constant strain elements. While such elements cannot adequately re-
present the stress singularity condition at the crack tip, a number oftechniques
for extracting estimates of the stress intensity factor from the finite element
solution are available.
The second approach involves the use of specially constructed finite
elements at the crack tip. The stress singularity condition at the crack tip is
built into these crack tip elements by means of the imposed displacement
pattern. The use of crack tip elements of this type relieve the need for a very
Finite element methods for elastic bodies 485

fine element mesh ne ar the crack tip, allows for a direct ca1culation of the
stress intensity factor, and are mathematically more elegant.
Before these two approaches are described- in more detail and applied to
a number of examples, the mathematical basis for the finite element method
will be outlined. More detailed consideration of the general method is
readily available in the literature [1]. In this chapter the displacement method
of finite element analysis is used.
The finite element method considered here is based on the stationary total
potential energy principle of elasticity, using a modified Rayleigh-Ritz
procedure for obtaining approximate solutions of the stationary value
problem. In brief, the body of interest is divided into a finite number of
closed subregions (e.g. Figure 9.1) referred to as elements. For each subregion,
a displacement function in terms of discrete parameters is prescribed These
discrete parameters 1>; (i =1, ... , n) are normally displacements at specific
points (nodal points) on the boundary of the element.
If the prescribed displacement patterns satisfy certain requirements [3, 4J
with respect to completeness and conformity (continuity of dis placements
at element boundaries), then the best solution that can be obtained for the
prescribed displacement representation is that which minimizes the total
potential energy II of the system under the constraints imposed. That is, the
best values of 1>; (i = 1, ... , n) are those that satisfy the system of equations

1>II
81>1
8II
- [KJ {1>} - {F} = 0 (9.1)
8 {1>}
8II
?1>n

where [KJ is the total stiffness matrix of the body and {F} is the generalized
force vector. As the size of the elements decrease indefinitely the solutions
obtained from the minimization of potential energy converge to the exact
solution.
The system of equations (9.1) can be formed by summing over all elements
of the body. Therefore, it is convenient to have an expression for the partial
derivatives of the potential energy II e of each element, e, with respect to the
m discrete parameters {1> e} = {1> l' ... , 1>m} which characterize that element's
displacement function
486 W. K. Wilson

(9.2)
From the equation for the total potential energy of an elastic body in the
absence of thermal stresses and body forces

II .! Iff v
{CiV {s}dV - II
s",
{uV {X}dS (9.3)

where {Ci}, {s}, {u }, and {X} represent the stress, strain, dis placement, and
surface traction veetors respectively, equation (9.2) can be expressed in terms
of the element stiffness matrix [k e ] and the element generalized force vector
{fe}.

(9.4)

where
[k e ] = fff
. Y e
[N]T[C]T[D]T[C] [N] dV (9.5)

{fe} = II Sae
[N]T {X} dS (9.6)

and the matrices [N], [C], and [D] are defined by the equations
{u} = [N] {b e } (9.7)
{s} = [C] {u} (9.8)
{Ci} = [D] {s} (9.9)
The matrix [N] is a function of spatial coordinates and describes the defined
displacement pattern of the element in terms of its discrete parameters. The
matrix [C] is a partial differential operator and [D] is the elasticity matrix.
From the submatrices (9.5) and (9.6) obtained for each of the '[ elements,
the total stiffness matrix and the generalized force vector can be constructed
by the assembly rules
I
[KiJ = I
e= 1
[kfj] (9.10)

I
{F;} = I {fn·
e= 1
(9.11)
Finite element methods Jor elastic bodies 487

Equation (9.1) is then solved for {b} and subsequently the strains and stresses
can be calculated by means of equations (9.8) and (9.9) respectively.

9.2 Analysis with conventional finite elements

Since the development of the finite element concept an extensive number of

different types of elements have been presented in the literature. These
elements were intended for the analysis of non-cracked structures, but most
of them can be used to obtain approximate solutions for cracked structures.
While conventional elements cannot adequately represent the singular
stress state at the crack tip, it is possible to obtain rather accurate estimates
of the stress intensity factor by proper interpretation of the finite element
solution. Basically, there are two different techniques for calculating stress
intensity factors from conventional finite element solutions.
The first technique requires the use of an extremely fine element grid in the
vicinity of the crack tip. The grid is to be fine enough such that a correlation
of the finite element solution at a small distance from the crack tip with the
classical crack tip stress and displacement equations will allow an acceptable
estimate of the intensity factor to be made.
F or the second technique finite element solutions are obtained for two
slightly different crack lengths. From the calculated strain energy at each
crack length the strain energy release rate for the crack can be estimated, and
y

o x
Figure 9.1. Finite element idealization of plane region.
488 W. K. Wilson

in turn, the stress intensity factors can be calculated. The accuracy of this
techniques has been found to be quite good for relatively coarse meshes.
In the following sections both ofthese techniques will be explored in some
detail. Nearly all ofthe examples considered will involve the use ofthe con-
stant strain triangular (CST) element (Figure 9.1) for plane strain conditions.
The discrete parameters used for each element displacement pattern are
displacements at the three nodal points located at the vertic1es of each
triangle.
fOt} = {u;v;ujVjUmvmV. (9.12)
The weIl known stiffness matrix for this element is given in [1].

9.3 Estimates based on near tip solution

The cracked body of concern is geometrically represented by a finite element

grid. The mesh away from the crack tip must be fine enough to adequately
represent the overall flexibility of the body while the mesh in the vicinity of
the crack tip must be fine enough to allow adequate representation of the
crack tip singularity condition at a short distance from the tip. Once the
numerical solution has been obtained for a particular finite element re-
presentation, crack tip stress intensity factors can be estimated by the use of
established crack tip relations. The three methods of estimating considered
here are: the displacement method, the stress method, and the line integral
method. All of these methods are conceptually straight forward and easily
implemented. These methods will be described below for the plane strain and
plane s{ress mode I condition. The extension to more general conditions
will be considered later.

Displacement method. The displacement method involves a correlation of

the finite element nodal point displacements in the vicinity of the crack, tip
with the weIl known crack tip displacement equations. The plane strain
mode I displacement equations are

Ui = -k 1 [rI2] 1-J;(8, v) (9.13)

p,
where U1 =U U2 =V
f1 (8, v) = cos(812) [1-2v+sin 2 (812)]
f2 (8, v) = sin (812) [2- 2v -cos2(812)]
Finite element methods Jor elastic bodies 489

and pis the shear modulus. Similar equations can be written for plane stress.
By substituting a nodal point displacement U i at some point (f, lJ) ne ar the
crack tip into equation (9.1), an estimate of the stress intensity factor
k! = [2jr]t putlLt;(8, v)] (9.14)
can be calculated. Calculations from the displacements at nodal points too
elose to the crack tip can give poor estimates due to the inability of the
conventional elements to adequately represent the crack tip singularity
condition. Whereas, ki calculations based on displacements at nodal points
distant from the crack tip give poor estimates because the crack tip displace-
ment equations (9.13) are only accurate in the limit as r--+O.
As shown by Chan et al. [5] a good estimate of k 1 can be made from a plot
of kt as a function of r, where ki is calculated from the v displacements on the
crack surface (8=n). Such plots were obtained for a fracture test specimen
model (Figure 9.2) for various element mesh (Figure 9.3) refinements. These
plots are shown in Figure 9.4 for five cases. A measure of the element size
near to and also away from the crack tip are listed in Table I for each case.
These finite element curves are compared with a ki curve calculated from
displacements obtained by boundary collocation on the Williams stress
function [6]. The collocation solution is considered to be accurate within
0.50%.
....--------,,-

1- a/W=O.5

Figure 9.2. Geometry and loading condition of fracture toughness test specimen model.

A study of the kt curves of Figure 9.3 shows a breakdown in the finite

element solution very ne ar the crack tip (r--+O). The finer the element mesh
near the crack tip, the sm aller the region over which this breakdown occurs.
The finer the element mesh away from the crack tip, the eloser the constant
slope portion of the k* curve away from the crack tip is to the exact solution.
As discussed in [5] by Chan et al., a good estimate of the stress intensity
490 W. K. Wilson

Figure 9.3. Finite element representation of one half of test specimen model (Figure 9.2) with
H/W=0.6.
TABLE I
Element sizes for cases shown in Figure 9.4

Case Element size* A/a 2

Guter (10- 2 )

1 312 2
2 78 2
3 20 2
4 1.20 2
5 1.20 1

* A = Element area
a = Crack length
Finite element methods Jor elastic bodies 491

12r-------------------------------------------------~ __~

Collocation
11

0.05 0.1 0.15

L
W
Figure 9.4. Effect of mesh size on displacement calculated k! for test specimen model of Figure
9.2 (HjW=O.6). Mesh sizes for five cases given in Table I.

factor can be obtained from ki curves by extrapolating the straight portion

ofthe curve beyond crack tip breakdown back to the vertical axis (r=O) and
taking the intercept value as the estimate. On the other hand, Kobayashi
et al. [7J find that the ki value at a fixed number of nodes from the crack tip
on the crack surface gives a good estimate of the intensity factor.

Stress method. The stress method for determining stress intensity factors
is similar to the displacement method. The nodal point stresses are correlated
with the weIl known crack tip stress equations. Now k! curves are calculated
from nodal point stresses near the crack tip, and estimates of k 1 can be made
by extrapolating back to the crack tip.
Chan [5J found that good results could be obtained from the O'y stress
component on the (j = 0 plane.
(9.15)
In Figure 9.5, such k! values are shown for mesh 4 ofthe example considered
492 W. K. Wilson

10
•
8
~CD
Q..

..::.:
6

4
•

o 0.05 ..L 0.10

W
Figure 9.5. Stress ca1culated kt plot for test specimen model of Figure 9.2 (H /W = 0.6). Results
from Case 4 mesh of Table 1.

above. Ayres and Siddall [8J found that they could get more accurate
estimates from k! plots calculated from the O'y stress on the 8=90° plane
for a number of examples.
Since it is wen known that the finite element dis placements are more
accurate than the stresses when using the method of direct stiffness, it is
best to construct kj plots from nodal point displacements.

Line integral method. Rice [9] has shown that the value of the line integral

(9.16)

where r is an arbitrary contour surrounding the crack tip, as shown in

Figure 9.6, is proportional to the square of the crack tip stress intensity
factor for plane linear elastic bodies free of body forces. The crack surface
must also be traction free between the crack tip and the contour intercepts.
F or a mode I condition the relationship is

(plane strain)
(9.17)
J=_1
nk 2
(plane stress)
E
 Finite element methods for elastic bodies 493

Figure 9.6. Crack tip coordinates and typical contour r.

In equation (9.16) W is defined as the strain energy density, T is the traction

vector defined according to the outward normal along r, 7;= (JUni' and
u is the displacement vector. The line integral is evaluated in a counter-
c10ckwise sense starting from the lower crack surface and continuing along
the path r to the upper flat surface and ds is an element of are length along r.
By numerically evaluating the J integral for the finite element solution
over a path surrounding the crack tip, an estimate of the crack tip stress
intensity factor can be made by use of equation (9.17). Since the finite element
solution is approximate the values of J* caIculated over various paths
surrounding the crack tip do vary somewhat.

Y
iOO

~.OO

3.00

wo-

1.00

o~~~--~~--~~~--~-L~~~~-=~--~~~~~~~~--~-L-,

-7.00 -6.00 -5.00 -4.00 -3.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00. 4D0 x
Element geometry
Figure 9.7. Finite element representation of one half of a pin loaded compact fracture toughness
specimen.
494 W. K. Wilson

12~------------------------------~

10

8
k~ = (J*/rrE ) 1/2

~m n. 6
W
*-
.::.:

4
2H

2
CD
00
1.0
rm/(W-a)
Figure 9.8. k! ca1culated from J-integral over paths of mean radius r m from the crack tip. The
J is ca1culated from the finite element results obtained for the mesh of Figure 9.7.

From a finite element solution of a compact fracture toughness pin loaded

test specimen (Figure 9.7) a typical plot of J* values calculated over various
paths of indicated mean radius is shown in Figure 9.8. The solution was
obtained using linear strain elements [7]. Based on a number of examples
it has been found that the best estimate of the stress intensity factor is that
obtained from the maximum value of J* in the general area of the crack tip.
In general, the J integral method is somewhat more accurate than the
dis placement and stress method for the same mesh. Its accuracy is not as
dependent on mesh refinement at the crack tip as are the other two methods.
In addition, the judgment sometimes needed in extrapolating ki plots
calculated from displacements and stresses is not needed in the J integral
approach.

9.4 Energy method

As shown by Irwin [11] the crack tip stress intensity factor can be related
Finite element methods for elastic bodies 495

to the strain energy release rate, G, by the following relation for a mode I
loading condition.

(plane strain)
(9.18)
G = nki (plane stress)
E

The strain energy release rate is the amount of energy made available at the
crack tip for the crack extension process per unit area extension of the crack.
For a crack extending under a fixed load condition

G = dU (9.19)
dA
where U is the elastic strain energy of the body containing the crack and
A is the crack area. For fixed displacement condition G= -dU/dA.
By obtaining finite element solutions for the cracked structure of interest
at two or more slightly different crack lengths, G, and subsequently the crack
tip stress intensity factor, can be estimated by means of equation (9.19). The
strain energy stored in the body for each solution is determined by summing
over the elements and G is ca1culated by a finite difference representation of
equation (9.19).
This method has been developed and successfully used by Watwood [12J,
Kobayashi et al. [7J, and Anderson et al. [13]. Good accuracy has been
obtained by the use of relatively coarse meshes. While the strain energy
ca1culated for each crack length may not be very accurate for a coarse mesh,
there is a cancelling of errors when taking the difference in strain energy at
two different crack lengths. F or this reason, as pointed out by Watwood, it
is important that the coarseness of the mesh be approximately the same for
each crack length. Watwood has considered possible bounds for stress
intensity factors ca1culated by this method.
As shown by Paris and Sih [14J the energy release rate can also be related
to the rate of change of compliance A, the inverse spring constant, with crack
extension by the equation
p2 OA.
G=-- (9.20)
2 oA
where P is applied load. Dixon and Pook [15J ca1culated the compliance of
496 W. K. Wilson

Crack 2a
W

I. Crack .1
Figure 9.9. Finite element idealization for center-crack specimen. Dixon [15].

2.0r------------~-~

1.5

~
--~
a..
o
~
It
X

0.5
o Finite Element
-Isida (25)

°o~-~--~---L--J--~
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
2aIW
Figure 9.10. Variation of stress intensity factor with crack lengthjsheet width. Dixon [15].

a crack structure for a number of different crack lengths by the finite element
technique and then by means of equation (9.20) calculated the energy release
rate. This approach is equivalent to the strain energy approach described
above except that now the strain energy is calculated as one-half the sum-
Finite element methods for elastic bodies 497

mation of the product of applied forces times their respective displacements.

The accuracy obtained by Dixon for a center cracked plate loaded in
tension with the element mesh of Figure 9.9 is shown in Figure 9.10.

9.5 Extension of method

In discussing the above methods for determining stress intensity factor by

use of conventional elements the mode I plane strain and plane stress condi-
tions were specifically considered. Of course, many non-plane strain crack
problems are of concern. In addition, the cracks of interest can also be
subject to mode II loading, mode III loading, separately or simultaneously.
The methods described above are extendable to these more complex
situations in varying degrees.
The displacement and stress methods are in principle applicable to any
two-dimensional or three-dimensional crack problems provided that the
near field character of the stresses is known. F or combined mode loading
the magnitude of the respective stress intensity factors can be determined.
For example, k 1 , k 2 , and k 3 can be estimated by means of the v, U, and w
displacements respectively, on the crack surface (8 = n) or by means of the
(Jy' T xy ' and T yz stresses ahead of the crack (8=0). The limitation of these

methods is the availability of necessary computer facilities to allow sufficient

element mesh refinement where needed.
The path independent J-integral is valid for plane problems. For a crack
tip subject to combine modes I and II loading the relation between J and the
stress intensity factors is

J = n(1- v2 ) [ki +kn (plane strain)

E
(9.21)
(plane stress)

Therefore, by calculating the li ne integral J (equation (9.16)) from the finite

element results an estimate of the sum of the squares of the stress intensity
factors can be made. An estimate of the magnitude of the separate intensity
components cannot be made in the most general situation.
The energy (or compliance) method is most applicable to problems in
which the stress intensity factors do not vary over the leading edge of the
crack, i.e. plane problems, axisymmetric problems, etc. F or combined mode
498 W. K. Wilson

conditions the magnitude of the separate mode intensity factors cannot be

calculated. For plane problems, as with the J method, only a sum of their
squares can be calculated.

9.6 Special crack tip finite elements

Since the form of the elastic crack tip singularity is weIl known the con-
struction of special crack tip finite elements which have the singularity
condition built into the imposed displacement pattern is possible. Elements
of this type eliminate any need for a fine element grid near the crack tip and
are more appealing from a mathematical point of view than the use of more
conventional elements at the crack tip. Highly accurate solutions can be
obtained by placing these specially constructed elements at the crack tip and
surrounding them with conventional elements which represent the rest of
the structure.
There are many possibilities for both the geometrie shape and the imposed
displacement pattern which can be selected for a crack tip element. A number
ofthese special finite elements have been presented in the literature. They can
be c1assified into two groups. In the first group the crack tip is embedded in
the interior of theelement and in the second group the crack tip is enclosed
by a number of special elements all of which have one of their nodal points
at the crack tip.
The first elements of this type were developed by Wilson [16] and by
Hilton and Hutchins<?n [17]. These elements were circular in shape,
centered at the crack tip, and contained a crack extending radially from the
center to the outer edge (Figure 9.11). The prescribed displacements for
Wilson's elements were those associated with the mode III elastic singularity.
Hilton and Hutchinson's element displacements were those associated with
y v

Figure 9.11. Circular crack tip element and coordinates.

Finite element methods for elastic bodies 499

the singularity for an elastic-plastic power hardening material under mode I

plane stress [18] and mode III anti-plane [19] conditions.
The crack tip singularity stress distributions and associated dis placement
equations are exact in the limit as the crack tip is approached. Normally,
these displacement equations give a good estimate ofthe exact displacements
over a region local to the crack tip. But this region is small compared to the
crack length. F or this reason crack tip elements whose displacement fields
are those corresponding to the singularity condition must still be restricted
to a somewhat limited region near the crack tip. It is possible to relieve this
limitation by adding more terms to the displacement pattern of the element,
that is, by constructing high order crack tip elements. Elements of this type
have been developed by Byskov [20] and Wilson [21] for plane bodies.
These elements are described in the following sections.

High order circular element. The element constructed by Wilson is circular

in shape (Figure 9.11) and the displacement terms used are those associated
with the leading terms of the Williams stress function [6]. Only the symmetrie
terms are used, but the extension to skew-symmetric terms is c1ear.
The symmetrie terms of the Williams stress function are:

<!>(r,()) = L
00 {
(-lt- 1d2n _ 1r'+± -cos(n-~)()
[
+ 2 1 cos(n+!)()]
2n-3
n=l,2,3 n+
+ (-1)nd 2n r'+1[ -cos(n-1)()+cos(n+1)()]}. (9.22)

The function is an eigen-function expansion of the Airy stress function about

the crack tip of a semi-infinite crack whose surfaces are traction free. The
displacements for this stress function are given in [22] with an errata in [23].
F or this high order circular tip element, designated as SSC-4, the displace-
ments corresponding to the first four terms of the Williams stress function
are used along with a term for rigid body translation of the element in the
x-direction. The displacement function is expressed in convenient form
below where the notation is defined in Figure 9.11.

(9.23)
500 W. K. Wilson

h(8) = Fk (8) cos 8- Gd8) sin 8

(9.24)
gk(8) = Fk(8) sin e+ Gk(e) cos e
and
F 1 (e)= - (1- 40-) cos (!e) +! cos (~-e)
F2 (8) = (2-4u)+2 cos(2e)
F3 (e) = (!- 4u) cos He) + (!) cos He)
F4 (e) = -(1-4u) cos e- 3 cos (3e)
G 1 (e) = H-4u) sinHe)-! sinH8)
G 2 (e) = -2 sin(28)
G 3 (e) = (!-4u) sin(8)-! sinHe)
G4 (e) = -(5-4u) sin e+3 sin(38)
where
u = v (plane strain)
v
(plane stress)
l+v
and reis the radius of the element. The discrete parameters for this element
are
(9.25)

First Term Second Term

(a) (b l

~._--- Third Term

(cl
-_.
Fou rth Term
(dl
Figure 9.12. Normalized boundary displacement vectors for one half of circular crack tip
element. Displacements corresponding to each term of series in equation (9.23).
Finite element methods Jor elastic bodies 501

FIrst Term Second Term

(a ) (b)

Third Term Fourth Term

(c) (d)
Figure 9.13. Normalized boundary traction vectors for one half of circular crack tip elements.
Tractions corresponding to each term of series in displacement equation (9.23).

The displacement patterns at the outer radius of the element for each of the
Di terms are shown in Figure 9.12. The surface tractions associated with each
of these dis placement terms are shown in Figure 9.13. The relation between
D1 and the crack tip stress intensity factor is

k 1 = _jl (~)t D1 • (9.26)

By means of equation (9.5) the stiffness matrix of this element can be deter-
mined. The rigid body displacement term, U o, only contributes zero elements
to the matrix. Therefore, for convenience only the elements of the four by
four symmetrie stiffness matrix [kC]= [a] corresponding to {D 1 D2 D3 D4 } are
listed below.

all = jl (n/2)(5 - 80") al2 = jl (64/15)(-2 + 50")

a 13 = jl (311:)( -1 + 20") a l4 = jl(128/105)(6-70")
a22 = J.l (16n)(1- 0") a23 = J.l (64/5)(2 - 30") (9.27)
a24= 0 a33 = J.l(n/2)(15-240")
a34 = jl (128/35)( - 6 + 50") a44 = jl (16n)(3 - 0") .
502 W. K. Wilson

Displacement coupling is maintained between the SSC-4 element and its

neighboring elements, CST elements used here, by imposing the following
condition The dis placements of nodal points of the neighboring elements
which lie on the perimeter of the circular element are set equal to those of
the circular element, equation (9.23), at the respective locations of the nodal
points. That is, the displacements of nodal points on the perimeter of the
SSC-4 element are a function of {(jSSC-4}'
Displacements between two neighboring nodal points on the circum-
ference of the SSC-4 element vary linearly in the bounding constant strain
triangular element and vary in the tip element as a function of e as given by
equation (9.23) for r= re' Therefore, there is no compatibility on the common
edge between nodal points on the circumference of the circular crack tip
element. But it is clear that as the length of each triangle side making up the
outer perimeter of the tip element monotonically decreases, as the number
of such sides increases, continuity of dis placement at this interface will be
reached in the limit.
This incompatability of displacements between nodal points at r = re
means that monotonie convergence of solutions with increasing numbers
of finite elements cannot be guaranteed by means of existing proofs. But a
rough numerical demonstration of convergence has been provided by
Wilson [21J.
A simple example which demonstrates the influence of the higher order
displacement terms used in the circular crack tip element is now considered.
The geometry is a circular cylinder with a radial crack extending from the
center to the outer radius (r=rJ. Displacement boundary conditions are
applied at the out er radius. The boundary displacements are those given by
the equations
u= -(r/rJt fl(e)-(r/r e )tf3(e)
(9.28)
v = -(r/re)t g1 (e)-(r/rJ t g3(e)
with r=re, where the f(e) and g(e) functions are those of equations (9.24).
It can easily be shown that the solution for this geometry and boundary
condition is equations (9.28) and the stress intensity factor is k 1 =,u(8/re )"t.
Using the SSC element and CST elements (Figure 9.14), finite element
solutions to the problem were obtained for various size circular tip elements
(Figure 9.15). For one set of results the displacement pattern of the tip
element (SSC-l) was restricted to the first term of the series of equation
(9.23). For the second set of results the displacement pattern of the tip
Finite element methods Jor elastic bo dies 503

.40 .80
Element Geometry
•
Figure 9.14. Finite element representation of one half of a cracked circular cylinder of radius rc •
Radius of circular crack tip element is re =rc/2.

40
Displacem ent Boundary
c~;uonSI61 and 6 3 )

30 / ,
.L.

b
x
L..
0
L..
rc
w20
.....c
<I>
U
L-
<I>
0..10
./
./
./
./
SSC-3
0

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

re Ire
Figure 9.15. Influence of circular crack tip element size on ca1culated stress intensity factor. A
first order and a third .order crack tip element considered. Displacement boundary condition
imposed.

element (SSC-3) inc1uded the first three terms of the series. In all cases the
tip elements were coupled with enough triangular elements such that a
further increase in their numbers would have an insignificant influence on
the results shown. As observed in Figure 9.15, the use of the SSC-3 element
results in a very accurate solution even for an element radius equal to one
504 W. K. Wilson

S
rTraction Boundary
-100 onditions (5, and 53)

".-,
-80
/ ".L.
~re
~rc
....
~-60
....
UJ
.....C
Q.I
U
Q; -40
a...

-20

SSC-4
o -.o--~:F----o-----o----o
....

o 0.2 0.4 I
re rc
0.6 0.8 1.0
Figure 9.16. Influence of circular crack tip element size on calculated stress intensity factor. A
first order and a fourth order crack tip element considered. Traction boundary condition
imposed.

half of the cylinder radius. The error from the SSC-1 element solutions
continually increase with increasing element radius because it cannot ade-
quately represent the ri dis placement component which becomes influential
away from the crack tip.
The results for a similar example are shown in Figure 9.16. For this example
boundary tractions are applied at the outer boundary, r = r c' The traction
pattern applied is that which results in the same exact displacement solution
as that of the previous example. Again two sets of finite element solutions
were obtained. One set was obtained for a single term (b 1) tip element (SSC-1)
and the other for the four term tip element (SSC-4). General trends similar to
those in Figure 9.14 are shown as the radius of the tip element is decreased.
As would be expected, the error for the SSC-lelement is generally greater
under the traction boundary condition than under the displacement bound-
ary condition.

High order triangular element. A high order crack tip element similar to
Finite element methods for elastic bodies 505

the one described in detail above has been presented by Byskov [20]. He
proposed a cracked element which is a polygonal area containing a linear
crack. The specific element he deve10ped and applied is tri angular in shape
with a straight crack extending from one vertex of the triangle into its
interior (Figure 9.17). The displacement terms used for the element are
obtained from a complex stress function ofMuskhelishvili which is equivalent
to the Williams stress function. The specific displacement terms used for the
element are essentially the same as the rigid body translation and first three
terms ofthe series ofthe displacement function (equation (9.23» ofthe SSC-4
element described above, except that the corresponding skew-symmetric
components are also inc1uded.

~:ö
Figure 9.17. Cracked triangle. Byskov [20].

Incompatibility of displacements with neighboring elements also exists

between nodal points for this triangular crack tip element. The stiffness
matrix of the element is determined numerically for different tri angular
shapes. Byskov obtained finite element solutions for a number of examples
using the cracked triangular element and obtained reasonable accuracy.
Besides shape, the primary difference between the circular crack tip
element and the triangular crack tip element is in the technique of coupling
with the neighboring conventional elements. In the circular element tech-
nique the number of conventional elements in contact with the perimeter
of the circular element can be varied, thus allowing some control over the
degree of incompatibility wh ich occurs over the common inter-surface.
With the triangular tjp element technique of Byskov only three conventional
constant strain triangular elements bound the tip element and the influence
of the incompatibility cannot be controlled.
506 W. K. Wilson

9.7 Special elements with nodal point at crack tip

Crack tip finite elements which have one nodal point at the crack tip can be
constructed. These elements are assigned a displacement pattern compatible
with the elastic singularity condition The crack tip is then enc10sed by a
group of these special elements. In Figure 9.18 a group of such triangular
elements is shown. Triangular elements of this type have been developed by
Tracey [24] and Wilson [21] for plane bodies subject to in-plane loading.
The rather simple displacement pattern used by Wilson for each triangular
element at the crack tip is

U [ ().-()
= U o + ()~_ (). U i + ()._
) I
()-().e. u ] (r)+
) I
j -;:
e
(9.29)

where ()i and ()j are angular positions of nodal points located at re and
(U i Vi U j V j U o Vo) are the displacements at nodal points i, j, and 0 (Figure 9.19),
respectivel y.
y
y

x x

Figure 9.18. Crack tip enclosed by tri- Figure 9.19. Triangular crack tip element
angular crack tip elements. coordinates and nodal points.

These displacements vary linearly with the angular coordinate () and are
proportional to the square root of the radius r. Therefore, these elements are
capable of representing the displacement field associated with the plane
crack tip elastic singularity condition to any degree of accuracy needed.
The displacement patterns of equations (9.29) ensure that displacements
Finite element methods Jor elastic bodies 507

are continuous at the interface of neighboring crack tip elements. Displace-

ments at the interface of one ofthese crack tip elements and the conventional
linear displacement element which bounds it in the radial direction (i.e.
Figure 9.20) are only continuous at their two common nodal points. This is
so because the dis placements on the radial side of this crack tip triangular
element do not vary ql11te linearly. But as the wedge angle of the tip element
decreases indefinitely, the dis placement over the radial edge of the element
approaches a linear relation and continuity at this interface is approached in
the limit.

1.00 [
.80

.60

.40

.20

Element Geometry
Figure 9.20. Finite element representation of one half of a cracked circular cylinder of radius rc-
Radius of outer nodal points of crack tip triangular elements is re= re/2.

Tracey has developed a tri angular crack tip element which allows the
displacements to vary linearly over the radial edge of the triangle and thus
ensures compatibility at the radial edge with abounding finite element
whose displacements also vary linearIy over this common edge. In terms of
the notation of Figure 9.19 Tracey's crack tip displacement functions are

(9.30)

and a similar expression for the v displacement. Tracey originally expressed

his dis placement functions in terms of natural coordinates and obtained the
functions by means of mapping the triangle into a square. These crack tip
508 W. K. Wilson

elements were coupled with isoparametric elements in ex am pies considered

by Tracey.
As the included angle at the crack tip nodal point decreases Wilson's
displacement function (equations (9.29)) becomes equivalent to that of
Tracey. In fact, for the case of 24 elements at the crack tip, as used by Tracey
in one ofhis examples, the displacement patterns for the two functions differ
by about 0.1 %. The difference decreases linearly with the square of the
included angle.
The element stiffness matrix for the displacement function of equations
(4.29) is presented in the Appendix. The stiffness matrix for equation (4.30)
must be determined by numerical integration.
The superiority of the triangular crack tip elements over the more con-
ventional linear displacement (constant strain) triangular elements in
representing conditions at the crack tip is clearly shown in the following
example. Consider a circular plane body of radius r e containing a radial crack
projecting from its center to the outer edge. The outer radius of the body is
subject to tractions obtained from the classical mode I crack tip singular
stress equations. The finite element representation of the body consists of
singular strain triangular (SST) elements, with Wilson's displacement
function, at the crack tip. The radius of these elements is re= re12. Constant
strain elements make up the remainder of the body (Figure 9.20).
The relative error in the nodal point displacements of the tip elements at
r=r e are shown in Figure 9.21 for the case of 18 SST elements at the crack
tip. The error is defined as the difference between finite element nodal
displacement and the exact dis placement divided by the maximum exact
v-displacement at r = r e which occurs at () = n. These resuIts are compared
with those obtained when the SST elements were replaced with constant
strain triangular (CST) elements. As expected, the SST resuIts resuIts are
very much better.
In Figure 9.22 the influence of the number of elements at the crack tip on
the root mean square of nodal point displacement error at r=re where
re =rel2 is shown both for SST elements and for CST elements at the crack
tip. The percent error of the SST element solution is approaching zero with
increasing number of crack tip elements, whereas the error ofthe CST element
solutions appears to be leveling off at about 22 %.
There are a number of situations in which the triangular crack tip elements
are an advantage over the elements having the crack tip embedded in them.
These are cases in which the material near the crack tip is non-homogeneous
Finite element methods Jor elastic bodies 509

30 ve-Exact
vf-Finite Element
vm-Maximum Exact

--
>r
GI

g 10

30~----------------------------.

-
GI
? u e7Exact
:J Ut -Finite Element
g 10 um-Maximum Exact

SST

30 60 90 120 150 180

e,degrees
Figure 9.21. Percent error of finite element nodal point displacements at r = r e' Results for
cracked cylinder subject to k 1 tractions. Eighteen elements at crack tip (re = re /2).

30
L-
oL-
w
L-

~
c20
-----uo______~0O-____--o~

CI>
u
L-
CI>
a...
0 ,0
I.f)
2
0::

°0~--~~--~,~2-===~,t8====~2~4====~3~0~
of Elements at Crack Tip (OOto 180°)
Figure 9.22. Root mean square of finite element nodal point displacement errors at r=r e •
Results for cracked cylinder subjected to k 1 tractions (re = reI2).
510 W. K. Wilson

or when thermal loads or body forces are present near the crack tip. Also
the triangular crack tip elements are somewhat easier to incorporate into
existing finite element programs.

9.8 Comparison of some elements

To investigate the applicability and the relative efficiencies of some crack

tip finite elements an example is considered. Solutions are obtained for four
different types of elements at the crack tip. They are the CST, SST, SSC-l
and SSC-4 elements.
The geometry and loading condition of the idealized fracture toughness
test specimen analyzed is shown in Figure 9.2 with H/W=0.5. The stress
intensity factors obtained from the finite element solutions are compared
with the value, k 1 (na}t / p= 7.20, obtained from boundary collocation on the
Williams stress function. The value is considered to be accurate to within
0.2 percent.
The influence of crack tip element radius and number of additional
constant strain elements involved in the finite element representation (e.g.
Figure 9.23) is shown in Figure 9.24. The efficiency of the special crack tip
elements is evident. For large crack tip element radü (r e /a=0.25) the advan-
tage of the high order circular element is clearly shown. The influence of
element radius for the high order circular element is further demonstrated
in Figure 9.25. High accuracy can be obtained with the element radius equal
to one-half of the crack length.

100~----~----~---n--~----~--~--~~----~

.80 1.20
Element· Geometry
Figure 9.23. Finite element representaiion of one half of a test specimen model (Figure 9.2,
. HjW=O.5). Radius of circular crack tip element is T e =aj4.
Finite element methods tor elastic bodies 511

-40
re/a - 0.025
Tip Element Type

e
o Circular (SSC -4)
Circular (SSC - 1 )
o Triangular ISST)
.,
C • Triangular (CST)
~ -10
0-
*
0
•
0 200 400 800

-4or-----------------------------------~
r.Ja - 0.10

i 1~"-
_-30
~

____
-20
-10
*----.------.-:._-*

0.,.-.
~
0-

~===g_&_============::::l8

----.------.----------------
100~--~--~--~----~---L--~----L---~
600 800

-40

-30
.~~. •
- *

e"---e_------_.--------------'.
10L---~1~0~0----~2~00~---3~0~0~--~4~0~0----~50LO~--~
Number of Nodal Points

Figure 9.24. Influence of number oftriangular element nodal points on error of calculated stress
intensity factor for four types of crack tip elements. Test specimen model (Figure 9.2, H / W = 0.5)
analyzed. Data shown for three crack tip element radii.
512 W. K. Wilson

By the techniques considered above, finite element methods can be used

to obtain approximate solutions to a wide range of crack problems. The
accuracy of these solutions are normally weIl within the range needed for
engineering applications. The particular technique used depends upon the
problem under investigation and also on available computer pro grams and
computer facilities. If only computer programs based upon more conven-
tional elements are available, then the energy release rate method and the
J-integral method of calculating stress intensity factors appear to be the
most effective. Computer programs having special crack tip finite elements
available can be used to analyze larger and more complex cracked structures
than those not containing such elements.
-25

I~
-20

-15
• rein
00.250
.0.375
.::s:. 00.500
..... -10
0
'-
.....
w
;>

1 1 J 1
100
200 300 400 500
Number of Nodal Points
Figure 9.25. Influence of radius of SSC-4 circular crack tip element and number of triangular
element nodal points on error of calculated stress intensity factor. Test specimen model (Figure
9.2, HjW=ü.5) analyzed.

While finite element methods have been successfully applied to cracked

bodies by many investigators, there is still a need for more rigorous mathe-
matical consideration of the convergence criteria for these methods. Little
work has been done in the area of convergence criteria for finite elements in
Finite element methods for elastic bodies 513

the presence of a singularity, nor for element displacement functions as

complex as those used with crack tip finite elements.
Future work in the area of the finite element analysis of cracked bodies
will involve refinements of crack tip finite elements and extensions of these
elements to other classes of problems such as plates [26J and shells. Another
area of crack analysis in which finite elements offer promise is that of dynamic
crack problems.

9.9 Appendix: Stiffness matrix of triangular crack

tip (SST) element

The stiffness matrix of the triangular crack tip element whose displacement
functions are equations (9.29) is given here in terms of the local Xl_y' coor-
dinates (Figure 9.19) and associated nodal point displacement vector
(9.31)
where

(9.32)

and (}c= ((}i+ (})/2. The rigid body translation (u o, vo) is not considered here
since it adds only zero terms to the matrix. The displacement functions of
equations (9.29) transform to

(9.33)

where (}I = (}-(}c and (}o=((}i-(})/2.

By means of equation (9.5) the stiffness matrix

[k;J = cos (}o [S/J

4
corresponding to the vector of equation (9.31) can be evaluated. The elements
of the symmetrie matrix [S/J are
514 W. K. Wilson

S~l = 2B 1+2Bz/0~ S'12 = -(B 6 +B 5 )/00

S~3 = 2B1-2Bz/0~ S'14 = (B 6 -B 5 )/00
s~z = 2B 3 +2B4/0~ S~3 = -S~4
S~4= 2B3-2B4/0~ S33= S~l

where
B 1 = t[{I·+2,u)11 +13J
B z = t()· + 2,u)(14 - 41z + 413) +t(,u)(15+ 41z + 411 )
B 3 = t[(A+2,u)13 +,u11 J
B 4 = HA + 2,u)(15 + 41z + 411 ) + H,u)(14 - 41z + 413)
B 5 = -HA)(Iz -213)+-H,u)(Iz +211 )
B6 = iP·)(lz + 21d+-H,u)(lz -213)
with
11 = 2 sin 00
1z = 2(sin 00 - 00 cos ( 0)

13 = -2 sin 0 0 +2 In tan (~ + ~o)

14 = 40 0 cos 00+2(0~-2) sin 00

15 = 2 J:o Oz sin 0 tan OdO

and
A = Ev / [(1 + v)(l- 2v) ] (plane strain)
= Ev/[(l-v)(l +v)J (plane stress)
Integral 15 cannot be determined in closed form but a highly accurate
approximation is
15 = 2[toö+lz06+3~loO~+5U!00ÖlJ.

References
[lJ Zienkiewicz, O. C. and Cheung, Y. K., The Finite Element Method in Structural and
Continuum Mechanics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York (1967).
[2J Zienkiewicz, O. c.> Applied Mechanics Review, 23, 3, p. 249 (1970).
Finite element methods Jor elastic bodies 515

[3J DeArantes e Oliveira, E. R., International Journal of SoUds and Structures, 4, 10, p. 929
(1968).
[4J Piano T. H. H. and Ping Tong, International Journal of Solids and Structures, 3, 5, p. 865
(1967).
[5J Chan, S. K., Tuba, 1. S. and Wilson, W. K., Engineering Fracture M echanics, 2, 1, p. 1
(1970).
[6J Williams, M. L., Journal of Applied Mechanics, 24, 1, p. 109 (1957).
[7J Kobayashi, A. S., Maiden, D. E. and Simon, B. J., ASME Paper No. 69-WAjPVP-12,
1969, not published in ASME Transactions but available through ASME.
[8J Ayres, D. J. and Siddall, Jr., W. F., ASME Paper No. 70-PVP-23, 1970, not published in
ASME Transactions but available through ASME.
[9J Rice, J. R., Journal of Applied Mechanics, 35, 2, p. 379 (1968).
[lOJ Visser, c., Gabrielse, S. E. and VanBuren, W., HSST Technical Report No. 4, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory (1970).
[11J Irwin, G. R., in Encyclopedia of Physics, Vol. 7, p. 551, Springer, Berlin (1958).
[12J Watwood, V. B., Nuclear Engineering and Design, 11, 4, p. 323 (1969).
[13J Anderson, G. P., Ruggles, V. L. and Stibor, G. S., International Journal of Fracture
Mechanics, 7, 1, p. 63 (1971).
[14J Paris, P. C. and Sib, G. c., in Fracture Toughness Testing and Its Applications. ASTM
Special Technical Publications No. 381, p. 30 (1965).
[15J Dixon, J. R. and Pook, L. P., Nature, 224, 5215, p. 166 (1969).
[16J Wilson, W. K., Combined Mode Fracture Mechanics. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
Pittsburgh (1969).
[17J Hilton, P. D. and Hutchinson, J. W., Plastic Intensity Factor for Cracked Plates. Engineer-
ing Fracture M echanics, in press.
[18J Hutchinson, J. W., Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of So lids, 16, 5, p. 337 (1968).
[19J Rice, J. R., Journal of Applied Mechanics, 34, 2, p. 287 (1967).
[20J Byskov, E., International Journal of Fracture Mechanics, 6, 2, p. 159 (1970).
[21J Wilson, W. K., Some Crack Tip Finite Elements for Plate Elasticity, presented at the
Fifth National Symposium on Fracture Mechanics, to be published in ASTM Special
Technical Publication, p. 513, Part 1.
[22J Gross, B., Roberts, E., Jr. and Srawley, 1. E., International Journal of Fracture Mechanics,
4, 3, p. 267 (1968).
[23J Gross, B., Roberts, E., Jr. and Sraw1ey, J. E., International Journal of Fracture Mechanics,
6, 1, p. 87 (1970).
[24J Tracey, D. M., Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 3, 3, p. 255 (1971).
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Subject index

Abel's integral equation 188,317,351, Concentrated force 193,229, 234

319 Conformal mapping 13
Anti-plane shear 57, 146,452,453,463, Crack between
466,467 two circular holes 125, 127
Asymptotic approximation 131 two elliptical holes 112
two rigid circular inclusions 126
Bending 81,82,96,152,153,156,159,
170,173,174,235,236 Eccentric crack in
Bi-axialloading 472,473 strip 76, 109, 110
Body forces 363 Edgeload 191
Boussinesq-Papkovich potential 285,
286 Field singularities 239
Fourier transforms 316,335,336
Cauchy Fredholm
integral theorem 260, 272 integral equation 319,321,324,332,
kerneis 369,414,417 348,349,355
principal value 268, 329 kernel 368,398,418
Central crack in theory 256
circular disk 30, 263
orthotropic panel 36
Gauss-Chebyshev integration 380,381
rectangular panel 43, 52, 113, 448,
Gaussian quadrature 376
479
Gauss-Jacobi integration 377,379,418
strip 152, 153,324,325,496
Green's function 197,212,386
Chebyshev polynomials 380, 384, 392
Griffith concept xxi, 1
Chebyshev and Jacobi polynomials 372
Griffith crack xxii, 133, 186,252,315,
Circumferential crack in
364,468
cylindrical bar 173, 174, 295, 309,
Griffith-Irwin theory xxiii
480
hollow cylinder 239,481
solid of revolution 292, 360, 362, Hankel transform 149,204, 351
432,434
spherical shell 481,482 Interface crack
Collinear cracks in parallel 402,403,407,408
infinite region 85, 114, 119, 163,281, perpendicular 385, 420
282,327,336,337 Invariant property of density factor xxvi
strip 330,331 Irwin xxii
Subject index 517

Jacobi polynomials 376,377,382,400 starshaped 343,344,346,347,348,

349,350
Laurent expansion 56,249, 303,454 Random elliptical holes 91
Linear load distribution 137, 230, 235 Rigid punch on half plane 293, 396, 409,
410
Mapping-collocation 29
Mellin transform 138,341, 385 Single edge crack
MMC method 38 rectangular panel 39,40,50,477.
Muskhelishvili 1,2,17,242,372,415,505 489,494
semi-infinite region 26,49, 137, 183,
Oblique edge crack 193,230,266,337,338
rectangular panel 41,51 strip 159, 307
semi-infinite region 340 Singular integral equations 368, 372, 398
Stiffened panels 84, 85
Parallel cracks in Strain-energy-density concept xxiii
infinite region 68, 82, 95, 111, 12), Strain-energy density factor xxxvi
122,123,128,129,143,144,164,165, Strip with
264,322,323 eccentric crack 76, 109, 110
semi-infinite region 23, 48, 169, 277 longitudinal crack 81, 112,320
strip (double edge cracks) single edge crack 159, 307
strip (single edge cracks) symmetrie edge cracks 155, 156
two parallel rows 334, 335 Surface cracks
Penny-shaped crack in half penny 215
beam 236 semi-elliptical 227
cylindrical bar 170, 171, 353 Surface loads 211,212
infinite body 201,233,235,350,365,
366 Taylor expansion 303
thick plate 358 Torsion 170,171,174
Plemelj formula 372
Polynomial approximation 20
Uniaxial compression xxxv, xxxviii, xl
Radial cracks
array 271 Wedge
emanating from a circular hole 44, crack at the tip 346, 347
45,53,280,309 Weight functions 242,257,262,306