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3-1. MARGINAL INFORMATION ON A MILITARY MAP

Figure 3-1 shows a reduced version of a large-scale topographic

map. The circled numbers indicate the items of marginal
information that the map user needs to know. These circled
numbers correspond to the following listed items.

a. Sheet Name (1). The sheet name is found in bold print at the
center of the top and in the lower left area of the map margin. A map is
generally named for the settlement contained within the area covered
by the sheet, or for the largest natural feature located within the area
at the time the map was drawn.

b. Sheet Number (2). The sheet number is found in bold print in

both the upper right and lower left areas of the margin, and in the
center box of the adjoining sheets diagram, which is found in the lower
right margin. It is used as a reference number to link specific maps to
overlays, operations orders, and plans. For maps at 1:100,000 scale
and larger, sheet numbers are based on an arbitrary system that
makes possible the ready orientation of maps at scales of 1:100,000,
1:50,000, and 1:25,000.

c. Series Name (3). The map series name is found in the same bold
print as the sheet number in the upper left corner of the margin. The
name given to the series is generally that of a major political
subdivision, such as a state within the United States or a European
nation. A map series usually includes a group of similar maps at the
same scale and on the same sheet lines or format designed to cover a
particular geographic area. It may also be a group of maps that serve a
common purpose, such as the military city maps.

d. Scale (4). The scale is found both in the upper left margin after
the series name, and in the center of the lower margin. The scale note
is a representative fraction that gives the ratio of a map distance to the
corresponding distance on the earth's surface. For example, the scale
note 1:50,000 indicates that one unit of measure on the map equals
50,000 units of the same measure on the ground.

e. Series Number (5). The series number is found in both the upper
right margin and the lower left margin. It is a sequence reference
expressed either as a four-digit numeral (1125) or as a letter, followed
by a three- or four-digit numeral (M661; T7110).

f. Edition Number (6). The edition number is found in bold print in

the upper right area of the top margin and the lower left area of the
bottom margin. Editions are numbered consecutively; therefore, if you
have more than one edition, the highest numbered sheet is the most
recent. Most military maps are now published by the DMA, but older
editions of maps may have been produced by the US Army Map
Service. Still others may have been drawn, at least in part, by the US
Army Corps of Engineers, the US Geological Survey, or other agencies
affiliated or not with the United States or allied governments. The
credit line, telling who produced the map, is just above the legend. The
map information date is found immediately below the word "LEGEND"
in the lower left margin of the map. This date is important when
determining how accurately the map data might be expected to match
what you will encounter on the ground.

g. Index to Boundaries (7). The index to boundaries diagram

appears in the lower or right margin of all sheets. This diagram, which
is a miniature of the map, shows the boundaries that occur within the
map area, such as county lines and state boundaries.

h. Adjoining Sheets Diagram (8). Maps at all standard scales

contain a diagram that illustrates the adjoining sheets. On maps at
1:100,000 and larger scales and at 1:1,000,000 scale, the diagram is
called the index to adjoining sheets. It consists of as many rectangles
representing adjoining sheets as are necessary to surround the
rectangle that represents the sheet under consideration. The diagram
usually contains nine rectangles, but the number may vary depending
on the locations of the adjoining sheets. All represented sheets are
identified by their sheet numbers. Sheets of an adjoining series,
whether published or planned, that are at the same scale are
represented by dashed lines. The series number of the adjoining series
is indicated along the appropriate side of the division line between the
series.

i. Elevation Guide (9). This is normally found in the lower right

margin. It is a miniature characterization of the terrain shown. The
terrain is represented by bands of elevation, spot elevations, and major
drainage features. The elevation guide provides the map reader with a
means of rapid recognition of major landforms.

j. Declination Diagram (10). This is located in the lower margin of

large-scale maps and indicates the angular relationships of true north,
grid north, and magnetic north. On maps at 1:250,000 scale, this
information is expressed as a note in the lower margin. In recent
edition maps, there is a note indicating the conversion of azimuths
from grid to magnetic and from magnetic to grid next to the
declination diagram.
k. Bar Scales (11). These are located in the center of the lower
margin. They are rulers used to convert map distance to ground
distance. Maps have three or more bar scales, each in a different unit
of measure. Care should be exercised when using the scales, especially
in the selection of the unit of measure that is needed.

l. Contour Interval Note (12). This note is found in the center of the
lower margin normally below the bar scales. It states the vertical
distance between adjacent contour lines of the map. When
supplementary contours are used, the interval is indicated. In recent
edition maps, the contour interval is given in meters instead of feet.

m. Spheroid Note (13). This note is located in the center of the

lower margin. Spheriods (ellipsoids) have specific parameters that
define the X Y Z axis of the earth. The spheriod is an integral part of
the datum.

n. Grid Note (14). This note is located in the center of the lower
margin. It gives information pertaining to the grid system used and the
interval between grid lines, and it identifies the UTM grid zone number.

o. Projection Note (15). The projection system is the framework of

the map. For military maps, this framework is of the conformal type;
that is, small areas of the surface of the earth retain their true shapes
on the projection; measured angles closely approximate true values;
and the scale factor is the same in all directions from a point. The
projection note is located in the center of the lower margin. Refer to
DMA for the development characteristics of the conformal-type
projection systems.

(1) Between 80° south and 84° north, maps at scales larger than
1:500,000 are based on the transverse Mercator projection. The note
reads TRANSVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION.

(2) Between 80° south and 84° north, maps at 1:1,000,000 scale and
smaller are based on standard parallels of the lambert conformal conic
projection. The note reads, for example, LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONIC
PROJECTIONS 36° 40' N AND 39° 20' N.

(3) Maps of the polar regions (south of 80° south and north of 84°
north) at 1:1,000,000 and larger scales are based on the polar
stereographic projection. The note reads POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION.

p. Vertical Datum Note (16). This note is located in the center of

the lower margin. The vertical datum or vertical-control datum is
defined as any level surface (for example, mean sea level) taken as a
surface of reference from which to determine elevations. In the United
States, Canada, and Europe, the vertical datum refers to the mean sea
level surface. However, in parts of Asia and Africa, the vertical-control
datum may vary locally and is based on an assumed elevation that has
no connection to any sea level surface. Map readers should habitually
check the vertical datum note on maps, particularly if the map is used
for low-level aircraft navigation, naval gunfire support, or missile target
acquisition.

q. Horizontal Datum Note (17). This note is located in the center of

the lower margin. The horizontal datum or horizontal-control datum is
defined as a geodetic reference point (of which five quantities are
known: latitude, longitude, azimuth of a line from this point, and two
constants, which are the parameters of reference ellipsoid). These are
the basis for horizontal-control surveys. The horizontal-control datum
may extend over a continent or be limited to a small local area. Maps
and charts produced by DMA are produced on 32 different horizontal-
control data. Map readers should habitually check the horizontal datum
note on every map or chart, especially adjacent map sheets. This is to
ensure the products are based on the same horizontal datum. If
products are based on different horizontal-control data, coordinate
transformations to a common datum must be performed. UTM
coordinates from the same point computed on different data may differ
as much as 900 meters.

r. Control Note (18). This note is located in the center of the lower
margin. It indicates the special agencies involved in the control of the
technical aspects of all the information that is disseminated on the
map.

s. Preparation Note (19). This note is located in the center of the

lower margin. It indicates the agency responsible for preparing the
map.

t. Printing Note (20). This note is also located in the center of the
lower margin. It indicates the agency responsible for printing the map
and the date the map was printed. The printing data should not be
used to determine when the map information was obtained.

u. Grid Reference Box (21). This box is normally located in the

center of the lower margin. It contains instructions for composing a
grid reference.

v. Unit imprint and Symbol (22). The unit imprint and symbol is on
the left side of the lower margin. It identifies the agency that prepared
and printed the map with its respective symbol. This information is
important to the map user in evaluating the reliability of the map.

w. Legend (23). The legend is located in the lower left margin. It

illustrates and identifies the topographic symbols used to depict some
of the more prominent features on the map. The symbols are not
always the same on every map. Always refer to the legend to avoid
errors when reading a map.
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3-2. ADDITIONAL NOTES

Not all maps contain the same items of marginal information. Under
certain conditions, special notes and scales may be added to aid the
map user. The following are examples:

a. Glossary. This is an explanation of technical terms or a translation

of terms on maps of foreign areas where the native language is other
than English.

b. Classification. Certain maps require a note indicating the security

classification. This is shown in the upper and lower margins.

c. Protractor Scale. This scale may appear in the upper margin on

some maps. It is used to lay out the magnetic-grid declination for the
map, which, in turn, is used to orient the map sheet with the aid of the
lensatic compass.

d. Coverage Diagram. On maps at scales of 1:100,000 and larger, a

coverage diagram may be used. It is normally in the lower or right
margin and indicates the methods by which the map was made, dates
of photography, and reliability of the sources. On maps at 1:250,000
scale, the coverage diagram is replaced by a reliability diagram.

e. Special Notes (24). A special note is any statement of general

information that relates to the mapped area. It is normally found in the
lower right margin. For example: This map is red-light readable.

f. User's Note (25). This note is normally located in the lower right-
hand margin. It requests cooperation in correcting errors or omissions
on the map. Errors should be marked and the map forwarded to the
agency identified in the note.

g. Stock Number Identification (26). All maps published by the

DMA that are in the Department of the Army map supply system
contain stock number identifications that are used in requisitioning
map supplies. The identification consists of the words "STOCK NO"
followed by a unique designation that is composed of the series
number, the sheet number of the individual map and, on recently
printed sheets, the edition number. The designation is limited to 15
units (letters and numbers). The first 5 units are allotted to the series
number; when the series number is less than 5 units, the letter "X" is
substituted as the fifth unit. The sheet number is the next component;
however, Roman numerals, which are part of the sheet number, are
converted to Arabic numerals in the stock number. The last 2 units are
the edition number; the first digit of the edition number is a zero if the
number is less than 10. If the current edition number is unknown, the
number 01 is used. The latest available edition will be furnished.
Asterisks are placed between the sheet number and the edition
number when necessary to ensure there are at least 11 units in the
stock number.

h. Conversion Graph (27). Normally found in the right margin, this

graph indicates the conversion of different units of measure used on
the map.

4-2. GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES

One of the oldest systematic methods of location is based upon the

geographic coordinate system. By drawing a set of east-west rings
around the globe (parallel to the equator), and a set of north-south
rings crossing the equator at right angles and converging at the poles,
a network of reference lines is formed from which any point on the
earth's surface can be located.

a. The distance of a point north or south of the equator is known as its

latitude. The rings around the earth parallel to the equator are called
parallels of latitude or simply parallels. Lines of latitude run east-west
but north-south distances are measured between them.

b. A second set of rings around the globe at right angles to lines of

latitude and passing through the poles is known as meridians of
longitude or simply meridians. One meridian is designated as the
prime meridian. The prime meridian of the system we use runs
through Greenwich, England and is known as the Greenwich
meridian. The distance east or west of a prime meridian to a
point is known as its longitude. Lines of longitude (meridians) run
north-south but east-west distances are measured between them
(Figures 4-1 and 4-2).
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Figure 4-1. Prime meridian and equator.

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Figure 4-2. Reference lines.

c. Geographic coordinates are expressed in angular measurement.

Each circle is divided into 360 degrees, each degree into 60 minutes,
and each minute into 60 seconds. The degree is symbolized by ° , the
minute by ′, and the second by ″. Starting with 0° at the equator, the
parallels of latitude are numbered to 90° both north and south. The
extremities are the north pole at 90° north latitude and the south pole
at 90° south latitude. Latitude can have the same numerical value
north or south of the equator, so the direction N or S must always be
given. Starting with 0° at the prime meridian, longitude is measured
both east and west around the world. Lines east of the prime meridian
are numbered to 180° and identified as east longitude; lines west of
the prime meridian are numbered to 180° and identified as west
longitude. The direction E or W must always be given. The line directly
opposite the prime meridian, 180° , may be referred to as either east
or west longitude. The values of geographic coordinates, being in units
of angular measure, will mean more if they are compared with units of
measure with which we are more familiar. At any point on the earth,
the ground distance covered by one degree of latitude is about 111
kilometers (69 miles); one second is equal to about 30 meters (100
feet). The ground distance covered by one degree of longitude at the
equator is also about 111 kilometers, but decreases as one moves
north or south, until it becomes zero at the poles. For example, one
second of longitude represents about 30 meters (100 feet) at the
equator; but at the latitude of Washington, DC, one second of longitude
is about 24 meters (78 feet). Latitude and longitude are illustrated in
Figure 4-3.

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Figure 4-3. Latitude and longitude.

d. Geographic coordinates appear on all standard military maps; on

some they may be the only method of locating and referencing a
specific point. The four lines that enclose the body of the map
(neatlines) are latitude and longitude lines. Their values are given in
degrees and minutes at each of the four corners. On a portion of the
Columbus map (Figure 4-4), the figures 32° 15' and 84° 45' appear at
the lower right corner. The bottom line of this map is latitude 32°
15'00″N, and the line running up the right side is longitude 84°
45'00"W. In addition to the latitude and longitude given for the four
corners, there are, at regularly spaced intervals along the sides of the
map, small tick marks extending into the body of the map. Each of
these tick marks is identified by its latitude or longitude value. Near
the top of the right side of the map is a tick mark and the number 20'.
The full value for this tick marks is 32° 20'00" of latitude. At one-third
and two-thirds of the distance across the map from the 20' tick mark
will be found a cross tick mark (grid squares 0379 and 9679) and at the
far side another 20' tick mark. By connecting the tick marks and
crosses with straight lines, a 32° 20'00" line of latitude can be added to
the map. This procedure is also used to locate the 32° 25'00" line of
latitude. For lines of longitude, the same procedure is followed using
the tick marks along the top and bottom edges of the map.

e. After the parallels and meridians have been drawn, the geographic
interval (angular distance between two adjacent lines) must be
determined. Examination of the values given at the tick marks gives
the interval. For most maps of scale 1:25,000, the interval is 2'30". For
the Columbus map and most maps of scale 1:50,000, it is 5'00". The
geographic coordinates of a point are found by dividing the sides of the
geographic square in which the point is located into the required
number of equal parts. If the geographic interval is 5'00" and the
location of a point is required to the nearest second, each side of the
geographic square must be divided into 300 equal parts (5'00" =
300"), each of which would have a value of one second. Any scale or
ruler that has 300 equal divisions and is as long as or longer than the
spacing between the lines may be used.

f. The following steps will determine the geographic coordinates of

Wilkinson Cemetery (northwest of the town of Cusseta) on the
Columbus map.

(1) Draw the parallels and meridians on the map that encloses the
area around the cemetery.

(2) Determine the values of the parallels and meridians where the
point falls.

Latitude 32° 15'00" and 32° 20'00".

Longitude 84° 45'00" and 84° 50'00".

(3) Determine the geographic interval (5'00" = 300").

(4) Select a scale that has 300 small divisions or multiples thereof
(300 divisions, one second each; 150 divisions, two seconds each; 75
divisions, four seconds each, and so forth).

(5) To determine the latitude—

(a) Place the scale with the 0 of the scale on the latitude of the lowest
number value (32° 15'00") and the 300 of the scale on the highest
numbered line (32° 20'00") (1, Figure 4-4).

(b) While keeping the 0 and 300 on the two lines, slide the scale (2,
Figure 4-4) along the parallels until the Wilkinson Cemetery symbol is
along the edge of the numbered scale.

(c) Read the number of seconds from the scale (3, Figure 4-4), about
246.

(d) Convert the number of seconds to minutes and seconds (246" =

4'06") and add to the value of the lower numbered line (32° 15'00" +
4'06" = 32° 19'06") (4, Figure 4-4).

RESULTS:

• The latitude is 32° 19'06", but this is not enough.

• The latitude 32° 19'06" could be either north or south of the

equator, so the letter N or S must be added to the latitude. To
determine whether it is N or S, look at the latitude values at the edge
of the map and find the direction in which they become larger. If they
are larger going north, use N; if they are larger going south, use S.

• The latitude for the cemetery is 32° 19'06"N.

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Figure 4-4. Determining latitude.

(6) Determine the longitude, repeat the same steps but measure
between lines of longitude and use E and W. The geographic
coordinates of Wilkinson Cemetery should be about 32° 19'06"N
and 84° 47'32"W (Figure 4-5).
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Figure 4-5. Determining longitude.

g. To locate a point on the Columbus map (Figure 4-6) when

knowing the geographic coordinates, many of the same steps are
followed. To locate 32° 25'28"N and 84° 50'56"W, first find the
geographic lines within which the point falls: latitude 32° 25'00"
and 32° 30'0"; and longitude 84° 50'00" and 84° 55'00". Subtract
the lower latitude/longitude from the higher latitude/longitude.
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Figure 4-6. Determining geographic coordinates.

(1) Place the 0 of the scale on the 32° 25'00" line and the 300 on the
32° 30'00". Make a mark at the number 28 on the scale (the difference
between the lower and higher latitude).

(2) Place the 0 of the scale on the 84° 50′00″ line and the 300 on the
84° 50′55″. Make a mark at the number 56 on the scale (the difference
between the lower and higher longitude.

(3) Draw a vertical line from the mark at 56 and a horizontal line from
the mark at 28; they intersect at 32 25’28"N and 84 50’56"W.

h. If you do not have a scale or ruler with 300 equal divisions or a

map whose interval is other than 5'00", use the proportional parts
method. Following the steps determines the geographic coordinates of
horizontal control station 141.

(1) Locate horizontal control station 141 in grid square (GL0784)

(Figure 4-7).

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Figure 4-7. Using the proportional parts method.

(2) Find a cross in grid square GL0388 and a tick mark in grid square
GL1188 with 25'.
(3) Find another cross in grid square GL0379 and a tick mark in grid
square GL1179 with 20'.

(4) Enclose the control station by connecting the crosses and tick
marks. The control station is between 20' and 25' (Figure 4-7).

(5) With a boxwood scale, measure the distance from the bottom line
to the top line that encloses the area around the control station on the
map (total distance) (Figure 4-7).

(6) Measure the partial distance from the bottom line to the center of
the control station (Figure 4-7). These straight-line distances are in
direct proportion to the minutes and seconds of latitude and are used
to set up a ratio.

RESULTS:

• The total distance is 9,200 meters, and the partial distance is

5,125 meters (Figure 4-7).

• With the two distances and the five-minute interval converted to

seconds (300"), determine the minutes and seconds of latitude using
the following formula:

▪ 5,125 x 300 = 1,537,500

▪ 1,537,500 ÷ 9,200 = 167

▪ 167 ÷ 60 = 2'47"

▪ Add 2'47" to 32° 20'00" = 32° 20'47"

(7) Follow the same procedures to determine minutes and seconds of

longitude (Figure 4-7).

RESULTS:

• The total distance is 7,830 meters, and the partial distance is

4,000 meters (Figure 4-7).

▪ 4,000 x 300 = 1,200,000

▪ 1,200,000 ÷ 7,830 = 153

▪ 153 ÷ 60 = 2'33"
▪ Add 2'33" to 84° 45' = 84° 47'33"N

(8) The geographic coordinates of horizontal control station 141 in

grid square GL0784 are 32° 22'47"N latitude and 84° 47'33"W
longitude.
NOTE:
When computing formulas, round off totals to the nearest whole
number in step 2. In step 3, convert the fraction to seconds by
multiplying the fraction by 60 and rounding off if the total is not a
whole number.

4-5. LOCATE A POINT USING GRID COORDINATES

Based on the military principle for reading maps (RIGHT and UP),
locations on the map can be determined by grid coordinates. The
number of digits represents the degree of precision to which a point
has been located and measured on a map— the more digits the more
precise the measurement.

a. Without a Coordinate Scale. Determine grids without a

coordinate scale by referring to the north-south grid lines numbered at
the bottom margin of any map. Then read RIGHT to the north-south
grid line that precedes the desired point (this first set of two digits is
the RIGHT reading). Then by referring to the east-west grid lines
numbered at either side of the map, move UP to the east-west grid line
that precedes the desired point (these two digits are the UP reading).
Coordinate 1484 locate the 1,000-meter grid square in which point X is
located; the next square to the right would be 1584; the next square
up would be 1485, and so forth (Figure 4-15). Locate the point to the
nearest 100 meters using estimation. Mentally divide the grid square in
tenths, estimate the distance from the grid line to the point in the
same order (RIGHT and UP). Give complete coordinate RIGHT, then
complete coordinate UP. Point X is about two-tenths or 200 meters to
the RIGHT into the grid square and about seven-tenths or 700 meters
UP.
RESULTS: The coordinates to the nearest 100 meters are 142847.

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Figure 4-15. Determining grids without coordinate point.

b. With a Coordinate Scale (1:25,000). In order to use the

coordinate scale for determining grid coordinates, ensure that the
appropriate scale is being used on the corresponding map, and that
the scale is right side up. To ensure the scale is correctly aligned, place
it with the zero-zero point at the lower left corner of the grid square.
Keeping the horizontal line of the scale directly on top of the east-west
grid line, slide it to the right until the vertical line of the scale touches
the point for which the coordinates are desired (Figure 4-16). When
reading coordinates, examine the two sides of the coordinate scale to
ensure that the horizontal line of the scale is aligned with the east-west
grid line, and the vertical line of the scale is parallel with the north-
south grid line. Use the scale when precision of more than 100 meters
is required. To locate the point to the nearest 10 meters, measure the
hundredths of a grid square RIGHT and UP from the grid lines to the
point. Point X is about 17 hundredths or 170 meters RIGHT and 84
hundredths or 840 meters UP. The coordinates to the nearest 10
meters are 14178484.
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Figure 4-16. Placing a coordinate scale on a grid.

NOTE:
Care should be exercised by the map reader using the coordinate scale
when the desired point is located within the zero-zero point and the
number 1 on the scale. Always prefix a zero if the hundredths reading
is less than 10. In Figure 4-17, the desired point is reported as
14818407.
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Figure 4-17. Zero-zero point.

c. 1:50,000 Coordinating Scale. On the 1:50,000 coordinate scale,

there are two sides: vertical and horizontal. These sides are 1,000
meters in length. The point at which the sides meet is the zero-zero
point. Each side is divided into 10 equal 100-meter segments by a long
tick mark and number. Each 100-meter segment is subdivided into 50-
meter segments by a short tick mark (Figure 4-18). By using
interpolation, mentally divide each 50-meter segment into tenths. For
example, a point that lies after a whole number but before a short tick
mark is identified as 10, 20, 30, or 40 meters and any point that lies
after the short tick mark but before the whole number is identified as
60, 70, 80, or 90 meters.
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Figure 4-18. 1:50,000 coordinating scale.

d. Example of Obtaining an Eight-Digit Coordinate Using

1:50,000 Scale. To ensure the scale is correctly aligned, place it with
the zero-zero point at the lower left corner of the grid square. Keeping
the horizontal line of the scale directly on top of the east-west grid line,
slide the scale to the right until the vertical line of the scale touches
the point for which the coordinates are desired (Figure 4-19). Reading
right, you can see that the point lies 530 meters to the right into the
grid square, which gives a right reading of 7853. Reading up, you can
see that the point lies 320 meters up into the grid square, giving an up
reading of 0032.
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Figure 4-19. Example of obtaining an eight-digit coordinate

using 1:50,000 scale.

e. Recording and Reporting Grid Coordinates. Coordinates are

written as one continuous number without spaces, parentheses,
dashes, or decimal points; they must always contain an even number
of digits. Therefore, whoever is to use the written coordinates must
know where to make the split between the RIGHT and UP readings. It is
a military requirement that the 100,000-meter square identification
letters be included in any point designation. Normally, grid coordinates
are determined to the nearest 100 meters (six digits) for reporting
locations. With practice, this can be done without using plotting scales.
The location of targets and other point locations for fire support are
determined to the nearest 10 meters (eight digits).
NOTE:
Special care should be exercised when recording and reporting
coordinates. Transposing numbers or making errors could be
detrimental to military operations.
4-6. LOCATE A POINT USING THE US ARMY MILITARY GRID
REFERENCE SYSTEM

There is only one rule to remember when reading or reporting grid

coordinates— always read to the RIGHT and then UP. The first half of
the reported set of coordinate digits represents the left-to-right
(easting) grid label, and the second half represents the label as read
from the bottom to top (northing). The grid coordinates may represent
the location to the nearest 10-, 100-, or 1,000-meter increment.

a. Grid Zone. The number 16 locates a point within zone 16, which is
an area 6° wide and extends between 80° S latitude and 84° N latitude
(Figure 4-8).

b. Grid Zone Designation. The number and letter combination, 16S,

further locates a point within the grid zone designation 16S, which is a
quadrangle 6° wide by 8° high. There are 19 of these quads in zone 16.
Quad X, which is located between 72° N and 84° N latitude, is 12° high
(Figure 4-8).

c. 100,000-Meter Square Identification. The addition of two more

letters locates a point within the 100,000-meter grid square. Thus
16SGL (Figure 4-11) locates the point within the 100,000-meter square
GL in the grid zone designation 16S. For information on the lettering
system of 100,000-meter squares, see TM 5-241-1.

d. 10,000-Meter Square. The breakdown of the US Army military

grid reference system continues as each side of the 100,000-meter
square is divided into 10 equal parts. This division produces lines that
are 10,000 meters apart. Thus the coordinates 16SGL08 would locate a
point as shown in Figure 4-20. The 10,000-meter grid lines appear as
index (heavier) grid lines on maps at 1:100,000 and larger.
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Figure 4-20. The 10,000-meter grid square.

e. 1,000-Meter Square. To obtain 1,000-meter squares, each side of

the 10,000-meter square is divided into 10 equal parts. This division
appears on large-scale maps as the actual grid lines; they are 1,000
meters apart. On the Columbus map, using coordinates 16SGL0182,
the easting 01 and the northing 82 gives the location of the southwest
corner of grid square 0182 or to the nearest 1,000 meters of a point on
the map (Figure 4-21).
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Figure 4-21. The 1,000-meter grid square.

f. 100-Meter Identification. To locate to the nearest 100 meters,

the grid coordinate scale can be used to divide the 1,000-meter grid
squares into 10 equal parts (Figure 4-22).
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Figure 4-22. The 100-meter and 10-meter grid squares.

g. 10-Meter Identification. The grid coordinate scale has divisions

every 50 meters on the 1:50,000 scale and every 20 meters on the
1:25,000 scale. These can be used to estimate to the nearest 10
meters and give the location of one point on the earth's surface to the
nearest 10 meters.

EXAMPLE: 16SGL01948253 (gas tank) (Figure 4-22).

h. Precision. The precision of a point's location is shown by the

number of digits in the coordinates; the more digits, the more precise
the location (Figure 4-22, insert).
4-7. GRID REFERENCE BOX

A grid reference box (Figure 4-23) appears in the marginal information

of each map sheet. It contains step-by-step instructions for using the
grid and the US Army military grid reference system. The grid
reference box is divided into two parts.

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Figure 4-23. Grid reference box

a. The left portion identifies the grid zone designation and the
100,000-meter square. If the sheet falls in more than one 100,000-
meter square, the grid lines that separate the squares are shown in the
diagram and the letters identifying the 100,000-meter squares are
given.

EXAMPLE: On the Columbus map sheet, the vertical line labeled 00

is the grid line that separates the two 100,000-meter squares, FL and
GL. The left portion also shows a sample for the 1,000-meter square
with its respective labeled grid coordinate numbers and a sample point
within the 1,000-meter square.

b. The right portion of the grid reference box explains how to use the
grid and is keyed on the sample 1,000-meter square of the left side.
The following is an example of the military grid reference:

EXAMPLE: 16S locates the 6° by 8° area (grid zone designation).

Other Ways of Determining Distance:

5-3. OTHER METHODS

Determining distance is the most common source of error encountered

while moving either mounted or dismounted. There may be
circumstances where you are unable to determine distance using your
map or where you are without a map. It is therefore essential to learn
methods by which you can accurately pace, measure, use subtense, or
estimate distances on the ground.

a. Pace Count. Another way to measure ground distance is the pace

count. A pace is equal to one natural step, about 30 inches long. To
accurately use the pace count method, you must know how many
paces it takes you to walk 100 meters. To determine this, you must
walk an accurately measured course and count the number of paces
you take. A pace course can be as short as 100 meters or as long as
600 meters. The pace course, regardless of length, must be on similar
terrain to that you will be walking over. It does no good to walk a
course on flat terrain and then try to use that pace count on hilly
terrain. To determine your pace count on a 600-meter course, count
the paces it takes you to walk the 600 meters, then divide the total
paces by 6. The answer will give you the average paces it takes you to
walk 100 meters. It is important that each person who navigates while
dismounted knows his pace count.

(1) There are many methods to keep track of the distance traveled
when using the pace count. Some of these methods are: put a pebble
in your pocket every time you have walked 100 meters according to
your pace count; tie knots in a string; or put marks in a notebook. Do
not try to remember the count; always use one of these methods or
design your own method.

(2) Certain conditions affect your pace count in the field, and you
must allow for them by making adjustments.

(a) Slopes. Your pace lengthens on a downslope and shortens on an

upgrade. Keeping this in mind, if it normally takes you 120 paces to
walk 100 meters, your pace count may increase to 130 or more when
walking up a slope.
(b) Winds. A head wind shortens the pace and a tail wind increases it.

(c) Surfaces. Sand, gravel, mud, snow, and similar surface materials
tend to shorten the pace.

(d) Elements. Falling snow, rain, or ice cause the pace to be reduced
in length.

(e) Clothing. Excess clothing and boots with poor traction affect the
pace length.

(f) Visibility. Poor visibility, such as in fog, rain, or darkness, will

shorten your pace.

b. Odometer. Distances can be measured by an odometer, which is

standard equipment on most vehicles. Readings are recorded at the
start and end of a course and the difference is the length of the course.

(1) To convert kilometers to miles, multiply the number of kilometers

by 0. 62.

EXAMPLE:

16 kilometers = 16 x 0. 62 = 9. 92 miles

(2) To convert miles to kilometers, divided the number of miles by 0.

62.

EXAMPLE:

10 miles = 10 divided by 0. 62 = 16. 12 kilometers

c. Subtense. The subtense method is a fast method of determining

distance and yields accuracy equivalent to that obtained by measuring
distance with a premeasured piece of wire. An advantage is that a
horizontal distance is obtained indirectly; that is, the distance is
computed rather than measured. This allows subtense to be used over
terrain where obstacles such as streams, ravines, or steep slopes may
prohibit other methods of determining distance.

(1) The principle used in determining distance by the subtense

method is similar to that used in estimating distance by the mil relation
formula. The field artillery application of the mil relation formula
involves only estimations. It is not accurate enough for survey
purposes. However, the subtense method uses precise values with a
trigonometric solution. Subtense is based on a principle of visual
perspective—the farther away an object, the smaller it appears.

(2) The following two procedures are involved in subtense

measurement:
•
Establishing a base of known length.
•
Measuring the angle of that base by use of the aiming circle.

(3) The subtense base may be any desired length. However, if a 60-
meter base, a 2-meter bar, or the length of an M16A1 or M16A2 rifle is
used, precomputed subtense tables are available. The M16 or 2-meter
bar must be held horizontal and perpendicular to the line of sight by a
soldier facing the aiming circle. The instrument operator sights on one
end of the M16 or 2-meter bar and measures the horizontal clockwise
angle to the other end of the rifle or bar. He does this twice and
averages the angles. He then enters the appropriate subtense table
with the mean angle and extracts the distance. Accurate distances can
be obtained with the M16 out to approximately 150 meters, with the 2-
meter bar out to 250 meters, and with the 60-meter base out to 1,000
meters. If a base of another length is desired, a distance can be
computed by using the following formula:
Distance
=
1/2 (base in meters)
————————
Tan (1/2) (in mils)

d. Estimation. At times, because of the tactical situation, it may be

necessary to estimate range. There are two methods that may be used
to estimate range or distance.

(1) 100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method. To use this method, the

soldier must be able to visualize a distance of 100 meters on the
ground. For ranges up to 500 meters, he determines the number of
100-meter increments between the two objects he wishes to measure.
Beyond 500 meters, the soldier must select a point halfway to the
object(s) and determine the number of 100-meter increments to the
halfway point, then double it to find the range to the object(s) (Figure
5-9).
6-1. METHODS OF EXPRESSING DIRECTION

Military personnel need a way of expressing direction that is accurate,

is adaptable to any part of the world, and has a common unit of
measure. Directions are expressed as units of angular measure.

a. Degree. The most common unit of measure is the degree (°) with
its subdivisions of minutes (') and seconds (").

1 degree = 60 minutes.

1 minute = 60 seconds.

b. Mil. Another unit of measure, the mil (abbreviated ), is used mainly

in artillery, tank, and mortar gunnery. The mil expresses the size of an
angle formed when a circle is divided into 6,400 angles, with the vertex
of the angles at the center of the circle. A relationship can be
established between degrees and mils. A circle equals 6400 mils
divided by 360 degrees, or 17.78 mils per degree. To convert degrees
to mils, multiply degrees by 17.78.

c. Grad. The grad is a metric unit of measure found on some foreign

maps. There are 400 grads in a circle (a 90-degree right angle equals
100 grads). The grad is divided into 100 centesimal minutes
(centigrads) and the minute into 100 centesimal seconds (milligrads).

6-2. BASE LINES

In order to measure something, there must always be a starting point

or zero measurement. To express direction as a unit of angular
measure, there must be a starting point or zero measure and a point of
reference These two points designate the base or reference line. There
are three base lines— true north, magnetic north, and grid north. The
most commonly used are magnetic and grid.

a. True North. A line from any point on the earth's surface to the
north pole. All lines of longitude are true north lines. True north is
usually represented by a star (Figure 6-1).
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Figure 6-1. Three norths.

b. Magnetic North. The direction to the north magnetic pole, as

indicated by the north-seeking needle of a magnetic instrument. The
magnetic north is usually symbolized by a line ending with half of an
arrowhead (Figure 6-1). Magnetic readings are obtained with magnetic
instruments, such as lensatic and M2 compasses.

c. Grid North. The north that is established by using the vertical grid
lines on the map. Grid north may be symbolized by the letters GN or
the letter "y" (Figure 6-1).
6-3. AZIMUTHS

An azimuth is defined as a horizontal angle measured clockwise from a

north base line. This north base line could be true north, magnetic
north, or grid north. The azimuth is the most common military method
to express direction. When using an azimuth, the point from which the
azimuth originates is the center of an imaginary circle (Figure 6-2). This
circle is divided into 360 degrees or 6400 mils (Appendix G).

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Figure 6-2. Origin of azimuth circle.

a. Back Azimuth. A back azimuth is the opposite direction of an

azimuth. It is comparable to doing "about face." To obtain a back
azimuth from an azimuth, add 180 degrees if the azimuth is 180
degrees or less, or subtract 180 degrees if the azimuth is 180 degrees
or more (Figure 6-3). The back azimuth of 180 degrees may be stated
as 0 degrees or 360 degrees. For mils, if the azimuth is less than
3200 mils, add 3200 mils, if the azimuth is more than 3200 mils,
subtract 3200 mils.
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Figure 6-3. Back azimuth.

WARNING

When converting azimuths into back azimuths, extreme care

should be exercised when adding or subtracting the 180
degrees. A simple mathematical mistake could cause
disastrous consequences.

b. Magnetic Azimuth. The magnetic azimuth is determined by using

magnetic instruments, such as lensatic and M2 compasses. Refer to
Chapter 9, paragraph 4, for details.
c. Field-Expedient Methods. Several field-expedient methods to
determine direction are discussed in Chapter 9, paragraph 5.

6-4. GRID AZIMUTHS

When an azimuth is plotted on a map between point A (starting point)

and point B (ending point), the points are joined together by a straight
line. A protractor is used to measure the angle between grid north and
the drawn line, and this measured azimuth is the grid azimuth (Figure
6-4).
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Figure 6-4. Measuring an azimuth.

WARNING

When measuring azimuths on a map, remember that you are

measuring from a starting point to an ending point. If a
mistake is made and the reading is taken from the ending
point, the grid azimuth will be opposite, thus causing the user
to go in the wrong direction.
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Figure 6-7. Plotting an azimuth on the map.

c. To obtain an accurate reading with the protractor (to the nearest

degree or 10 mils), there are two techniques to check that the base
line of the protractor is parallel to a north-south grid line.

(1) Place the protractor index where the azimuth line cuts a north-
south grid line, aligning the base line of the protractor directly over the
intersection of the azimuth line with the north-south grid line. The user
should be able to determine whether the initial azimuth reading was
correct.

(2) The user should re-read the azimuth between the azimuth and
north-south grid line to check the initial azimuth.

(3) Note that the protractor is cut at both the top and bottom by the
same north-south grid line. Count the number of degrees from the 0-
degree mark at the top of the protractor to this north-south grid line
and then count the number of degrees from the 180-degree mark at
the bottom of the protractor to this same grid line. If the two counts
are equal, the protractor is properly aligned.

6-6. DECLINATION DIAGRAM

Declination is the angular difference between any two norths. If you

have a map and a compass, the one of most interest to you will be
between magnetic and grid north. The declination diagram (Figure 6-8)
shows the angular relationship, represented by prongs, among grid,
magnetic, and true norths. While the relative positions of the prongs
are correct, they are seldom plotted to scale. Do not use the diagram
to measure a numerical value. This value will be written in the map
margin (in both degrees and mils) beside the diagram.

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Figure 6-8. Declination diagrams.

a. Location. A declination diagram is a part of the information in the

lower margin on most larger maps. On medium-scale maps, the
declination information is shown by a note in the map margin.

b. Grid-Magnetic Angle. The G-M angle value is the angular size

that exists between grid north and magnetic north. It is an arc,
indicated by a dashed line, that connects the grid-north and magnetic-
north prongs. This value is expressed to the nearest 1/2 degree, with
mil equivalents shown to the nearest 10 mils. The G-M angle is
important to the map reader/land navigator because azimuths
translated between map and ground will be in error by the size of the
declination angle if not adjusted for it.

c. Grid Convergence. An arc indicated by a dashed line connects the

prongs for true north and grid north. The value of the angle for the
center of the sheet is given to the nearest full minute with its
equivalent to the nearest mil. These data are shown in the form of a
grid-convergence note.

d. Conversion. There is an angular difference between the grid north

and the magnetic north. Since the location of magnetic north does not
correspond exactly with the grid-north lines on the maps, a conversion
from magnetic to grid or vice versa is needed.

(1) With Notes. Simply refer to the conversion notes that appear in
conjunction with the diagram explaining the use of the G-M angle
(Figure 6-8). One note provides instructions for converting magnetic
azimuth to grid azimuth; the other, for converting grid azimuth to
magnetic azimuth. The conversion (add or subtract) is governed by the
direction of the magnetic-north prong relative to that of the north-grid
prong.
(2) Without Notes. In some cases, there are no declination
conversion notes on the margin of the map; it is necessary to convert
from one type of declination to another. A magnetic compass gives a
magnetic azimuth; but in order to plot this line on a gridded map, the
magnetic azimuth value must be changed to grid azimuth. The
declination diagram is used for these conversions. A rule to remember
when solving such problems is this: No matter where the azimuth
line points, the angle to it is always measured clockwise from
the reference direction (base line). With this in mind, the
problem is solved by the following steps:
(a) Draw a vertical or grid-north line (prong). Always align this line
with the vertical lines on a map (Figure 6-9).
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Figure 6-9. Declination diagram with arbitrary line.

(b) From the base of the grid-north line (prong), draw an arbitrary line
(or any azimuth line) at a roughly right angle to north, regardless of the
actual value of the azimuth in degrees (Figure 6-9).

(c) Examine the declination diagram on the map and determine the
direction of the magnetic north (right-left or east-west) relative to that
of the grid-north prong. Draw a magnetic prong from the apex of the
grid-north line in the desired direction (Figure 6-9).

(d) Determine the value of the G-M angle. Draw an arc from the grid
prong to the magnetic prong and place the value of the G-M angle
(Figure 6-9).

(e) Complete the diagram by drawing an arc from each reference line
to the arbitrary line. A glance at the completed diagram shows whether
the given azimuth or the desired azimuth is greater, and thus whether
the known difference between the two must be added or subtracted.

(f) The inclusion of the true-north prong in relationship to the

conversion is of little importance.

e. Applications. Remember, there are no negative azimuths on the

azimuth circle. Since 0 degree is the same as 360 degrees, then 2
degrees is the same as 362 degrees. This is because 2 degrees and
362 degrees are located at the same point on the azimuth circle. The
grid azimuth can now be converted into a magnetic azimuth because
the grid azimuth is now larger than the G-M angle.

(1) When working with a map having an east G-M angle:

(a) To plot a magnetic azimuth on a map, first change it to a grid

azimuth (Figure 6-10).

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Figure 6-10. Converting to grid azimuth.

(b) To use a magnetic azimuth in the field with a compass, first
change the grid azimuth plotted on a map to a magnetic azimuth
(Figure 6-11).

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Figure 6-11. Converting to magnetic azimuth.

(c) Convert a grid azimuth to a magnetic azimuth when the G-M angle
is greater than a grid azimuth (Figure 6-12).
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Figure 6-12. Converting to a magnetic azimuth when the G-M

angle is greater.

(2) When working with a map having a west G-M angle:

(a) To plot a magnetic azimuth on a map, first convert it to a grid

azimuth (Figure 6-13).
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Figure 6-13. Converting to a grid azimuth on a map.

(b) To use a magnetic azimuth in the field with a compass, change the
grid azimuth plotted on a map to a magnetic azimuth (Figure 6-14).
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Figure 6-14. Converting to a magnetic azimuth on a map.

(c) Convert a magnetic azimuth when the G-M angle is greater than
the magnetic azimuth (Figure 6-15).
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Figure 6-15. Converting to a grid azimuth when the G-M angle

is greater.

(3) The G-M angle diagram should be constructed and used each time
the conversion of azimuth is required. Such procedure is important
when working with a map for the first time. It also may be convenient
to construct a G-M angle conversion table on the margin of the map.
NOTE:
When converting azimuths, exercise extreme care when adding and
subtracting the G-M angle. A simple mistake of 1° could be significant
in the field.
8-2. TYPES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

Aerial photography most commonly used by military personnel may be

divided into two major types, the vertical and the oblique. Each type
depends upon the attitude of the camera with respect to the earth's
surface when the photograph is taken.

a. Vertical. A vertical photograph is taken with the camera pointed

as straight down as possible (Figures 8-1 and 8-2). Allowable tolerance
is usually + 3° from the perpendicular (plumb) line to the camera axis.
The result is coincident with the camera axis. A vertical photograph
has the following characteristics:

(1) The lens axis is perpendicular to the surface of the earth.

(2) It covers a relatively small area.

(3) The shape of the ground area covered on a single vertical photo
closely approximates a square or rectangle.

(4) Being a view from above, it gives an unfamiliar view of the

ground.

(5) Distance and directions may approach the accuracy of maps if

taken over flat terrain.

(6) Relief is not readily apparent.

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Figure 8-1. Relationship of the vertical aerial photograph with

the ground.
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Figure 8-2. Vertical photograph.

a. Low Oblique. This is a photograph taken with the camera inclined

about 30° from the vertical (Figure 8-3, and Figure 8-4). It is used to
study an area before an attack, to substitute for a reconnaissance, to
substitute for a map, or to supplement a map. A low oblique has the
following characteristics:

(1) It covers a relatively small area.

(2) The ground area covered is a trapezoid, although the photo is

square or rectangular.
(3) The objects have a more familiar view, comparable to viewing
from the top of a high hill or tall building.

(4) No scale is applicable to the entire photograph, and distance

cannot be measured. Parallel lines on the ground are not parallel on
this photograph; therefore, direction (azimuth) cannot be measured.

(5) Relief is discernible but distorted.

(6) It does not show the horizon.

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Figure 8-3. Relationship of low oblique photograph to the

ground
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Figure 8-4. Low oblique photograph.

c. High Oblique. The high oblique is a photograph taken with the

camera inclined about 60° from the vertical (Figures 8-5 and 8-6). It
has a limited military application; it is used primarily in the making of
aeronautical charts. However, it may be the only photography
available. A high oblique has the following characteristics:

(1) It covers a very large area (not all usable).

(2) The ground area covered is a trapezoid, but the photograph is

square or rectangular.

(3) The view varies from the very familiar to unfamiliar, depending on
the height at which the photograph is taken.

(4) Distances and directions are not measured on this photograph for
the same reasons that they are not measured on the low oblique.

(5) Relief may be quite discernible but distorted as in any oblique

view. The relief is not apparent in a high altitude, high oblique.

(6) The horizon is always visible.

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Figure 8-5. Relationship of high oblique photograph to the

ground.

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Figure 8-6. High oblique photograph.

d. Trimetrogon. This is an assemblage of three photographs taken at

the same time, one vertical and two high obliques, in a direction at
right angle to the line of flight. The obliques, taken at an angle of 60°
from the vertical, sidelap the vertical photography, producing
composites from horizon to horizon (Figure 8-7).
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Figure 8-7. Relationship of cameras to ground for trimetrogon

photography (three cameras).

e. Multiple Lens Photography. These are composite photographs

taken with one camera having two or more lenses, or by two or more
cameras. The photographs are combinations of two, four, or eight
obliques around a vertical. The obliques are rectified to permit
assembly as verticals on a common plane.

f. Convergent Photography. These are done with a single twin-lens,

wide-angle camera, or with two single-lens, wide-angle cameras
coupled rigidly in the same mount so that each camera axis converges
when intentionally tilted a prescribed amount (usually 15 or 20°) from
the vertical. Again, the cameras are exposed at the same time. For
precision mapping, the optical axes of the cameras are parallel to the
line of flight, and for reconnaissance photography, the camera axes are
at high angles to the line of flight.

g. Panoramic. The development and increasing use of panoramic

photography in aerial reconnaissance has resulted from the need to
cover in greater detail more and more areas of the world.

(1) To cover the large areas involved, and to resolve the desired
ground detail, present-day reconnaissance systems must operate at
extremely high-resolution levels. Unfortunately, high-resolution levels
and wide-angular coverage are basically contradicting requirements.

(2) A panoramic camera is a scanning type of camera that sweeps the

terrain of interest from side to side across the direction of flight. This
permits the panoramic camera to record a much wider area of ground
than either frame or strip cameras. As in the case of the frame
cameras, continuous cover is obtained by properly spaced exposures
timed to give sufficient overlap between frames. Panoramic cameras
are most advantageous for applications requiring the resolution of
small ground detail from high altitudes.