MAPWORK.

By Prof. Ogoti Senior @ 2024

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION.

- A map is a representation of the whole or part of the earth surface on a flat surface
like a piece of paper, a wall, clothes e.t.c.
- Map work is the ability to read/ interpret/ analyse/ draw maps for better understanding
of relief, drainage and various human activities on maps.

Types of maps.
a) Topographical map.
- It is one which shows a selected number of physical and human features and their
distribution on the earth surface.
- It is drawn by specially trained people called cartographers.
- It is drawn from air or aerial photographs and ground surveys.
- Topographical maps are used to answer question six of geography paper one (312/1).

Characteristics of topographical maps.

 They are drawn to scale.

 They are medium scale map sizes (1:50,000).
 They have a map title and map name.
 They have marginal information.
 They represent a small area such as a village/location.
 They depict physical features (relief, drainage, vegetation) and human
activities (social and economic).
b) Atlas/ projected map.
- It is a collection of many maps bound in one volume, resembling a book showing
different physical features and human activities.

Characteristics of Atlas Maps.

 They are used to represent a large area such as a country/continent/World
in a small sheet of paper.
 They are drawn on a very small scale.
 They may represent specific or general information in an area.
c) Sketch/ outline map.
- Refers to rough drawings showing specific information which the user requires to see
e.g. A sketch map of Africa showing distribution of Major Fold Mountains.

1|P age
 Characteristics of a good sketch map.
 It is neat and clear.
 Has a title.
 It is enclosed in a frame.
 Has compass direction showing north.
 Has a key to explain symbols and signs used.
 It is roughly drawn/ not drawn to scale.

Uses of maps.
i. They show direction and location of places and phenomena on the earth surface.
ii. They show human and economic activities like settlement patterns, land-use,
communication network, mining areas, forestry and fishing.
iii. They indicate physical features like relief and drainage patterns.
iv. They show weather trends like rainfall distribution, temperature and climatic
regions.
v. They show political and administrative boundaries hence useful for land
ownership.
vi. They are useful in military strategies to pin-point the enemy’s position.
vii. They are used to find distance between places.

PART TWO: MAP READING.

Marginal information on a map.
- Refers to details bordering the area covered by the map/ Information outside the map
margins.
- They include;
 The title
 The scale
 The compass direction
 The key/ legend
 Map sheet number and series
 Date and edition
 Grid systems
 Publisher and copy right
 Conversion table
 Index to adjoining sheets

- Type of map provided –kcse 2017

 Topographical map because it shows both physical and human features
which are drawn to scale.

- Name of the map/ sheet name;

 It is found at the top middle part of the sheet written in bold letters e.g.Taita
hills, Busia, Kisumu East.

2|P age
 - Title of the map/ sheet title;
 Usually printed on top left hand side of the map extract containing scale
and country e.g. Kenya 1:50000 or East Africa 1:50000
 Type of information contained on the sheet title;
 Region where the map was developed.
 The ratio scale.

- Map sheet number/ map edition/ map series;

 They are mostly found in a small box on top right corner of the map
provided.
 Sheet number identifies the map sheet from the other sheets in the same
group e.g. 115/1- Yimbo
 Map edition shows the year when the map was published/ printed e.g.
1971
 Map series shows the group of maps to which a particular map sheet
belongs e.g. Y73 (D.O.S 423)

Series Y73(D.O.S.423)
Sheet 115/1
Edition 1971

How to identify a map.

i. Map series e.g. Y73(D.O.S 423)
ii. Map sheet e.g. 115/1
iii. Map edition e.g. 1971
iv. Map name e.g. YIMBO
Scale
- It is a ration between the map distance and the corresponding ground distance.
- Types of scales include:
 Representative Fraction scale/Ratio scale.
 Linear scale.
 Statement scale e.g. 1cm represent 0.5km
- On topographical maps, scales are expressed in two forms only that is linear
scale and Representative fraction scale.
- Types of scales used in the map –kcse 2021

 Linear scale e.g. 0 1 2 3 4 5 km


 Representative fraction (RF)/ Ratio scale e.g. 1: 50,000

3|P age
 - Conversion of scale to statement scale –kcse 2023

RF 1:50000
1km  100,000cm
??  50,000cm
50,000cm
 X 1km = 0.5km or ½ km
100, 000cm
Therefore, statement scale = 1cm represent ½ km or 0.5km
Map scale sizes.

- Map scale sizes can be grouped as follows:

 Large map scale (1:25,000-1:50,000) meant to represent a smaller

area like a village, location, etc. but more detailed.
 Medium map scale (1:50,000-1: 250,000)-Shows regions/
counties.
 A small scale map (1:250,000-1,000,000) meant to cover a larger
area such as World, Continent, etc. It is less detailed compared to
large scale maps.
- Contour interval;
 It is the difference in value between two consecutive/ adjacent contours.
 Found at the key written as V.I= 20m or V.I= 50ft

- Index to adjoining sheets;

 It is a square containing nine small squares.
 The area covered by the map is shown at the centre and the bordering regions.
 Always write the sheet number then the name e.g. an area bordering Funyula
to the south is 131/1- Ganjala
116/2 117/1 117/2
KISOKO BUMAYENGA BUMALA

116/4 117/3 117/4

NAKHASIKO FUNYULA NAMALO

130/2 131/1 131/2

BUDALANGI GANJALA NAMASALI

4|P age
 The compass direction;

Magnetic north True north

*

Grid north

Magnetic
variation Grid variation

- Magnetic variation is the angular difference between magnetic north and true north
e.g. –kcse 2019
Busia map - 2⁰ 21’
Taita hills map - 0⁰ 30’

- Magnetic declination is the rate at which the angle between the true north and
magnetic north changes with time as indicated on the map centre.

QUIZ: Magnetic declination of Taita Hills map is 0⁰ 30’ as at 1991. What is the
magnetic declination as at 1995?

Solution
Year difference = 1995 – 1991 = 4 years
1 year = 5’
4 years = 4 x 5’ = 20’
Magnetic declination as at 1995 = 0⁰ 30’ + 20’ = 0⁰ 50’

- Grid variation is the angle between grid north and true north.

- Grid reference system; -kcse 2023

 Grid lines are vertical and horizontal parallel lines whose intersections
form Grid Squares on a topographical map/ It is the intersection of
Easting and Northing forming equal Square called Grid square.
 Eastings are vertical lines whose values increase to the East.
 Northings are horizontal lines whose values increase to the North.
 Grid square reading begins from the South West corner.
 Location of a place/ a feature using Grid reference can be expressed as:
 Four figure grid reference.
 Give the easting reading first i.e. 54
 Give the northing reading last i.e. 45
 The four grid reference of point X is 5445

5|P age
 46

45

54 55

 Six grid reference.

 Give the first two Easting readings then estimate the third digit i.e.
547
 Give the first two Northing readings then estimate the third digit
i.e. 453
 The six-figure Grid Reference of point P is 547453.
 Use a ruler/a set square or graph paper to subdivide the Grid
Square into 10 equal parts for both Easting and Northing. This is to
provide accurate reading for the third values for easting and
northing.
Examples.

6|P age
 Solution.

Points Four G.R Six G.R

A 1990 195905
B 2094 202948
C 2192 218922
D 2393 236938
E 2492 244920
F 2690 268908
G 2590 252908

- Naming features found on the grid reference –kcse 2023

..
...
E13

 River
 Road E13
 Huts/ houses/ settlement

- Direction and Bearing

N

Eldoret
W E

W E

Kitale

 Direction of Kitale from Eldoret is South West.

 Direction of Eldoret from Kitale is North East.

7|P age
 - Bearing is the direction of a place given in form of an angle/ degrees e.g.
N

Eldoret
W E

W E

Kitale

S
 Bearing of Kitale from Eldoret is 090⁰ + 090⁰ + 045⁰ = 225⁰
 Bearing of Eldoret from Kitale is 045⁰

- Calculation of Distance –kcse 2021

 What is the length of the section of the railway line west of easting 00 to Kisumu
station? (Give your answer in kilometres)

6.6±0.1km

 Measure the length of the all – weather road (bound surface) B2 /1 from the
junction at grid reference 947911 to the edge of the Map, grid reference
947967.(Give your answer in kilometers) (2 marks)

7.2km± 0.1 (7.1 – 7.3) km

- Administrative boundaries –kcse 2019

 It shows the administrative units/ authorities found in the area covered by the
map.
 It is shown using different boundary symbols e.g. Country (s), province (s),
County (s), District (s)
 The learner is advised to check on the key to familiarize with the
various boundary symbols used in the area covered by the map.

8|P age
 - Calculation of area

Complete squares = 12
Incomplete squares = 22
Area = complete squares + incomplete squares
2
= 12 + 22/2
= 12 + 11 = 23.0 km2
- Longitudinal and latitudinal extent

a. Latitudinal extent.
- On topographical map, Latitudes are found on the vertical sides of the map
Sheet e.g. N or S.
- Latitudes are marked in degrees and minutes and their values increases
southward or northwards depending on the hemisphere.
- Latitudinal extent of the map begins from the lowest value to the highest
value on the vertical sides of the map.
- Direction South or North must be quoted to score.

9|P age
 b. Longitudinal extent.
- On topographical map, longitudes are found on the horizontal sides of the
map sheet.
- Longitudes are marked in degrees and minutes and their values increases
Eastward.
- Longitudinal extent of the map begins from the left end to the extreme right
end on the horizontal sides of the map.
- Direction (E) must be quoted for it to score.
Example.
0⁰ 00’

0⁰ 05’

0⁰ 10⁰ S
34⁰ 00’ 34⁰ 05’ 34⁰ 10’ E
For the above diagram;
 Longitudinal extent is 34⁰ 00’E to 34⁰ 10’E

 Latitudinal extent is 0⁰ 00’S to 0⁰ 10’S

 Longitude and latitude of south west corner of the map is
34⁰ 00’E, 0⁰ 10’S

PART THREE: MAP INTERPRETATION

Interpretation of physical features.

- Physical features on a map include Relief/ natural landforms, natural vegetation and
drainage.

1. Landforms/ Relief features.

- Relief refers to the nature/ appearance of the landscape/ surface of the earth: whether
dissected, rolling, hilly or mountainous.
- Landforms can be depicted by the use of contours, conventional signs and names of
depicted features.
- The most commonly used methods of representing relief on topographical maps
are;
I. Use of contours.
II. Spot heights.
III. Trigonometrical stations.
IV. Cliff and Rock Drawing.

10 | P a g e
 a) Dissected landform
- It is a landscape that has been deeply cut by eroding rivers/streams into the earth’s
surface.
- On topographical maps, such a landscape is shown by curved or irregular contours.
The more crooked the contours, the more rugged the earth’s surface.

b) Rolling landform/ undulating relief.

- It has gentle slope represented by spaced contours.
- It is characterized by absence of high peaks and rivers flowing in pronounced valleys.

c) Hilly or Mountainous Landform.

- It is a rugged landscape. The gradient is steep and valleys are narrow.
- On topographical maps, they are represented by circular or near circular/ concentric
contours whose values increase towards the top of the hill.

d) Valley.
- This is a low area usually cut out by a river/ stream between areas of higher ground.
- It is represented on topographical map with contours that are U/ V shaped with their
apex pointing towards the higher grounds.

11 | P a g e
 e) Spurs.
- This is a piece of raised land jutting into a valley or a projection of land from a
mountain or ridge.
Types
i) Interlocking spurs- Refers to land projecting into a river valley where the river
tends to follow a winding course around the obstacles.

ii) Truncated spurs- Occur in glaciated highlands where tips of interlocking spurs
are trimmed off by moving glaciers along V-shaped valley.

12 | P a g e
 f) Pass.
- A pass is a narrow deep gap that lies between high hills/mountain areas.
- They are shown on a map by the absence of contours between high areas but with a
transport route passing through them.

g) Saddle/col.
- A col (saddle) is a small depression on a hilly area that is located between hills on a
ridge.
- It is represented on topographical map by a gap between two hills without contours
shown on them.

h) Ridge.
- A ridge is a roughly narrow and elongated hill with steep slopes on all the sides.
- The top of the ridge may either be level or rugged with several hills forming in a
range.
- Ridges are shown on topographical maps by closely packed contours descending on
both sides.

13 | P a g e
 i) Escarpment.
- This is a relatively continuous line of steep slopes dipping to/ facing the same
direction.
- It exhibits a gentle slope on one side and a short steep slope on the other/opposite
side.
- On topographical map, an escarpment is shown by closely spaced contours on the
steep (scarp) slope but the contours become more widely spaced further down the
slope on the gentle slope.

j) Watershed/ divide/ interfluve/ water-parting.

- This is a high point which separate head-waters of two or more drainage basins. It can
be on a ridge, plateau, hill or escarpment.
- It is shown on a map by sources of rivers flowing from a high area downhill to
different directions as shown below.

k) Plateau.
- It is a high flat land bound by steep slopes.

l) Slopes.
- This is an inclination/slant/gradient of the land.
i) Steep slope.

14 | P a g e
 ii) Gentle slope.

Height of features.

- The height of features such as a hill is approximated by the value of the nearby
trigonometric station or the value of a spot height at that point. Such values
are exact height and are picked directly.
- Incase approximation is done from contours, the value of the highest contour
is picked, then any value ranging from 1-19 is added for it to score.
Hill

772

1100 1140

A B

- Height of hill A is 772m (exact height).

- The highest point of hill marked B is Between 1161m-1179m.
Description of relief on Topographical map –kcse 2018/ 2023
i. Name the relief features found in the area covered by the map e.g.
 The area covered by the map has relief features like hills, valleys, ridge
and escarpment.

ii. Give the location of each relief features e.g.

 The area has several river valleys.
 There are many hills in the area covered by the map e.g. Mgange hills/
Mragua hills.
 There are depressions occupied by the lakes Sare/ Victoria.
 There are many ridges in the northern part.
 There is rugged landscape in the western part.

15 | P a g e
 iii. Identify the main relief feature and give its location e.g.
 There are many hills in the area covered by the map.

iv. Identify types of slopes in the area covered by the map giving their location e.g.
 The eastern part of the area is generally gently sloping.
 The north western part of the map has steep slopes.

v. Give the general slope of the land e.g.

 The land slopes from West to East.
 The land rises from East to West.

vi. State the highest and lowest parts of the area covered by the map e.g.
 The highest point is 2208 metres.
 The lowest point is 620 metres. Must have accurate values to score.

2. Vegetation.
- Appropriate symbols may be used in the Key of the map to show different types of
vegetation.
- Types of natural vegetation found in the area covered by the map –kcse 2023
 Woodland, scrub, scattered trees, riverine trees, papyrus swamp vegetation,
thicket
- Description of vegetation on topographical map –kcse 2021
 Most of the forest vegetation is found in the western part.
 There are patches of forest in the eastern part of the area covered by the
map.
 Patches of woodland vegetation are found in the central and western part of
the area covered by the map.
 Scrub vegetation is mainly found in the northern part of the area covered by
the map.
 There are few scattered trees in the Northern part of the area covered by the
map.
 There are riverine trees along river sagana.
 There is papyrus swamp vegetation in the southern part of the area covered
by the map.

3. Drainage.
- These are physical/natural water features that are found on the earth’s surface/ area
covered by the map.
- Drainage features on topographical maps are mainly shown by blue colour.
- Types of rivers;
 Perennial/ permanent rivers- Are shown on a map with continuous blue
lines.
 Intermittent/ seasonal/ indefinite rivers- Are shown on a map with broken
blue lines.
 Disappearing/ vanishing rivers- Are shown on a map with blue lines which
end abruptly.

16 | P a g e
 - Drainage patterns –kcse 2020

A. Dendritic drainage pattern

- The tributaries converge on the main river at an acute angle forming a shape like that
of a tree and its branches called dendritic drainage pattern.

Main River Tributary

B. Radial drainage pattern.

- Rivers flow outward from a central point like a mountain downstream.
- This resembles the spokes of a bicycle wheel forming Radial drainage pattern.

Hill

River

C. Trellis/Rectilinear drainage pattern.

- The main river and its tributaries form a rectilinear pattern called Trellis drainage
pattern.

Main river

Tributary

D. Centripetal drainage pattern

- Many rivers flowing from different directions discharge their water into an inland
basin like a lake/ swamp/ sea forming centripetal drainage pattern.

Rivers

Lake

17 | P a g e
 E. Parallel drainage pattern.
- Rivers flow along the parallel joints/ faults.
- Rivers run parallel to each other forming parallel drainage pattern.

Rivers

F. Fault guided drainage pattern.

- The fault guides the direction of flow of the river and tributaries.
- Tributaries joins the main river at right angles forming fault-guided drainage
pattern.

Description of Drainage on topographical map –kcse 2019/ 2017

a) Name the drainage features found in the area covered by the map e.g.
 The area covered by the map has drainage features like rivers/ lakes/ swamps/
reservoirs
b) Identify the main drainage feature i.e.
 The main drainage features are rivers.
c) Put more emphasis on rivers by stating nature of the rivers/ its tributaries/ drainage
patterns/ source/ mouth/ riverine trees i.e.
 The area has many, permanent, rivers.
 The main river is River Yala.
 There are many seasonal rivers/ indefinite rivers.
 Some rivers have tributaries.
 Some rivers form dendritic drainage pattern along River Yala.
 Most rivers originate from north western part of the area covered by the map/
forest/ highlands.
 Most of the rivers are draining into Lake Victoria.
 There are disappearing/ vanishing rivers.

d) Name drainage features and their location i.e.

 There is a pond (grid 3891)
 There is a waterhole (grid 2882)
 There are man-made reservoirs/ dams along river Yala.

18 | P a g e
  There are papyrus swamps/ seasonal swamps at the central part of the area
covered by the map.
 There are lakes- Lake Sare/ Lake Victoria in the southern part of the area
covered by the map.

Characteristics of a long profile of a river –kcse 2009

- Consider the following- source/mouth/ meanders/ interlocking spurs/
swamps/ riverine trees/ drainage pattern/ nature of the river/
tributaries e.g.

 The river is permanent/ premier.

 River Y has two main tributaries, m and n.
 River m flows from north western part.
 River n flows from north eastern part.
 River Y originate from point A.
 River Y drain into B.
 River Y has meanders.
 Some parts of the long profile have a steep gradient.
 There are raids/ waterfalls along River Y.
 Rivers m and n form dendritic drainage pattern with River Y.

Description of climate on topographical map.

 Evidences likely to suggest that the area covered by the map receive low rainfall
are;-kcse 2019
 Presence of scattered trees.
 Presence of scrub vegetation.
 Presence of seasonal rivers.
 Presence of seasonal swamps.
 Presence of reservoirs.
 Presence of dams/ waterholes.
 Presence of sisal plantations.
 Presence of irrigation farming.

19 | P a g e
  Evidences like to suggest that the area covered by the map receive high rainfall
are;
 Presence of many permanent rivers.
 Presence of forest e.g. Mt. Kenya forest to the North.
 Presence of bamboo forest.
 Growing of crops like tea/ coffee evidenced by tea/ coffee factories or
plantations.
 Dairy farming

4. Description of Settlement on topographical map –kcse 2019/ 2022

 Settlement refers to dwellings/ housing units/ huts in an area.
 THERE IS NO POPULATION IN SETTLEMENT (Quote by Sir Bernard Olang).
 Nature of settlement- many, few, linear or no.
 There are no settlements on Nyando escarpment in the North East.
 There are many settlements in Kisumu town.
 There are few settlements in swamps.
 There is linear settlement along the roads.

 Pattern of settlement- clustered, dispersed, linear
 There are clustered settlements within the plantation.
 There is dispersed settlement in the North East.
 There is linear settlement along river Nzoia.

Factors influencing the distribution of settlements in the area covered by the map –
kcse 2019
a. Transport
 Along the roads/ motorable tracks/ footpaths, there is linear settlement.
 At road junctions there are clustered/ nucleated settlements.

b. Vegetation
 There are no settlements within the woodlands/ papyrus swamp.
 Most of the areas covered by scrub/ scattered trees have clustered/ nucleated
settlement.

c. Relief
 There are no settlements on hills.
 There are few settlements on steep sloping areas.
 There are many settlements on gently sloping areas.
 There are clustered/ nucleated settlements on the undulating land.

d. Drainage
 Areas that are well drained have many/ nucleated settlements.
 Areas that are poorly drained/ swampy have few/ no settlements.
 There are no settlements near most rivers.

20 | P a g e
 Economic activities carried out in the area covered by the map –kcse 2022

ECONOMIC ACTIVITY EVIDENCE

Transportation Roads/ motorable track/ railway
Trade Markets/ Trading centres/ shops
Quarrying Quarries/ murram pit
Crop farming cotton ginnery/ agricultural research
stations/ sisal factory/ plantation
Mining gold mine
Fishing fisheries department/ fishing landing
grounds
Lumbering saw mills
Tourism Aberdare national park/ lodge/ hotel
manufacturing/ processing kagwe carbacid plant/ coffee factories
Milling Flour mill
Communication post office/ telephone lines
Forestry forest/ forest station/ forest guard/ post

Economic function of a town.

 Transportation centre evidenced by roads.
 Trading centre evidenced by markets/ shops.
 Communication centre evidenced by post office.
 Tourism centre evidenced by game parks/ hotels/ camp sites.
 Agricultural collector centre evidenced by grain stores.
 Industrial centre evidenced by coffee factory/ ginnery.

Social services offered in the area covered by the map –kcse 2018/ 2012/ 2016

Social service Evidence

Health services dispensary/ health centre
Religious services church/ mosque
Educational services schools/ polytechnics
Administration services chief’s office/ DC
Rehabilitation services rehabilitation centre/ prison
Security services police post
Burial services cemetery
Recreational services sports club/ golf course
Water supply services pump house/ water tank/ water tower

Social functions of a town.

 Educational centre evidenced by presence of schools.
 Health centre evidenced by hospitals.
 Religious centre evidenced by church/ mosque.
 Administration centre evidenced by chief’s camp.
 Security centre evidenced by police post.

21 | P a g e
 TASK.
1. Citing evidence from the map, explain three factors favouring livestock
production –kcse 2011
 Presence of scrub vegetation/ scattered trees in the south suggest that there is
natural pasture for livestock.
 The presence of many rivers/ sources of water suggest that there is adequate
water for livestock.
 Availability of transport networks as shown by the roads/ motorable tracks for
movement of livestock/ livestock products.
 The many cattle dips for treatment of cattle show that there is access of
veterinary services.
 The area has high altitude above 1000m which provides cool conditions
suitable for cattle rearing.
 Dense settlement to provide market for livestock/ livestock products.
 There are large trucks of land with few settlements in south east ensuring
extensive area for grazing.
 Availability of extension services to the farmers as shown by farmers training
centre.

2. Why construction of roads in the northern part of the map is difficult –kcse 2011
 The rugged relief/ steep slope/ many hills may necessitate road cutting/ many
road bends.
 Many rivers/ river valleys may lead to construction of many bridges/ culverts.
 The high density of settlement may lead to high cost of compensation.
 The presence of Rurie swamp/ swamps may lead to detouring of roads/ tracks.

3. Citing evidence from the map, explain two factors favouring trading in the area
covered by the map –kcse 2023
 The dense settlements show that there is high demand for goods/ market.
 Presence of dense road network that provides means of transport for goods.
 Presence of many markets/ trading centres/ shops provide opportunities for
trade.
 The area is economically productive as evidenced by tea/ coffee factory/
fisheries department/ cattle dip/ murram pit.

4. Citing evidence from the map, explain four factors that may have influenced
agricultural activities in the area –kcse 2018
 Presence of road transport to provide transport facilities.
 The south eastern part receives low rainfall as evidenced by scrub vegetation
suitable for sisal growth.
 There is availability of labour due to dense settlement on the western part
around Mgange/ Mragua.
 The eastern part is sparsely settled/ widely spaced contours hence
mechanization.
 The western part receives high rainfall as evidenced by forests/ permanent
rivers which has influenced farming.
 Availability of veterinary services evidenced by cattle dip.
 Availability of advisory services to farmers evidenced by

22 | P a g e
 PART FOUR: MAPWORK DRAWINS & ASSOCIATED CALCULATIONS.

- These are sketches of sections, enlargement or reduction on a given part of a

map.
Enlargement and Reduction of Maps/Sections of Maps.
1. Enlargement of map/ section of map.
 This is increasing or magnifying of the size of a map of a given area.
 Steps;
 Identify the area to be enlarged first.
 Measure the length and width of the area to be enlarged i.e. 4cm by 3cm.
 Determine how many times the map is to be enlarged i.e. twice (2) or thrice (3).
 Get new measurements i.e.
Enlargement by 2: length= 4cm x 2 = 8cm
: width= 3cm x 2 = 6cm
 Draw a rectangle with the new measurements on the graph paper.
 On it mark and label the required features with their exact location. DON’T DRAW A
KEY.
New scale.
R.F/ ratio scale = 1:50,000
Enlargement by 2 = 1 x2= 1 or 1:25,000
50,000 25,000

2. Reduction of map/ section of map.

 This is reducing / decreasing of the size of a map of a given area.
 Steps;
 Identify the area to be reduced first.
 Measure the length and width of the area to be reduced i.e. 10cm by 18cm.
 Determine how many times the map is to be enlarged i.e. half (1/2) or third (1/3).
 Get new measurements i.e.

23 | P a g e
 Reduced by half: length= 10cm x 1/2 = 5cm
: width= 18cm x 1/2 = 9cm
 Draw a rectangle with the new measurements on the graph paper.
 On it mark and label the required features with their exact location. DON’T DRAW A
KEY.
New scale.
R.F/ ratio scale = 1:50,000
Reduced by 1/2 = 1 x 1/2 = 1 or 1:100,000
50,000 100,000

NOTE: Refer to kcse 2009/ 2013/ 2015/ 2021/ 2022 on how to draw a square/
rectangle representing a section of an area covered by the map.

Drawing sections and profiles.

- A section is a vertical cut through soil, rock or landscape or the representation of the
actual appearance of the landscape in a diagrammatic form.
- Profiles are longitudinal sections e.g. a river profile.

Importance of sections in interpretation of maps.

- They enable one to determine the type of slope, whether even, concave or convex.
- They provide a comprehensive appearance of the landscape which can be of great
assistance in construction.
- They enable us to determine intervisibility.
- They give a general impression of the physical appearance of the landscape.

Types of sections
1. Sketch Sections.
- These are sections which are not drawn to scale.
- They also represent the appearance of the landscape of a given area between two
points.
- Sketch sections are drawn by simply estimating the general trend of the landscape.

24 | P a g e
 2. Cross Sections –kcse 2020/ 2023
- A cross section is a diagrammatic representation of the variation between identified
points along a straight line.

Steps followed when drawing cross- Sections.

a.) Identify the two end points to be covered by the cross- section.
b.) Draw a light pencil line to join the two points.
c.) Then fold paper on the map by placing its straight edge along the line.
d.) Apply the strip of paper on the map by placing its straight edge along the line.
e.) While holding the paper very firmly, on it mark the two end points, then identify the
heights of these two points and mark them on the paper.
f.) Mark on the paper the contours crossed by the line. Where there is a river mark with a
depression sign, for example ‘U’ and where there is a hill mark with a special sign for
example “n”. This downwards and upward symbol will help you draw curves appropriately.
g.) Name any conspicuous features where they appear on the paper.
h.) Note the highest and lowest points crossed because these will determine your scale. Then
calculate the amplitude of relief (The difference between the highest and lowest contour).
This is important in determining the vertical scale.
i.) Then determine your vertical scale. When determining the vertical scale a suitable range is
necessary.
j.) Draw equal lines on a fresh paper, preferably a graph paper and mark it A and
B at both ends. Then draw the vertical lines at both ends. On them mark the heights
accordingly. Then remove the strip of paper from the map and place it on the line A and B on
your graph paper. Hold the paper firmly and then transfer the information from it to the
graph. Plot the heights on the graph.
Finally draw a smooth curve to connect the points in form of a line graph.
k.) Annotate or Label the cross- section. When naming, use arrows. Do not draw anything on
the section, whether it is a river show by arrows only. Note that the arrows must come from
the top and not the bottom because the elevation is viewed from the ground and not
underground.

25 | P a g e
 Vertical Exaggeration (VE).
- Vertical exaggeration is the ratio of the vertical scale to the horizontal scale.
- It is normally calculated after drawing the cross-section.
- The vertical scale is always larger than the horizontal scale and therefore it is always
exaggerated.
Given the vertical scale as 1cm represent 100m;

V.E = vertical scale

Horizontal scale

= 1cm represent 100m

1:50,000

= 1cm represent 100m

1cm represent 500m

= 1/ 100 X 500/1 = 5 times

Interpretation: This means that the vertical scale has been made unreal/exaggerated
5 times in relation to the horizontal scale to allow the features to be seen clearly.

26 | P a g e
 Gradient.
- This is the steepness of a slope between two given points expressed as a fraction or
degrees.

Gradient = Vertical rise

Horizontal equivalent
Where Vertical rise is the difference between the highest and lowest contours between
two points on a map.
Horizontal Equivalent is the distance between two points on the map.

= 20m
3.6km

= 20m
3600m

= 1 or 1:180
180

Interpretation: This means that for every 180m travelled from point X to Y, the ground
height rises by 1m.

Intervisibility.
- It is the ability to see or view two points from either sides.
- The part which is not seen is a dead ground.

Points X to Y are intervisible.

Points X to B are not intervisible.

THE END.

27 | P a g e