At SJPIICD, I Matter!

Units, Physical Quantities, Measurement, Graphical Presentation and Linear Fitting

Week 1-2
of Data and Vectors
Instruments on measurements, uncertainties and deviations in measurement, and
Lesson Title
accuracy versus precision
1. Solve measurement problems involving conversion of units, expression of
measurements in scientific notation.
2. Differentiate accuracy from precision.
3. Estimate the uncertainty of a derived quantity from the estimated values and
Learning Competency uncertainties of directly measured quantities.
4. Differentiate vector and scalar quantities.
5. Estimate intercepts and slopes—and their uncertainties—in experimental data
with linear dependence using the “eyeball method” and/or linear regression
formulae.
Time Frame 8:30 am – 10:00 am MT / 8:30 am – 9:30 W

I
LEARNING NTENT!
Terms to Ponder

This section provides meaning and definition of the terminologies

that are significant for better understanding of the terms used throughout
the simplified course pack of General Physics 1. Having you intuitively
understand words from their use in readings or in class is the best
solution to learn vocabulary. By learning and understanding these terms,
you can become more adapt at properly using the discipline specific
vocabulary and through practice acquire a better understanding of the
related concepts.

Physical quantities that are measured in base or physical

fundamental units: length, mass, time, temperature, amount of
substance, and even luminous intensity.

Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to how much ground

an object has covered during its motion. Displacement is a vector
quantity that refers to how far out of place an object an object is, it is
the object’s overall change in position.

Measurement is the determination of the size or magnitude of

something. By comparing that unknown quantity with some standard
quantity of equal nature, known as measurement unit.
 Scientific Notation is a way of writing very large or very small
numbers. A number is written in scientific notation when a number
between 1 and 10 is multiplied by a power of 10.

Metric system a system in which values can be calculated in factors of 10.

Order of magnitude refers to the size of a quantity as it relates to a power of

10.

Conversion factor a ratio expressing how many of one unit are equal to
another unit.

SI units the international system of units that scientists in most countries have
agreed to use; includes units such as meters, liters, and grams

English units system of measurement used in the United States; includes units
of measurement such as feet, gallons, and pounds
Fundamental units units that can only be expressed relative to the procedure
used to measure them

Essential Content

We define a physical quantity either by specifying how it is measured or by

stating how it is calculated from other measurements. For example, we define distance
and time by specifying methods for measuring them, whereas we define average
speed by stating that it is calculated as distance traveled divided by time of travel.

In physics, there are seven fundamental physical quantities that are measured in
physical fundamental units: length, mass, time, electric current temperature, amount
of substance, and luminous intensity.

Measurements of physical quantities are expressed in terms of units, which

are standardized values. For example, the length of a race, which is a physical
quantity, can be expressed in units of meter (for sprinters) or kilometers (for distance
runners). Without standardized units, it would be extremely difficult for scientists to
express and compare measured values in a meaningful way.

Two major systems of units

English units were historically used in nations once ruled by the British
Empire and are still widely used in the United States. Virtually every other country in
the world now uses “SI units” as the standard; the metric system is also the standard
system agreed upon by scientists and mathematics. The acronym “SI” is derived from
the French Systeme International.
Example:

https://webassign.net/

https://www.educationquizzes.com/

Using prefixes, conversions between units can be devised

For example:

1kg = 1000g On the left hand side the prefix is used. On the right hand side
the prefix is replaced with the multiplication factor.

1mg = 0.001g On the left hand side the prefix is used. On the right hand side
the prefix is replaced with the multiplication factor. To
make the conversion friendlier to use, multiply both sides
by 1000 (Why 1000? Because milli means one thousandth and one
thousand thousandths make one whole), so 1000mg = 1g.

1Mm = 1 000 000m On the left hand side the prefix is used. On the right hand side
the prefix is replaced with the multiplication factor.

1 µ m = 0.000 001m On them left hand side the prefix is used. On the right hand side
the prefix is replaced with the multiplication factor. To make the
conversion friendlier to use, multiply both sides by 1
000 000 (Why 1 000 000? Because micro means one millionth),
so 1 000 000 µ m = 1 m

More examples: SI unit to English units

 https://www.augusta.edu/scimath/biology/courses/BIOL_1107/metric-system-2017.pdf

However, the central issue in converting units in the SI system is to figure out how
many small units equal one big unit. Here is how to do it:

Take a conversion from millimeters to kilometers. Look at the power of ten

next to kilo- in the chart: 103. Now look at the power of ten next to milli- in the chart:
10-3. Divide the power of ten next to the larger unit by the power of ten next to the
smaller unit

http://kaffee.50webs.com/Science/activities/Activity.SI.Unit.Conversions.1.htm

Scientific Notation

That number is written in scientific notation. There is one digit to the left of
the decimal point -- 2 -- and it is not 0. In general, a number written in scientific
notation will be multiplied by 10 raised to an "exponent."

Ex. 2.345 × 103 2.345 × 10-3

Without going into the details of what the exponents 3 and −3 actually mean, we can
state the following. A positive exponent means to multiply by a power of 10. A
negative exponent means to divide. Therefore, if a number is written in scientific
notation, then to express it as a standard number, we can state the following rule:

“If the exponent is positive, move the decimal point right as many places as
indicated by the exponent. If the exponent is negative, move the decimal point left
as many places as indicated by the exponent (Spector, 2020).”

Example 1. Each number is written in scientific notation. What standard number is it?
a) 5.42 × 103 = 5,420. Move the decimal point three places right.
b) 5.42 × 10−3 = .00542 Move the decimal point three places left.
Example 2. Write each number in scientific notation.

a) 123.4 = 1.234 × 10²

The scientific notation on the right begins 1.234. To get back to 123.4, we have to move
the point 2 places right. We have to multiply by 10 with exponent +2.

An alternative explanation is based on the following:

A number does not change if we divide it and then multiply
the quotient by the same number, or if we multiply and then
divide by the same number.

Type of uncertainties

A systematic uncertainty occurs when all of the individual measurements of

a quantity are biased by the same amount. These uncertainties can arise from the
calibration of instruments or by experimental conditions such as slow reflexes on a
stopwatch.

Random uncertainties occur when the result of repeated measurements vary

due to truly random processes. For example, random uncertainties occur due to small
fluctuations in experimental conditions or due to variations in the stability of
measurement equipment. These uncertainties can be estimated from the distribution of
values in repeated measurements.

Just a reminder: Mistakes can be made in any experiment, either in making

the measurements or in calculating the results. However, by definition, mistakes can
also be avoided. Such blunders and major systematic errors can only be avoided by a
thoughtful and careful approach to the experiment (Carpi & Egger, 2008).
Estimating uncertainty

By eye or reason: Measurement uncertainty can often be reasonably

estimated from properties of the measurement equipment. For example, using a meter
stick (with marks every millimeter), a straight line can be easily measured to within
half a millimeter. For an irregularly-edged object, the properties of its edges may limit
the determination of its length several millimeters. Your reasoned judgment of the
uncertainty is quite acceptable.

By repeated observation: If a quantity x is measured repeatedly, then the

average or mean value of the set of measurements is generally adopted as the "result".
If the uncertainties are random, the uncertainty in the mean can be derived from the
variation in the set of observations. Shortly, we will discuss how this is done. (Oddly
enough, truly random uncertainties are the easiest to deal with.)

Useful definitions

Here we define some useful terms (with examples) and discuss how
uncertainties are reported in the lab.

Absolute uncertainty: This is the magnitude of the uncertainty assigned to a

measured physical quantity. It has the same units as the measured quantity.

Example 1. Suppose we need 330 ml of methanol to use as a solvent for a

chemical dye in an experiment. We measure the volume using a 500 ml graduated
cylinder that has markings every 25 ml. A reasonable estimate for the uncertainty in
our measurements is ½ of the smallest division. Thus we assign an absolute
uncertainty to our measurement of ∆V = ±12 ml. Hence, we state the volume of the
solvent (before mixing) as V = 330±12 ml.

Relative uncertainty: This is the ratio of the absolute uncertainty and the
value of the measured quantity. It has no units, that is, it is dimensionless. It is also
called the fractional uncertainty or, when appropriate, the percent uncertainty.

Example 2. In the example above the fractional uncertainty is

Caution: Unfortunately the terms error and uncertainty are often used interchangeably
to describe both imprecision and inaccuracy. This usage is so common that it is
impossible to avoid entirely. Whenever you encounter these terms, make sure you
understand whether they refer to accuracy or precision, or both.

Scientific measurements also incorporate variability, and scientists report this

as uncertainty in an effort to share with others the level of error that they found
acceptable in their measurements (Kunes, 2012). But uncertainty in science does not
imply doubt as it does in everyday use. Scientific uncertainty is a quantitative
measurement of variability in the data. In other words, uncertainty in science refers
to the idea that all data have a range of expected values as opposed to precise point
value. This uncertainty can be categorized in two ways: accuracy and precision.

Accuracy is a term that describes how well a measurement approximates the

theoretically correct value of that measurement, for example, how close the arrow is
to the bullseye.

Precision, by comparison, describes the degree to which individual

measurements vary around a central value. Measurements with high precision are
highly reproducible because repeated measurement will reliably give a similar results;
however, they may or may not be accurate.

Vectors versus Scalar Quantities

Vector quantities have two characteristics, a magnitude and a direction. Scalar

quantities have only a magnitude. When comparing two vector quantities of the same
type, you have to compare both the magnitude and the direction. For scalars, you only
have to compare the magnitude. When doing any mathematical operation on a vector
quantity (like adding, subtracting, multiplying ..) you have to consider both the
magnitude and the direction. This makes dealing with vector quantities a little more
complicated than scalars (Hall, 2015).

Scalar Quantities: The physical quantities which are specified with the magnitude or
size alone are scalar quantities. For example, length, speed, work, mass, density, etc.

Vector Quantities: Vector quantities refer to the physical quantities characterized by

the presenceof both magnitude as well as direction. For example, displacement force,
torque, momentum, acceleration, velocity, etc.

https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/vector-quantities-
hsn.vm1.html
Graphical Presentation and Linear Fitting of Data

Using a graph for a pictorial representation of two sets of data is called a

graphical representation of data. One entity is represented on the x-axis of the graph
while the other is represented on the y-axis.

Many times we want to fit a mathematical function to our data.

This enables us to characterize, for example, how well our data agrees
with a theoretical prediction.

https://www.physics.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/Graphing_Data.pdf

 Do you have enough points to characterize your curve shape? With

2 data points, a line can always be drawn between them. Similarly, 3
points define a parabola, 4 a cubic function, etc. For a meaningful fit,
the number of data points should exceed the minimum number of
points necessary to define the shape. In general, the more data points
you collect, the better the fit becomes.

 Does the best fit curve fall within the error bars of most or all of the
data points? The error bars are markers that visually show the
uncertainty around each data point. You should expect your best fit
line to pass through at least 70% of the error bars.

 Does the data randomly appear on both sides of the best fit curve?
The best fit curve minimizes the sum of the distances from the data
points. It may not fit the data set equally well everywhere in the data
set (consider a linear fit on sinusoidal data). If the curve is not
characterizing the data correctly, try another fit.
 Does your curve shape have a physical meaning? Always take a
moment to see if you can explain the curve shape by a physical
process in your experiment. If you can’t, it can be useful to double
check the equipment, take more data, or tinker with the experiment
until you can.

https://www.physics.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/Graphing_Data.pdf

Guidelines for Making Graphs

 Titles should tell the reader exactly what is graphed
 Remove stray lines, legends, points, and any other unintended additions by the
computer that does not add to your graph.
 Axes should be labeled clearly and include the units and scale markings
 The scales should be chosen such that the data covers most of the area of the
graph. The origin is oftentimes included, but not always.
 Include error bars when appropriate, especially when fitting curves to the data.

Line of Best Fit(Least Square Method)

A line of best fit is a straight line that is the best approximation

of the given set of data. It is used to study the nature of the relation
between two variables.
A line of best fit can be roughly determined using an eyeball
method by drawing a straight line on a scatter plot so that the number
of points above the line and below the line is about equal(and the line
passes through as many points as possible). A more accurate way of
finding the line of best fit is the least square method . Use the
following steps to find the equation of line of best fit for a set of
ordered pairs.

Step 1:Calculate the mean of the x-values and the mean of the y-values.
Step 2:Compute the sum of the squares of the x-values.
Step 3:Compute the sum of each x-value multiplied by its corresponding
y-value.
Step 4:Calculate the slope of the line using the formula:

Step 5:Compute the y-intercept of the line by using the formula:

 Step 6: Use the slope and the y -intercept to form the equation of the
line.

Plot the points on a coordinate plane (Eyeball method)

hotmath.com/hotmath_help/topics/line-of-best-fit.html

SELF-SUPPORT: You can click the URL Search Indicator below to help you further understand the lessons.

Search Indicator
Spector, L. (2020). Scientific notation: The metric system. The math page
skills in arithmetic. Retrieved from
https://themathpage.com/Arith/metric.htm

Kunes, J. (2012). Dimensionless physical quantities in science and engineering. Elsevier.

Laws, P., Sokoloff, D., & Thornton R. (2010). RealTime physics. Vanderbilt
University, Dept. of Physics & Astronomy.

Carpi, A., & Egger, A. (2008).Uncertainty, Error, and Confidence.

VisionLearning: Your insights into science.

Taylor, J. (1997). An Introduction to Error Analysis. University Science

Books: Sausalito
Scalars and Vectors. Retrieved from
https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/motion-in-a-
plane/scalars-and-vectors/

Hall, N. (2015). Scalar and vector. National aeronautics and space

administration. Retrieved from
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/vectors.html

Real World Metric System. Retrieved from

https://www.augusta.edu/scimath/biology/courses/BIOL_1107
/metric-system-2017.pdf

Keller, A. (2006). Science curriculum. Retrieved from

http://kaffee.50webs.com/Science/activities/Activity.SI.Unit.Conversion
s.1.htm

Graphical Presentation of Data. Department of physics and astronomy: Undergraduate lab.

Retrieved from https://www.physics.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/Graphing_Data.pdf

LET’S INITIATE!
Activity 1. Let us try to gauge your comprehension of the topics. Write your
answers on the space provided below after each question.

1. What are basic physical quantities?

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2. What is physical quantities and measurement?

_____________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________

3. How will you estimate the uncertainty of a derived quantity from the estimated values and
uncertainties of directly measured quantities?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________

4. Differentiate precision and accurate and give examples?

____________________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________

5. Explain and differentiate vector quantities from scalar quantities.

____________________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________

LET’S INQUIRE!
Activity 1. Let us experience a higher order thinking skills to ensure our
progress and to provide meaningful feedback on the learning process.
Direction: Answer the following questions and convert the following
units from SI units to English units and vice versa.
1. Suppose that you drive 10.0 km from your school to your home in 20.0
min. Calculate your average speed in kilometers per hour (km/h) and in
meters per second (m/s). Note: Average speed is distance traveled divided by
time of travel.
Solution:
 2. A person jogs 4.0 km in 32 minutes, then 2.0 km in 22 minutes, and
finally 1.0 km in 16 minutes. What is the jogger’s average speed in metes
per seconds? (Provide the conversion process from km to miles, and min.
to sec.)

Activity 2. Use the least square method to determine the equation of line
of best fit for the data. Then plot the line using eyeball method.

x 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90

y 1.30 2.66 3.40 4.26 5.20 6.34 7.04 8.62 9.52

Use this plane graph.

LET’S INFER!
Activity 1. We need to be able to convert metric measurements to larger or smaller metric
measurements. In addition, since we live close to the United States we need to know how to
convert units from imperial units to larger or smaller imperial units. Convert the following
measurements to the units indicated:
1. 13km = ___mile 4. 17 g = __oz
2. 10cm = ___ in 5. 3 gallon = __l
3. 45 kg = ___ lb 6. 35 in = __cm

Activity 2. State five base quantities and their SI units and write the symbol
for each of the SI unit by completing the table below:

Base Quantity SI Unit Symbol for SI Unit

Activity 3. Prefixes are commonly used to express larger or smaller

quantities. For example, instead of writing 1000m, we write 1 km where
k represents kilo or 103 or 1000. Complete the table below on some
commonly used S.I prefixes.

Prefix Symbol Multiplying factors

Mega M

Kilo 103 or 1000

centi

M 10-3 = 1/1000 or 0.001

Activity 4: Express the following numbers in scientific notation:
1. 0.00125
2. 2,000,000,000
3. 796,000
4. 872
5. 90
6. 2.7 × 103
7. 2.8 × 102
8. 0.00179
9. 0.0000763
10. 3.67×10 -3