::::::::::::::::::::::L-2::UNITS AND MEASUREMENT= 2022-23::::::::::

Chapter Page no. Dropped Topics/Chapters

Chapter 1: 1–15 1.1 What is Physics?
Physical World 1.2 Scope and Excitement of Physics
(Deleted) 1.3 Physics, Technology and Society
1.4 Fundamental Forces in Nature
1.5 Nature of Physical Laws
Chapter 2: Units 18–27 2.3 Measurement of Length
and 36–38 2.4 Measurement of Mass
Measurements 2.5 Measurement of Time
2.6 Accuracy, Precision of Instruments and
Errors in Measurement
Exercises 2.13, 2.14, 2.19–2.22, 2.24–2.33

Unit I: Physical World and Measurement 08 Periods

Chapter–2: Units and Measurements Need for measurement: Units of measurement;
systems of units; SI units, fundamental and derived units. significant figures.
Dimensions of physical quantities, dimensional analysis and its applications.

[1.1]PHYSICAL UNIT:- The standard amount of a physical quantity, taken to

measure a physical quantity of the same kind, is called a unit.
[1.2]CHARECRISTCS OF A PHYSICAL UNIT:- A physical quantity should be
(i) well define ii) convenient size, (iii)easily reproducible,(iv) indestructible,
(v) internationally acceptable and(vi) should not be effaceable by physical change like
temperature, pressure, wind etc.
[1.3]PHYSICAL QUANTITIES:-The quantities which can be measured directly or
indirectly & can be expressed in terms of the law or laws of physics are called physical
quantity.eg speed ,length, mass etc.
[1.4]MEASUREMENT:-Measurement of any physical quantity involves a number or
factor with a desired basic internationally accepted unit. or a measurement. .
(i) Numeric :- It is purely a number represents the magnitude or multiple of physical
quantity in terms of unit preferred.
(ii) Unit :- The unit in which physical quantity is measured.
Measured physical quantity(Q) is equal to the product of a numerical value(n) of
physical quantity & the size of unit (u) used. Or Q= n u or Q= n1 u1= n2 u2
Eg. 1.5m, 1.5 is numeric and m is unit.
[1.5]TYPES OF UNITS:-
units can be divided in two types fundamental or base units & derived units.
(i). Fundamental/Base Units :- The units for the fundamental or base quantities
from which units of all other physical quantities can be derived are called fundamental
units.
(ii). Derived Units :- The units of measurement of all other physical quantities which
can be expressed as combinations of fundamental units are called derived units. Eg.
unit of speed m/s is derived unit.

1
2.1 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS:- A complete set of these units, both
the base or fundamental units and derived units, is known as system of units.
In earlier time scientists of different countries were using different systems of units for
measurement.These system of units used earlier were :-
(i) FPS – Foot Pound Second
(ii) CGS – Cm Gram Second
(iii) MKS – m Kg Second
(iv) SI – International System of Units (used at present)
2.2.SYSTEME INTERNATIONALLE( SI) :- The system of units which is at present
internationally accepted for measurement is the Système-Internationale d’ Unites
(French for International System of Units),abbreviated as SI. The SI, units was
developed and recommended by General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1971
for international usage in scientific, technical, industrial and commercial work. There
are 7 fundamental (length, mass ,time, electric current, amount of substance.
thermodynamic temperature &,luminous intensity ) units and 2 supplementary
(angle& solid angle) units.

2.3. COHERENT SYSTEM OF UNITS:- A system of units based on a set of

fundamental units from which all derived units can be derived easily by simple
multiplying, dividing the fundamental unit with-out introducing any numerical factor.
Eg. M.K.S. system of unit is coherent system of units in mechanics as all other derived
unit of mechanics can be obtained from mass, length and time.

2.4. ADVANTAGES OF SI SYSTEM OF UNIT:-

(i) It is coherent system of units & covers all branches of physics.
(ii)It is metric system of units; conversion of unit will be in powers of 10.
(iii)The base units are invariant, so reproducible easily.
#2.5.Length (metre m):- The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in
vacuum during the time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second. (1983)

#2.6. Mass (kilogram kg);- The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international
prototype of the kilogram (a platinum-iridium alloy cylinder) kept a tinternational
Bureau of Weights and Measures, at Sevres, near Paris, France. (1889)

#2.7.Time (second s):-The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the

radiation or vibrations corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels
of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.(1967)

2.8.Electric current(ampere A):- The ampere is that constant current which, if

maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular
cross-section, and placed 1metre apart in vacuum, would produce force between the
conductors equal to 2×10–7newton per metre on length. (1948)

2.8.Thermo (kelvin K):- The kelvin, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
dynamic temperature of the triple point of water. (1967)
Kelvin= (0C+273)K
2
2.9. Amount (mole mol):- The mole is the amount of substance, which contains the
same number of particles as [1/12 gram molecular mass]=1gm=.001kg of carbon-12
element.. (1971)
#2.10.Luminous (candela cd):- The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given
direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×10 12 hertz
and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian. (1979)

(2.11) SUPPEMENTRY PHYSICAL QUANTITY:- Besides the seven base units in SI

system of unit, there are two more supplementary units.
(a)PLANE ANGLE: - Plane angle dθ as the ratio of length of arc ds to the radius r of
arc. The unit for plane angle is radian with the symbol rad it is dimensionless scalar
quantity.

(b)SOLID ANGLE: - Solid angle dΩ as the ratio of the intercepted area dA of the
surface (perpendicular to the radius) described about the apex O as the centre, to the
square of its radius r. The unit for solid angle is steradian with the symbol sr
It is the dimensionless scalar quantities
7.1. Significant Figures :- The number of all digits in a measurement that includes
all certain or reliable and uncertain digits in measurement. The reliable digit plus the
first uncertain digit are called significant figures.

7.2. Rules of Significant Figures :-(i) All the non-zero digits are significant. Eg.
1234 (4).
(ii) All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter where the
decimal point is. Eg. 1.0809 (5).
(iii) If the number is less than 1, the zeros on the right of decimal point but to the left
of the first non zero digit are not significant. Eg. 0.002308 (4).
(iv) The terminal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are not
significant. Eg.12300 cm (3)
(v) The trailing zeros in a number with a decimal point are significant. Eg. 3.500 (4),
0.06900 (4).
(vi) A choice of change of different units does not change the number of
significant digits in a measurement. Eg. 2.308 cm (4), 0.0208 m (4)
(vii) The best way to avoid any confusion, we can report every measurement in
scientific notation. Eg. 4.700 m = 4.700 × 102 cm = 4.700 × 103 mm
= 4.700 × 10–3 km (4).
(viii) The digit 0 put on left of a decimal for a number less than 1 is never significant.
Eg. 0.003456 (4).

3
7.3. Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures:-
(i) In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as many significant
figures as there are in the original number with the least significant figures.
Eg. if mass = 4. 237 g (4), Volume = 2.51 cm3 (3) then
m = 4 . 237g =1. 69gcm 3
Density = V 2. 51cm 3 (3).
(ii) In addition or subtraction, the final result should retain as many decimal places as
are there in the number with least decimal places.
Eg.436.32 g + 227.2 g + 0.301 g = 663.821g= 663.8g[round off up-to minimum digits
or places of after decimal in all observations]
Eg. 0.307 m – 0.304 m = 0.003 m.
7.4. Rules for Rounding off the Uncertain Digits :-
(i)If dropped digit is more than 5:-The preceding digit is raised by 1 if. Eg. 2.746
is 2.75.
(ii)If dropped digit is less than 5:-The preceding digit is remains unchanged eg.
2.743 is 2.74.
*(iii)If dropped digit is equal to 5 ;-if digit to be dropped = 5 and
(a) preceding digit is even, the insignificant digit is simply dropped with-out any
change in preceding digit, Eg.2.5785 =2.578[round off to 3 digits after decimal]
(b) If the preceding digit is odd, the preceding digit is raised by 1. Eg.2.735 is 2.74.

(iv) In any complex multi-step calculation, retain in intermediate steps, one digit
more than the required significant digits and round off to proper significant figures at
the end of calculation.
Eg(a). 2.99792458 × 108 m/s for the speed of light in vacuum, is rounded off to an
approximate value 3 × 108 m/s , which is often employed in computations
(b)The value of π =3.1415926.... is known to a large number of significant figures.
You may take the value as3.142 or 3.14 for π, with limited number of significant
figures as required in specific cases.
7.5.Rules for Determining the Uncertainty in the Results of Arithmetic
Calculations
The rules for determining the uncertainty or error in the number / measured quantity
in arithmetic operations can be understood from the following examples.

(i)Eg. Rectangular sheet measured, by using a metre scale as l= 16.2 cm and,

b= 10.1 cm
There are three significant figures in each measurement. It means that the length l
may be written as l = 16.2 ± 0.1 cm=16.2 ± cm or l = 16.2 cm ± 0.6
%.
& b = 10.1 ± 0.1 cm = 10.1 ± cm or b = 10.1 cm ± 1 %
Then, the error of the product of two (or more) experimental values, using the
combination of errors rule, will be l.b =163.62 cm2 + [0.6 + 1] %
l.b = 163.62 cm2 + 1.6% l.b = 164 cm2 + [1.6×164]/1000
2
l.b = 164 + 2.624 cm or l.b = 163.62 + 2.6 cm2
This leads us to quote the final result as l.b = 164 + 3 cm2
4
Here 3 cm2 is the uncertainty or error in the estimation of area of rectangular sheet.

(ii) Eg--However, if data are added or subtracted, the result will have the number of
places after decimal only up-to the minimum number of place in any data or value.
For example, 12.9 g – 7.06 g,= 5.84 g specified to three significant figures.
As the least number of places after decimal is one so result will have only one place of
decimal ie.5.8 g,
(iii)The relative percent error of a value depends not only on number of significant
figures in number but depend on least precise of instrument n but also on the number
itself.
For example, the accuracy in measurement of mass
1.02 g is ± 0.01 g. (1) [significant fig]
Here1.02 is accurate to ± 0.01 g (1).

The relative percent error in 1.02 g is=± = ± 1% (1)

If another measurement 9.89 g (3) ± 0.01 g.(1) is measured by same instrument of
same accuracy.

Similarly, for % error 9.89 g± 0.01 g is=± = 9.89 g±0.1011%

= 9.89 g±± 0.1 % (1) , so the relative error in 9.89 g is 0.1%
Intermediate results in a multi-step computation should be calculated to one more
(than the number of digits in the least precise measurement) significant figure in every
measurement than the number of digits in the least precise measurement.

(8.0). Dimensions of Physical Quantities:- The dimensions of a physical quantity

are the powers (or exponents) to which the base or fundamental quantities are raised
to represent that physical quantity.
The powered are raised on square brackets [ ] round a fundamental quantity.
Distance L
Velocity = = =LT −1 =M 0 L1 .T −1
Eg. Time T
∴ Velocity has 0 dimension in mass, 1 dimension is length and –1
dimension in time.

9.1. Dimensional Formulae :- The expression which shows how and which of the
base quantities represent the dimensions of a physical quantity is called the
dimensional formula of the given quantity.

9.2Dimensional Equation :- An equation by equating a physical quantity with its

dimensional formula is called the dimensional equation of the physical quantity.

(9.3). Some Dimensional Formula :- (i) Area = L2, (ii) Volume = L3, (iii) Density =
−3
ML ,
−1 −1 −2
(iv) Speed = LT (v) Momentum = MLT , (vi) Acceleration = LT , (vii) Acceleration
−2 −2 −1
due to gravity = LT ,(viii) Force = MLT , (ix) Impulse = MLT , (x) Pressure =
−1 −2 3 −2
ML T , (xi) Gravitational constant (G) = ML T ,
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 2 −2 2 −3 −2
(xii) Work = Energy = ML T , (xiii) Power = ML T ,(xiv) Surface tension = MT ,
−2 2 −2
(xv) Surface Energy = ML , (xvi) Thrust = MLT , (xvii) Force constant (K) = MT ,
−2 −1 −2
(xviii) Tension = Force = MLT , (xix) Stress = ML T , (xx) Strain = No
dimensions,
−1 −2
(xxi) Coefficient of elasticity = ML T , (xxii) Moment of inertia = ML2,
−1 −2
(xxiii) Angular velocity = T , (xxiv) Angular acceleration = T , (xxv) Wavelength =
L.

10.0. Dimensional Analysis and its Applications :-.

(10.1)The principle of homogeneity The magnitudes of physical quantities may be
added together or subtracted from one another only if they have the same
dimensions.
Thus, velocity cannot be added to force, or an electric current cannot be subtracted
from the thermodynamic temperature.
This simple principle called the principle of homogeneity of dimensions.
It is extremely useful in checking the correctness of an equation. If the dimensions of
all the terms are not same, the equation is wrong.

(10.2) CHECKING THE DIMENSIONAL COSISTENCY OF A RELATION OR

EQUATION: -When there is some doubt about the correctness of the physical equation
the consistency of dimensions are used as a preliminary test of an equation.
However, the dimensional consistency does not guarantee the correctness of
equations. Due to the presence any dimensionless quantities or functions in equation.
(i) Checking the Dimensional Consistency of Equations :- If the dimensions of all
the terms on the two sides of an equation are same, then equation is correct. Eg.
1
x=x 0 +v 0 t+ at 2
(a) 2
1
L=L+ LT −1⋅T + LT −2⋅T 2
2
1
=L+ L+ L
2
As each term on the right hand side of this equation has the same dimension in
each term, namely that of length, which is same as the dimension of left hand side of
the equation, hence this equation is a dimensionally correct equation.
If an equation fails this consistency test, it is proved wrong, but if it
passes, it does is not mean that it is right. Due to the presence any
dimensionless quantities or functions in equation it may be incorrect..
a t
y= sin
(b) T a (angle is no dimension)
−2
LT T
L= sin −1
T L or L=LT
Trigonometric function must be dimensionless therefore equation is not
correct.

6
(ii) Deducing Relation among the Physical Quantities: - For this we should know
the dependence of the physical quantity on other quantities (up to 3).
Eg. The period of oscillation of simple pendulum depends on its length l, mass of bob
m, and acceleration due to gravity g. Derive expression for its time period.
T ∝l x g y mz
x y z
T =Kl g m
y
[ M 0 L0 T 1]=K [ L ] x [ LT− 2 ] [ M ] z
z x+ y −2 y
=M L T
Equating dimensions on both sides
Z=0
1
x + y = 0, x = 2
1
y=−
–2 y = 1, 2
1 −1
2 2 0
T = Kl g m

T =K
√ l
g
The value of constant K cannot be obtained by method of dimensions.

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3.0. MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH: -We know some direct methods for the
measurement of length. For example, a metre scale is used for lengths from 10–3 m to
102m. A vernier callipers is used for lengths to an accuracy of 10–4 m. A screw gauge
and a spherometer can be used to measure lengths as less as to 10–5 m. To measure
lengths beyond these ranges, we make use of some special indirect methods.
3.1 Measurement of Large Distances:-To measure lengths beyond the above
ranges, we make use of some special indirect methods.

(3.2)PARALLAX METHOD :-When you hold a pencil (or consider an object) in front of
you against some specific point on the background a wall (or a distant object) and look
at the pencil first through your left eye A (closing the right eye) and then look at the
pencil through your right eye B (closing the left eye), you would notice that the
position of the pencil seems to change with respect to the fix point on the wall. This is
called parallax.
Large distances such as the distance of a planeor a star from the earth ismeasured
by this indirect important method, the parallax method.

(3.3) Distance of heavenly body from Earth by parallax method:- To measure

distance D of a far away planet P by parallax method, we observe planet from two
different positions A and B on earth at the same time. Angle between AP and BP is
called the parallax angle or parallactic angle (θ= θ1 + θ2). Angles θ1& θ2 & are
measured with vertical plane with the help of plumb line.As the distances b<<D so

7
 b
∵ << 1
D
∴ AB can be taken as arc of circle with centre P and radius D.

Arc b b
Angle= θ= D=
Radius or D (θ must be in radian) θ
(3.4) Size or Angular Diameter of Planet :- Angular size α of planet is measured
from same location on earth. It is angle between two directions when two diametrically
opposite points of the planet are viewed through telescope.
d
α=
D or d=αD
(3.5 )TO MEASURE THE LARGE DISTANCE ON EARTH:-A man wishes to estimate
the distance(AC) of a nearby tower(C) from him (at A). He stands at a point A in front
of the towerC and spots a very distant object O in linewith AC. He then walks
perpendicular O and C again. Since O is very distant,the direction BO is practically the
same as AO; but he finds the line of sight of C shiftedfrom the original line of sight by
an angle θ (θ is known as ‘parallax angle’ and can be measured easily by sextant)
estimatethe distance AC of the tower C from his o toAC up to another point B, such
that distance of AB=a (a can be measured by meter scale) looks at riginalposition A by
using trigonometry AC=.AB cot θ. Or AC=a cot θ.

Fig. 2.3
3.6. TRIGONOMETRIC METHOD FOR HEIGHT OF A APPROACHABLE OBJECT:-
3.7. TRIGONOMETRIC METHOD FOR HEIGHT OF AN NON APPROACHABLE
OBJECT:-

#3.8 COPERNICUS METHODT TO FIND OUT THE DISTANCE FOR INFERIOR

PLANET:-It was considered by Copernicus that the orbits of planets are circular. The
angle formed between the
segments formed between earth–planet (rpe)& earth-sun(rse) is called theangle of
planets elongation angle (θ).

8
 When the sun, the inferiorplanet & earth are in a line thenelongation angle
increases from zero to a maximum value when the segments joining the sun to planet
(rps)&(rpe) form right angle. Then sinθ= rps / rse or rps = rse sinθ or rps =
AU sinθ
θ can be measured and substituting the both values in above relation distance
between the inferior planet and sun can be calculated.

*3.9 FIND OUT THE DISTANCE FOR SUPERIOR PLANET BY KEPLER’S THIRD
LAW:- According to the third law of planetary motion the square of the time period(T)
of revolution around the sunis directly proportional to the cube of distance between sun
& planet Or the semi-major axis(a) of the elliptical orbit. T2 α a3
If T1& T2 are the period of revolution of two planets &a1& a2 are their respective

[ ]
2

T2 3

a
3
a2 =a 1
T
2

T1
2
2

semi major axis of two planets .Then a

3

=T
2

1 or 1

Knowing the values of T1, T2 &a1we can find out a2.

v .t d
S= α=
*3.10.THE ECHO OR REFLECTION METHOD:- 2 D
(i)LASER (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) METHOD
(ii) RADAR METHOD:-
(iii) SONAR METHOD:-

3.11.Estimation of Very Small Distances:

(i) Size of a Molecule can-not be measured by screw gauge:-To measure a very
small size like that of a molecule (10–8 m to 10–10 m), we have to adoptspecial
methods. We cannot use a screw gaugeL.C.10-3 mor similar instruments..

(ii) Size of a Molecule can-not be measured by optical microscope:-An optical

microscope usesvisible light to ‘look’ at the system underinvestigation. As light has
wave like features,the resolution to which an optical microscopecan be used is the
multiples of wavelength of light. Hence an optical microscope cannot resolve particles
with sizes
smaller than 1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10-10 m. this.

(iii) Size of a Molecule can-not be measured by electron microscope:-Electron

beams can be
focussed by properly designed electric and magnetic fields. The moving object or
electron behaves like a wave, & the wave length of moving electron is λ= h / mv
So the resolution or L.C. of such an electron microscope is limited to wave length
0.6 angstrom.
They can almost resolve atoms and molecules in a material which can help only to view
distinctly.

9
In recent times, tunneling microscopy has been developed in which again the limit
of resolution is better than an angstrom. It is possible to estimate the sizesof
molecules.

(iv) Estimation of Very Small Distances or the Size of a oleic Acid Molecule) :-
Oleic acid is a soapy liquid with large molecular size of order of 10 –9 m. it can form
mono-molecular layer of oleic acid on water surface dissolve.
(a)1 cm3 of oleic acid in alcohol to make solution of 20 cm 3.
(b)Take1 cm3 of this solution it again and dilute it to 20 cm 3 using alcohol.

( 1
)
So the concentration of oleic acid in oleic acid&alcohol solution = 20×20 cm oleic
(c) ∴ 3

acid per cm3

(d)Take water in a large trough and lightly sprinkle some lycopodium powder on its
surface.
(e)Let the n drops of this solution form a(roughly) circular film of oleic acid and alcohol
on powder spread on water.
(f)Alcohol from solution of oleic acid vaporise & a molecular thickness circularon water
surface.
let the volume of 1 drop of solution = V cm3
thickness of film = t cm
& Measure diameter of thin film and calculate its area = A cm2
Let n drops forms film.
Volume of n drops = nV cm.

Amount of oleic acid in thin solution =

nV (20×20
1
) cm3

Vol. of thin film of oleic acid = vol. of oleic acid in n drops of oleic acid

A.t =
nV (20×20
1
)
Volume of film
t = Area of film
nV
t=
20×20× A cm 10–9m¿
If film is assumed the have mono-molecular thickness then t is size as
diameter of one molecule of oleic.
(3.12)#ATOMIC RADIUS BY AVOGADRO’S HYPOTHESIS:-According to the
avogadro's hypothesis, the actual volume occupied by atoms of one gram molecular of
a substance is two-third the volume occupied by one gram molecular of a substance.
If M is the molecular mass of an element,
Then atoms contained by M gm of element will be = N(Avogadro’s number)
N
=
Then atoms contained by 1 gm of element will be M
N 4 3
= . πr
If r be the radius of each atom then actual volume of atoms in 1 gm M 3

10
If volume occupied by 1 gm of element is V then by Avogadro’s hypothesis.
N 4 3 2 mass 1 1
. πr = V ρ= . or ρ= orV =
M 3 3 ……(i) if ρ the density of substance then volume V ρ …(ii)

[ ]
2
M
N 4 3 21 r= 3
Using (i)and (ii) M
. πr =
3 3ρ or
2 πNρ
*3.13. Range of Lengths:-The sizes of the objects across in theuniverse vary over a
very wide range. These mayvary from the size of the order of 10–14 m of thetiny
nucleus of an atom to the
size of universe of the orderof 1026 m.The ratio of the longest and shortest lengths of
objects in our
universe is about 1041.
1 fermi = 1 f = 10–15 m
1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10–10 m
1 astronomical unit = 1 AU (average distance of the Sun from the Earth)= 1.496 ×
1011 m
1 light year = 1 ly= 9.46 × 1015m (distance that light travels with velocity of3 × 108 m
s–1 in 1 year)
1 parsec = 3.08 × 1016m (Parsec is the distance at which average radius of earth’s
orbitsubtends . an angle of 1 arc second)
1 barn=10-28m
1 acre=4047 m2
1tonne or 1 metric ton= 1000 kg
1quintal=100 kg
1slug 14.57 kg
1Chandra Shekher limit =1.4 times the mass of the sun (largest practical unit of mass)

4.0.MEASUREMENT OF MASS:-

4.1.MASS:-Mass is a basic property of matter. It does notdepend on the

temperature, pressure or locationof the object in space. The SI unit of mass iskilogram
(kg).
The prototypes of the Internationalstandard kilogram supplied by the International
Bureau of
Weights and Measures (BIPM) areavailable in many other laboratories of different
countries. In
India, this is available at theNational Physical Laboratory (NPL), New Delhi.
amu (atomic mass unit) (u)1u = 1.66 × 10–27 kg

4.2.Unified atomic mass unit (u):-While dealing with atoms and molecules, there is
an important standard unit of mass,called the unified atomic mass unit.
1 unified atomic mass unit = 1u= (1/12) of the mass of an atom of carbon-12ncluding
the mass of electrons= 1.66 × 10–27 kg
spectrograph in which radius of the trajectory
is proportional to the mass of a charged particle
11
moving in uniform electric and magnetic field.
4.3.MEASUREMENT OF MASS:-
(i)Measuring 0f gravitational mass of Common objects – by common balance
far objects (planets) – by gravitational method
Small objects (atoms etc) – mass spectrograph ( radius of trajectory is proportional to
mass of charged particle moving in uniform electric and magnetic fields)
(ii) Inertial mass of body m2 of a body is determined by inertial balance. It consists a
long horizontal metal strip whose one end is clamped fixed and other end a pan. It can
vibrate in horizontal plane. If the pan is allowed to vibrate in horizontal plane on
placing a (standard) mass m1 then th time period T1 of vibration is directly proportional
to the square root of the inertial mass placed on pan. So or or
m2=
By taking mass as standard, then we can find out m2 by measuring their time
periods.

4.4. Range of Masses :-The masses of the objects, in the universe, varies over a
wide range. These may vary from tiny mass of the order of 10 -30 kg of an electron to
the huge mass of about 1054 kg of the known universe.
The ratio of the largest and smallest masses of the objects in our universe is about
(1041)2.

5.0. MEASUREMENT OF TIME

5.1. TIME:-By Einstein, “time is simply which a clock reads”. Principle of a clock is
any periodic phenomenon.

5.1.Cesium clock, or atomic clock:-Now we use an atomic standard of time, whichis

based on the periodic vibrations produced ina cesium-133clock, or atomic clock, used
inthe national standards.
The vibrations of thecesium-133 atom in cesium atomic clock, the vibrations of a
balance
wheel in an ordinary wristwatch & thevibrations of a small quartz crystal in aquartz
wristwatch, plays the same role or are their principle.
5.2. ADVANTAGES OF Cs-133 CLOCK OVER THER CLOCKS:-
(i) It’s accuracy is one part in 1013 parts.
(ii)It’s time period does not affected by any physical conditions like temperature,
pressure etc.
(iii)this clock can be easily produced in any good laboratories.

5.3.Indian standard of time (IST):-The cesium atomic clocks are very accurate, so
the national standard of time interval ‘second’ is maintained through four cesium
atomic clocks in four laboratories in India. A cesium atomic clock is at the National
Physical laboratory (NPL) New Delhi.

12
5.4.National Physical laboratory (NPL);-In our country, the NPL at New Delhi has
the responsibility of maintenance and improvement of all physical standards, including
that of time, mass , length, frequency, etc.

5.5. Range of Times :- Shortest time is 10–24 sec – Life span of most unstable
particle, and the longest time is 1017sec. – Age of universe.
The ratio of the longest to the shortest time intervals in our universe is also about
1041. It is equal to the ratio of longest to the shortest lengths.

6.0 ACCURACY, PRECISION OF INSTRUMENTSAND ERRORS IN

MEASUREMENT:- . . .. Measurement is the foundation of all experimental
science and technology measuring instrument contains some uncertainty in last digit.
This uncertainty is called error.
6.1. ERROR:-. The result of every measurement by any
So every calculated quantity which is based on measured values,also has an error.

6.2.ACCURACY:-The accuracy of a measurement is equal to the reciprocal of the

magnitude of difference between the measured & true value of the quantity. Or the
closeness of a measurement to the true value of the physicl quantity is called accuracy.

6.3.PRECISION:-Precision of an instrument tells us to what resolution or limit the

quantity is measured by measuring instrument. It increases on decreasing the least
count of the instrument. For eg.- if 3.678 cm is true value and instrument A gives
value 3.5 cm (resolution 0.1 cm) and B gives 3.38 cm (resolution 0.01 cm). Then first
measurement has more accuracy but less precision and second has more precision but
less accuracy.
So the accuracy in measurement may depend on several factors, including the limit
or L.C. or the resolutionof the measuring instrument.

6.4. Errors :-If the measured observation does not match with actual or true value of
the physical quantity, then the difference b/w two observed and actual values is called
error.
In general, the errors in measurement can bebroadly classified as (a) systematic
errors and (b) random errors

(6.5)Systematic errors:-The systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in

one direction, either positive ornegative.
Systematic errors can be minimized by improving experimental techniques,
selecting better
instruments and removing personal biasas far as possible.
For a given set-up, these errors may be estimated to a certain extent and the
necessary corrections may be applied to thereadings.Some of the sources of
systematicerrors are :

(i)Instrumental errors:-The errorsarise due to imperfect design or calibration of

the measuring instrument, or zero error in the instrument, etc.
13
 For example, thetemperature graduations of a thermometer may be inadequately
calibrated (it may read104 °C at the boiling point of water at STP whereas it should
read 100 °C).
In a vernier-callipers the zero mark of vernier scale may not coincide with the
zero mark of the mainscale, or simply an ordinary metre scale may be worn off at one
end.
(ii)Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure:-These are caused by
adopting imperfect procedure for experiment by performer the experiment.
Eg.To determine the temperatureof a human body, a thermometer placed under
the armpit will
always give atemperature lower than the actual value ofthe body temperature.
Observations may be affected by other external conditions such as changes in
temperature,
humidity, wind velocity, etc.
(iii) Personal errors:- It arise due to an individual’s bias, like lack of proper setting
ofthe apparatus or individual’s carelessnessin taking observations without
observingproper precautions, etc.
For example, if you,by habit, always hold your head a bit too farto the right while
reading the position of aneedle on the scale, you will introduce anerror due to
parallax.

6.6.Random errors:-The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly
and hence are random with respect to sign and size.
These can arise due to randomand unpredictable fluctuations in experimental
conditions (e.g. fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply, mechanical vibrations of
experimental set-up. . . Unbiased personal errors by the observer taking
readings . For example, when the same
person repeats the same observation, he may get different readings every time.

(6.7)Least count error:-The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring
instrument is called its least count. All the readings or measured values are good only
up to this value.
The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.
For example, a vernier callipers has the least count as 0.01 cm; a spherometer & screw
gauge may have aleast count of 0.001 cm. Least count error belongs to the category
of random errors but
with-in a limited size; it occurs with both systematic and random errors.
We canreduce the least count error. Repeating theobservations several times and
taking the
arithmetic mean of all the observations, the mean value would be very close to the
true valueof the measured quantity.

(6.8)Absolute Error, Relative Error andPercentage Error

(a)ARITHMETIC MEAN OF OBSERVATIONS:- Suppose the values obtained in
several measurements are a1, a2, a3...., an. The arithmetic mean of these values is

14
taken as the best possible value of the quantity under the given conditions of
a1 +a 2 + ¿ + an
am =
measurement as. It reduces the random error also. : n
(b) Absolute Errors (|Δa|) :- The magnitude of the difference between the true value
of the observations and the individual measurement value is called absolute of the
measurement.
Let measured values are a1, a2, _ _ _ _ an then

Absolute errors in measured values are

|Δa 1| , |Δa2| _ _ _ _ |Δan| . Where Δa 1=am−a1
, Δa 2=am−a3 ……………… Δa n =am−an

(c)Mean Absolute Error ( m ) :-The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errorsis
Δa
taken as the final or mean absolute errorof the value of the physical quantity a. It
isrepresented by Δm.

|Δa 1|+|Δa2|+¿ +|Δan|

Δa m=
n

The final result of measurement is

a=am± Δm
So measured value of physical quantity is likely to lie between ( a m+ Δa m) and ( a m−Δa m )

(d)Relativeor Fractional error :- The relative error is the ratio of themean absolute
Δam
error Δamto the meanvalue amof the quantity measured. ∴ Relative Error = m a
(e) Percentage Error :- The representation of relative or fractional error into
Δam
×100
percentage is called Percentage Error(δa) = am

6.9. Combination of Errors :-

(i)Error of a Sum :- Measured values of physical quantities and B are
A± ΔA and B±ΔB then
Z=A+B
Z ±ΔZ=( A± ΔA )+( B±ΔB )
Z ±ΔZ=( A +B)+(± ΔA±ΔB )
∴ ΔZ= ΔA+ ΔB is maximum error.
(ii) Error of Difference :- Z =A−B
Z ±ΔZ=( A± ΔA )−(B±ΔB )
Z ±ΔZ=( A−B )±ΔA ±ΔB
±ΔZ =±ΔA± ΔB Hence when two quantities are added or subtracted, the
absolute error in thefinal result is the sum of the absolute errorsin the individual
quantities.
15
(iii) Error of Product :-Z = AB
Z ±ΔZ=( A± ΔA )( B± ΔB )
Z ±ΔZ= AB±BΔA± AΔB± ΔAΔB
Divide LHS by Z and RHS by AB
ΔZ ΔA ΔB
1± =1± ±
Z A B
ΔZ ΔA ΔB
= ±
Z A B is maximum error.
A
Z=
(iv) Error of Quotient :- B
A±ΔA
Z ±ΔZ=
B±ΔB

Z ±ΔZ=
A 1± (
ΔA
A )
B 1± (
ΔB
B )
( )( )
−1
A ΔA ΔB
= 1± 1±
B A B

(
Z 1±
ΔZ
Z ) (
=Z 1±
ΔA
A
1±
ΔB
B )( )
ΔZ ΔA ΔB ΔAΔB
1± =1± ± ±
Z A B AB
ΔZ ΔA ΔB
= ±
Z A B is maximum error. Hence the rule : When two
quantities are
multiplied or divided, the relative error in the result is the sum of the relative errors in
themultipliers.
(v) Error due to Power of Quantity :-Z = A2 = AA
ΔZ ΔA ΔA 2 ΔA
= + =
Z A A A
A m Bn
∴ Z= p
C
ΔZ mΔA nΔB pΔC
= ± ±
Z A B C

-----------------------------------------------

16
 ASSIGNMENT 2.1
2.1 Calculate the angle of(a) 10 (degree)
(b) 1′ (minute of arc or arcmin)and (c) 1″ (second of arc or arc second) in radians.
Use 3600=2π rad, 10=60′ and1′ = 60 ″
2.2 A man wishes to estimate the distance of a nearby tower from him.He stands at a
point A in front of the tower C and spots a very distant object O in linewith AC. He then
walks perpendicular toAC up to B, a distance of 100 m, and looksat O and C again.
Since O is very
distant,the direction BO is practically the same asAO; but he finds the line of sight of C
shifted
from the original line of sight by an angle θ= 400 (θ is known as ‘parallax’) estimatethe
distance of the tower C from his originalposition A,as shown in fig. below.

17
.
2.3 The moon is observed from two diametrically opposite points A and Bon Earth. The
angle θ subtended at the moon by the two directions of observationis 1o 54′ .Given the
diameter of the Earth tobe about 1.276 × 107 m, compute thedistance of the moon
from the Earth.

2.4 The Sun’s angular diameter is measured to be 1920′ ′. The distance D ofthe Sun
from the Earth is 1.496 × 1011 m.What is the diameter of the Sun?

2.5 If the size of a nucleus (in the range of 10–15 to 10–14m) is scaled upto the tip of a
sharp pin, what roughly isthe size of an atom ? Assume tip of the pinto be in the range
10–5m to 10–4m.

2.6 Two clocks are being tested against a standard clock located in anational
laboratory. At 12:00:00 noon bythe standard clock, the readings of the twoclocks are :
Clock 1 Clock 2
Monday 12:00:05 10:15:06
Tuesday 12:01:15 10:14:59
Wednesday 11:59:08 10:15:18
Thursday 12:01:50 10:15:07
Friday 11:59:15 10:14:53
Saturday 12:01:30 10:15:24
Sunday 12:01:19 10:15:11
If you are doing an experiment that requires precision time interval measurements,
which
of the two clocks will you prefer ?

2.7 We measure the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum. In successive

measurements, the readingsturn out to be 2.63 s, 2.56 s, 2.42 s, 2.71sand 2.80 s.
Calculate the absolute errors,relative error or percentage error.
2.8 The temperatures of twobodies measured by a thermometer aret1 = 20 0C ± 0.5
0C and t2 = 50 0C ± 0.5 0C.
Calculate the temperature difference and the error theirin.

2.9 The resistance R = V/I where

18
V = (100 ± 5)V and I = (10 ± 0.2)A. Find the
percentage error in R.

2.10 Two resistors of resistancesR1 = 100 ±3 ohm and R2 = 200 ± 4 ohm

areconnected (a) in series, (b) in parallel. Findthe equivalent resistance of the (a)
seriescombination, (b) parallel combination. Usefor (a) the relation R =R1 + R2, and
for (b) ,

2.11 Find the relative error inZ, if Z = .

2.12 The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is T = 2π .Measured value of
L is 20.0 cm known to 1mm accuracy and time for 100 oscillationsof the pendulum is
found to be 90 s usinga wrist watch of 1 s resolution. What is theaccuracy in the
determination of g ?
2.13 Each side of a cube is measured to be 7.203 m. What are thetotal surface area
and the volume of thecube to appropriate significant figures?

2.14 5.74 g of a substance occupies 1.2 cm3. Express its density by keeping the
significant figures in view

2.15 Let us consider an equation = mgh

where m is the mass of the body, v its velocity, g is the acceleration due to gravity and
h is the height. Check whether this equation is dimensionally correct.

ASSIGNMENT 2.2
2.1 Fill in the blanks
(a) The volume of a cube of side 1 cm is equal to .....m 3
(b) The surface area of a solid cylinder of radius 2.0 cm and height 10.0 cm is equal
to ...(mm)2
19
(c) A vehicle moving with a speed of 18 km h–1 covers....m in 1 s
(d) The relative density of lead is 11.3. Its density is ....g cm –3 or ....kg m–3.
2.2 Fill in the blanks by suitable conversion of units
(a) 1 kg m2 s–2 = ....g cm2 s–2
(b) 1 m = ..... ly
(c) 3.0 m s–2 = .... km h–2
(d) G = 6.67 × 10–11 N m2 (kg)–2 = .... (cm)3 s–2 g–1.
2.3 A calorie is a unit of heat or energy and it equals about 4.2 J where 1J = 1 kg m 2
s–2. Suppose we employ a system of units in which the unit of mass equals α kg, the
unit of length equals β m, the unit of time is γ s. Show that a calorie has a magnitude
4.2 α–1 β –2 γ 2 in terms of the new units.
2.4 Explain this statement clearly : “To call a dimensional quantity ‘large’ or ‘small’ is
meaningless without specifying astandard for comparison”. In view of this, reframe the
following statements
necessary :
(a) atoms are very small objects
(b) a jet plane moves with great speed
(c) the mass of Jupiter is very large
(d) the air inside this room contains a large number of molecules
(e) a proton is much more massive than an electron
(f) the speed of sound is much smaller than the speed of light.
2.5 A new unit of length is chosen such that the speed of light in vacuum is unity.
What
is the distance between the Sun and the Earth in terms of the new unit if light takes
8 min and 20 s to cover this distance ?
2.6 Which of the following is the most precise device for measuring length :
(a) a vernier callipers with 20 divisions on the sliding scale
(b) a screw gauge of pitch 1 mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale
(c) an optical instrument that can measure length to within a wavelength of light ?
2.7 A student measures the thickness of a human hair by looking at it through a
microscope of magnification 100. He makes 20 observations and finds that the average
width of the hair in the field of view of the microscope is 3.5 mm. What is the
estimate on the thickness of hair ?
2.8 Answer the following :
(a)You are given a thread and a metre scale. How will you estimate the diameter of
the thread ?
(b)A screw gauge has a pitch of 1.0 mm and 200 divisions on the circular scale. Do
you think it is possible to increase the accuracy of the screw gauge arbitrarily by
increasing the number of divisions on the circular scale ?
(c) The mean diameter of a thin brass rod is to be measured by vernier callipers. Why
is a set of 100 measurements of the diameter expected to yield a more reliable
estimate than a set of 5 measurements only ?
2.9 The photograph of a house occupies an area of 1.75 cm2 on a 35 mm slide. The
slide
is projected on to a screen, and the area of the house on the screen is 1.55 m2. What
is the linear magnification of the projector-screen arrangement.
20
2.10 State the number of significant figures in the following :
(a) 0.007 m2 (b) 2.64 × 1024 kg (c)
0.2370 g cm–3
(d) 6.320 J (e) 6.032 N m–2 (f)
0.0006032 m2

2.11 The length, breadth and thickness of a rectangular sheet of metal are 4.234 m,
1.005 m,
and 2.01 cm respectively. Give the area and volume of the sheet to correct significant
figures.

2.12 The mass of a box measured by a grocer’s balance is 2.300 kg. Two gold pieces
of
masses 20.15 g and 20.17 g are added to the box. What is (a) the total mass of the
box, (b) the difference in the masses of the pieces to correct significant figures ?

2.13 A physical quantity P is related to four observables a, b, c and d as follows :

P = a3b2/ ( c d ) The percentage errors of measurement in a, b, c and d are 1%,
3%, 4% and 2%,
respectively. What is the percentage error in the quantity P ? If the value of P
calculated using the above relation turns out to be 3.763, to what value should you
round off the result ?

2.14 A book with many printing errors contains four different formulas for the
displacement
y of a particle undergoing a certain periodic motion :
(a) y = a sin 2π t/T (b) y = a sin vt
(c) y = (a/T) sin t/a (d) y = (a 2) (sin 2πt / T + cos 2πt /
T)
(a = maximum displacement of the particle, v = speed of the particle. T = time-period
of motion). Rule out the wrong formulas on dimensional grounds.

2.15 A famous relation in physics relates ‘moving mass’ m to the ‘rest mass’ mo of a
particle in terms of its speed v and the speed of light, c. (This relation first arose asa
consequence of special relativity due to Albert Einstein). A boy recalls the relation
almost correctly but forgets where to put the constant c. He writes : m= .
Guess where to put the missing c.

2.16 The unit of length convenient on the atomic scale is known as an angstrom and is
denoted by Å: 1 Å = 10–10 m. The size of a hydrogen atom is about 0.5 Å. What is the
total atomic volume in m3 of a mole of hydrogen atoms ?

2.17 One mole of an ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure occupies 22.4 L
(molar

21
volume). What is the ratio of molar volume to the atomic volume of a mole of
hydrogen ? (Take the size of hydrogen molecule to be about 1 Å). Why is this ratio so
large ?

2.18 Explain this common observation clearly : If you look out of the window of a fast
moving train,
the nearby trees, houses etc. seem to move rapidly in a direction opposite to the
train’s motion, but the distant objects (hill tops, the Moon, the stars etc.) seem to be
stationary. (In fact, since you are aware that you are moving, these distant objects
seem to move with you).

2.19 The principle of ‘parallax’ in section is used in the determination of distances of

very distant stars. The baseline AB is the line joining the Earth’s two locations six months apart in its
orbit around the Sun. That is, the baseline is about the diameter of the Earth’s orbit ≈ 3 × 1011m.
However, even the nearest stars are so distant that with such a long baseline, they
show parallax only of the order of 1” (second) of arcor so. A parsec is a convenient unit
of length on the
astronomical scale. It is the distance of an object that will show a parallax of 1”
(second) of arc from opposite ends of a baseline equal to the distance from the Earth
to the Sun. How much is a parsec in terms of metres ?

2.20 The nearest star to our solar system is 4.29 light years away. How much is this
distance in
terms of parsecs? How much parallax would this star (named Alpha Centauri) show
when viewed from two locations of the Earth six months apart in its orbit around the
Sun ?

2.21 Precise measurements of physical quantities are a need of science. For example,
to ascertain the speed of an aircraft, one must have an accurate method to find its
positions at closely separated instants of time. This was the actual motivation behind
the discovery of radar in World War II. Think of different examples in modern
sciencewhere precise measurements of length, time, mass etc. are needed. Also,
wherever you can, give a quantitative idea of the precision needed.

2.22 Just as precise measurements are necessary in science, it is equally important to

be able to make rough estimates of quantities using rudimentary ideas and common
observations. Think of ways by which you can estimate the following (where an
estimate is difficult to obtain, try to get an upper bound on the quantity) :
(a) the total mass of rain-bearing clouds over India during the Monsoon
(b) the mass of an elephant
(c) the wind speed during a storm
(d) the number of strands of hair on your head
(e) the number of air molecules in your classroom.

2.23 The Sun is a hot plasma (ionized matter) with its inner core at a temperature
exceeding 107 K, and its outer surface at a temperature of about 6000 K. At these high
22
temperatures, no substance remains in a solid or liquid phase. In what range do you
expect the mass density of the Sun to be, in the range of densities of solids and liquids
or gases ? Check if your guess is correct from the following data : mass of the
Sun = 2.0 × 1030 kg, radius of the Sun = 7.0 × 108 m.

2.24 When the planet Jupiter is at a distance of 824.7 million kilometers from the
Earth,
its angular diameter is measured to be 35.72” of arc. Calculate the diameter of
Jupiter.

ASSIGNMENT 2.3
2.25 A man walking briskly in rain with speed v must slant his umbrella forward
making an angle θ with the vertical. A student derives the following relation between θ
and v : tan θ = v and checks that the relation has a correct limit: as v → 0, θ →0, as
expected. (We are assuming there is no strong wind and that the rain falls vertically for
a stationary man). Do you think this relation can be correct ? If not, guess the correct
relation.

2.26 It is claimed that two cesium clocks, if allowed to run for 100 years, free from
any
disturbance, may differ by only about 0.02 s. What does this imply for the accuracy
of the standard cesium clock in measuring a time-interval of 1 s ?

2.27 Estimate the average mass density of a sodium atom assuming its size to be
about
2.5 Å. (Use the known values of Avogadro’s number and the atomic mass of sodium).
23
Compare it with the density of sodium in its crystalline phase : 970 kg m –3. Are the
two densities of the same order of magnitude ? If so, why ?

2.28 The unit of length convenient on the nuclear scale is a fermi : 1 f = 10 –15 m.
Nuclear sizes obey roughly the following empirical relation :r = r0 A1/3 where r is the
radius of the nucleus, A its mass number, and ro is a constant equal toabout, 1.2 f.
Show that the rule implies that nuclear mass
density is nearly constant for different nuclei. Estimate the mass density of sodium
nucleus. Compare it withthe average mass density of a sodium atom obtained in
Exercise. 2.27.above.
2.29 A LASER is a source of very intense, monochromatic, and unidirectional beam of
light. These properties of a laser light can be exploited to measure long distances. The
distance of the Moon
from the Earth has been already determined very precisely using a laser as a source of
light. A laser light beamed at the Moon takes 2.56 s to return after reflection at the
Moon’s surface. How much is the radius of the lunar orbit around the Earth ?

2.30 A SONAR (sound navigation and ranging) uses ultrasonic waves to detect and
locate objects under water. In a submarine equipped with a SONAR the time delay
between generation of a probe wave and the reception of its echo after reflection from
an enemy submarine is found to be 77.0 s. What is the distance of the enemy
submarine? (Speed of sound in water = 1450 m s–1).

2.31 The farthest objects in our Universe discovered by modern astronomers are so
distant that light emitted by them(quasars takes billions of years to reach the
Earth. These objects have many puzzling features, which have not yet been
satisfactorily explained. What is the distance in km of a quasar from which light takes
3.0 billion years to reach us ?

2.32 It is a well known fact that during a total solar eclipse the disk of the moon
almost completely covers the disk of the Sun. From this fact and from the information
you can gather from examples 2.3 and 2.4, determine the approximate diameter of the
moon.

2.33 A great physicist of this century (P.A.M. Dirac) loved playing with numerical
values of Fundamental constants of nature. This led him to an interesting observation.
Dirac found that from the basic constants of atomic physics (c, e, mass of electron,
mass of proton) and the gravitational constant G, he could arrive at a number with the
dimension of time. Further, it was a very large number, its magnitude being close to
the present estimate on the age of the universe (~15 billion years). From the table of
fundamental constants in this book, try to see if you too can construct this number (or
any other interesting number you can think of ). If its coincidence with the age of the
universe were significant, what would this imply for the constancy of fundamental
constants ?

24