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Municipal Solid Waste Management in Asia: A Comparative Analysis

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Workshop on Sustainable Landfill Management
3–5 December, 2003; Chennai, India, pp. 3-15

Municipal Solid Waste Management in Asia-

A Comparative Analysis

C. Visvanathan and J. Tränkler

Environmental Engineering & Management, School of Environment
Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, P. O. Box 4, Klong Luang
Pathumthani 12120, Thailand, E-mail: visu@ait.ac.th

ABSTRACT
The present scenario of municipal solid waste management (MSWM) in four study countries of Asia –
namely China, India, Sri Lanka and Thailand is highlighted comparing technical, economic, legal and,
health issues. An overview of various aspects of the municipal solid waste (MSW) is provided
comprising all domestic and non-hazardous wastes in the urban areas of the above countries with
emphasis on the generation and composition of MSW, management needs, collection systems
practiced, transportation and disposal systems used. The collections systems and their lacunae, the
recycling practiced with respect to the involvement of the government and the private sectors are
underlined. Disposal methods in India and Thailand find mention in particular for landfill and
incineration. Other issues taken up are the effects on MSW due to cultural aspects and climatic
variations. Further to that it is reflected on the public awareness and participation of the community in
MSWM as well as the involvement of the NGOs and the private sector. Finally, the emerging trends
with respect to the integrated solid waste management (ISWM) have been discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION

Solid waste management (SWM) is an integral part of the urban environment and planning of the urban
infrastructure to ensure a safe and healthy human environment while considering the promotion of
sustainable economic growth. Rapid economic growth by industrialization of the developing countries in Asia
has created serious problems of waste disposal due to uncontrolled and unmonitored urbanization (ISWA &
UNEP, 2002). The problem is further aggravated by the lack of financial as well human resources trained in
SWM practices in the sphere of collection, transportation, processing and final disposal. Whereas aspects
like recycle, reuse and recovery of the solid waste is grossly demand and supply driven or disorganized in
most cases. In this scenario, the responsible persons or agencies concerned with the public health and
environment protection face the crisis of ineffective MSWM. The waste generated in the developing countries
is similar in composition, the variation between regions being dictated by the climatic, cultural, and industrial,
infrastructural and legal factors. The four study countries of Asia used for the comparative study have been
chosen due to the large population in China and India with wide geographical variations while Sri Lanka and
Thailand represent newly industrialized nations. In 2001, China had an economic growth of 7.3% in 2001,
India 5.9%, Sri Lanka 4.9% and Thailand 4.6% (World Bank-a, 2003). All the four countries are experiencing
a rapid economic growth and urbanization. The MSWM systems practiced in those countries reviewed are
representative cross-section of Asian regions with respect to climatic and socio-economic variations.

1.1. Significance of MSWM

Asia is witnessing a rapid increase in urban population with about 35 percent of its total population
residing in urban areas and the annual growth in urban population is nearly 4 percent. China’s policy of

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 Sustainable Landfill Management

urbanization intends to increase urban population from 30 to 50 percent by the year 2010. It is
anticipated that by 2025, about 52 percent of the Asians would be living in urban areas causing a major
shift in the distribution of the population as well as the expansion of the urban boundaries (World Bank-b,
2003). This significant urban growth as compared to the developed countries as indicated in Figure 1
would put even more pressure on the partially existing MSWM infrastructure. The rapid economic growth
has improved the standards of living of the urban dwellers thus enabling them to change their pattern of
consumption of goods. This has been creating a higher per capita waste generation rendering the
existing MSWM system ineffective and hence has put on the risk of massive failure.

100%
1970
80% 2000
2025
60%

40%

20%

0%
Africa Asia Europe North
America

FIGURE 1: Comparative increase of urban population

1.2 . Failures associated with MSWM

The associated problems in MSWM in Asia are basically inadequate institutional facilities to deal with the
problem arising out of shortage of expertise, financial resources legal and administrative enforcement of
environmental regulations, many of which do not conform to the need of the time. Coupled with this is
the lack of public awareness and environmental ethics that results in uncontrolled solid waste disposal.
Most of the developing countries are aware of this gigantic problem related to MSWM. The financial
factor is a major constraint leading to the current negligence of sector in urban infrastructure. Part of the
financial deficit is the insufficient fee structure and inadequate financing from central funds rather than
through the contributions of the polluters. Lack of sufficient awareness at the grassroots level of the
waste generators adds to the problem of littering. As a result there is a serious threat to public health due
to environmental pollution. A study of the MSWM issues in the four countries has highlighted the main
technical factors associated with solid waste from its generation to the composition, collection and
transportation, and final disposal systems with the headway made in recycle, reuse and recovery of the
valuables.

2. TECHNICAL ISSUES

In considering the chief technical operations involved in MSWM, the guidelines on the methods applied
are based on the technically advanced nations and their regulations, which may not be amenable to the
conditions of the developing countries (Zurbrugg, 1999). The associated environmental and public health

4
 Municipal Solid Waste Management in Asia: A Comparative Analysis

risks play a key role in designing the operations that can vary based on the technical, climatic and socio-
economic set up of the developing countries. The MSW generated in the study countries vary
accordingly. However, the most important aspects in the solid waste issues are waste minimization at
source and extensive reuse, recovery and recycle of materials carried out mainly by the informal sectors.
Whereas in all study countries, very little attention is given to the final disposal.

2.1. Solid waste generation

Solid waste generation in the study countries is based on the economic development, density of
population, size of the urban habitation and consumption rate of commercial goods. The per capita
generation of solid waste in Asian cities is given in Figure 2 which indicates a range of 0.2 to 1.7 kg/day.
This is mainly due to economic disparity among the population especially with regard to China which has
a wide range based on the economic status and population density. The urban population is over 38
percent and the waste generation has been increasing over the years (NRI-China, 2003). Similarly, the
urban population of India is 28% though the figure for waste generated is based on estimates from the
volume. The higher level of waste generation in Sri Lanka is due to increased consumption patterns as
well as the movement of the people from the rural areas to urban centers. In Thailand over 23% of the
population is urban and its rate of economic growth causes the higher value in waste generation per
capita per day. As indicated the waste generated is primarily biodegradable that is usually dumped on
barren land or non-engineered landfills.

1.8
1.6
1.4
kg/day.person

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
China India Sri Lanka Thailand

FIGURE 2: Waste generation per capita per day

2.2. Waste composition and variations

The inter-related factors contribute to different patterns of waste composition. The variation for the four
study countries is given in Figure 3.

Looking at the composition of the waste generated in these countries, one can conclude that the
biodegradable portion dominates the bulk of MSW. Generally the biodegradable portion is mainly due to
food and yard waste, typical of the developing countries whereas the developed regions have a higher
paper and cardboard content (Dhussa and Varshney, 2000). The composition dictates the technology
needed for waste processing prior to disposal. In most of the countries composting would be the most
appropriate technology for such waste reducing it almost by half. Incineration would not be a suitable

5
 Sustainable Landfill Management

90 Ash & others = 40.3 Rubber/leather = 1.6

Coal ash = 5.7 Textile = 3.5 Textile = 2.6
80 Brick/pottery = 5.5 Glass = 2.1 Glass/stone/can = 5.2
70 Glass = 2 Leather = 0.8 Wood = 4
60 Fiber = 3.9 Others = 4.1
1
Wood = 7.8
(%)w/w

50
Others = 1.5
40
30 Glass = 0.3
20 2 Others = 1.5
3 4
10 5
0
China India Sri Lanka Thailand

(1) Food w aste (2) Miscellaneous (3)Paper (4)Plastics (5)Metal

FIGURE 3: Comparison of organic and inorganic components of the MSW

option due to the extreme moisture content and accordingly a low calorific value, too low for a self-
sustaining incineration. The waste composition from India indicates a comparable lower food but higher
inorganic (ash and dust) content. The lower values for paper, glass and plastic are due to the intensive
collection and scavenging by informal waste collectors (NRI-India, 2003). China has also higher ash
content, which is due to the geographical location in the temperate latitudes and common use of raw
coal. Thailand on the other hand has an increasing trend in plastic and paper - an impact of the
progressing industrialization and urbanization with a growing GDP (NRI-China, 2003).

2.3. Collection and transport

Generally speaking, waste collection service does not reach the entire population of the urban centers.
On the other hand people are not aware of the facilities provided, resulting in uncollected waste, which
can exceed 20 - 50% (UNEP, 2001). The collection ratio varies from city to city and the systems are
either inadequate or inefficient. Most of the collection systems range from the use of small and
impoverished metal or plastic containers or enclosures and waste platforms to well-monitored bins,
which are grossly inadequate. The transport systems include a great variety of vehicles. If more efficient
collection trucks are under operation the age of the fleet in general is old and their availability is low. This
hampers the overall collection process as up 50% of the trucks might not be working due to lack of spare
parts or continuous breakdown. Further to that collection crews increase their income by scavenging the
waste thus reducing the collection efficiency. Storage bins are either in short supply or collection is not
adequate to cause spilling and littering about. There are hardly any transfer stations, which can collect
and handle the waste for systematic disposal. The basic problem emanates from the lack of technical
expertise that is able to direct the MSW collection and transport systems. The key factor of a poor
collection performance is inadequate resources and attention of the government while the authorities
lack to comprehend the complications that arise out of solid waste pollution.

2.4. Resource recovery and recycling

Proper MSWM would call for material recovery and recycling, reuse and reduction of the solid waste.
Scavenging of the recoverable materials takes place in urban areas, which ultimately reaches the
recycling units in several steps through the scrap and waste dealers. Despite the health hazards, the
resource recovery by scavengers, rag pickers and itinerant waste collectors begin right at the household
level with specific items. Recycling of wastes has increased from 10 to 22% since 1990 to 1998 in the

6
 Municipal Solid Waste Management in Asia: A Comparative Analysis

Asia Pacific region (UN, 2000). This has been prompted by the involvement of the local authorities,
NGOs and other environmental organizations that have initiated the recycling projects. Two cases in Sri
Lanka and Thailand have been discussed below.

In Maharagama (Sri Lanka), the Ministry of Forestry and Environment (MoFE) has encouraged 2,300
households to separate paper and cardboard, plastic, glass and metal at the source effectively reducing
the quantity of waste collected for final disposal. The recovered materials are sent to the industries
utilizing them. MoFE, local authorities and NGOs have used the example set in this municipality as a
cornerstone to encourage similar activities in other places (NRI-Sri Lanka, 2003).

In Thailand, a private venture M/S Wongpanitch Group Company has developed to a recycling tycoon
based on a junk shop business established by the family several decades ago. That company has an
estimated throughput of more than 100,000 tons with branches all over Thailand as well as other
companies franchising its system. It buys a great variety of materials for processing in its own recycling
units. It sells the recycled materials locally and even exports them. The business of junk shops has its
tradition and registered companies work intensively on the recycling market (NRI-Thailand, 2003).

Likewise, China has a high potential of recycling scrap metals, rubber, plastic and glass as every year,
about US$ 3.6 billion worth of recyclable materials are wasted (NRI-China, 2003). In India, recycling and
reuse is practiced effectively reducing the per capita waste generation. Unsoiled paper cardboards,
plastics, glass and metal scraps are readily marketable and the itinerant collectors begin the recovery
from door to door while the rag pickers and scavengers make a living out of selling recyclable material
either from the waste enclosures, platforms or the open dumps despite the risks due to health hazards.

Recycling has in some parts, especially the urban centers of the countries reviewed a strong
participation of the local people due to the value of the materials. The level in which recyclables are
segregated manually at source or at the involved recycling companies is astonishing. The reduction of
waste arriving at the disposal site might be accounted for 30 to 45%.

90
80
70
(%) MSW

60
1
50
40
2
30
20
3 4 5
10
0
China India Sri Lanka Thailand

(1) Open dumping (2) Landfilling (3) Composting (4) Incineration (5) Others*

FIGURE 4: MSW disposal methods practiced in study countries

7
 Sustainable Landfill Management

2.5. Processing and disposal

Proper disposal of MSW is a necessity to minimize environmental health impacts and degradation of
land resources. In developing countries, MSW is commonly disposed of by transporting and discharging
in open dumps, which are environmentally unsafe. Systematic disposal methods are composting,
landfilling and incineration. Looking at the most common disposal methods in the study countries
indicate the share of open dumping to be 90% in India, 85% in Sri Lanka, 65% in Thailand and 50% in
China (Figure 4). The so-called landfill is mostly covering refuse in the dumpsite by soil neither with
proper technical input nor with treatment of the emerging emissions to water, air and soil.

2.5.1. Composting
Composting is an integral part of the waste processing and disposal systems. As observed from
Figure 3, the higher biodegradable portion of MSW calls for the use of composting technique, which is
being practiced in small scale. This is due to the economic strictures, lack of awareness and basic
technical know-how in most urban areas. Two most common methods for the composting of waste are
windrow composting and vermiculture. Examples of each system are discussed below.

In India, M/S Excel Industries Ltd has set up its “bio-organic soil enricher” plants at Kolkata, Bangalore
and other places with capacities of 35 to 500 tons per day. It has a distinct “build-own-operate” basis for
its plants in coordination with the local or state agencies enabling an efficient running system. The
Celrich compost generated is marketed through Excel’s network for its own agro-chemicals throughout
India thus effectively reducing the use of chemical fertilizers by the farmers for growing sugarcane,
grapes and bananas. The overall cost of production per ton is US$ 25 to 30 while the market value is
US$ 33.5 to 42 per ton. Excel is planning to setup more composting plants for municipal and agro-
industrial wastes. It has also provided its technical cooperation to its counterparts in Sri Lanka for
windrow composting under Colombo Municipal Council. Following the example set by Excel, other
private entrepreneurs and NGOs have taken up bio-waste composting ventures in other parts of India.
Though manual composting was practiced in many places in India, technical problems due to the lack of
space and bio-waste segregation has discouraged the use (NRI-India, 2003).

In Thailand, 10% of the MSW is composted and one of the methods applied is the vermicomposting
using tiger worms to reduce the biodegradable in Barommatrilokanat 21 community. Domestic refuse
is separated at source into organic matter, recyclables and general garbage. The organic matter is
collected and brought to the community composting center made of circular cement and/or brick
enclosures where tiger worms are used to convert the bio-waste. It takes about 3 to 4 months for one
batch to decompose into compost rich in humus, which is used to improve the soil porosity in clayey
soil. The compost provides additional incomes to the community as it can be sold for US$ 125 per ton
(NRI-Thailand, 2003).

2.5.2. Landfill
The final disposal of MSW is landfill occurs at three categories, which are:

1 Open dump or open landfill, which is the most common for all developing countries whereby the
refuse is simply dumped in low lying areas on open land and the waste, is tipped haphazardly.
2 Semi-controlled or operated landfills are those in which at a designated site, the dumped refuse
is compacted and daily topsoil cover is provided to prevent nuisance. Every kind of waste
municipal, industrial or clinical/hospital waste is dumped without segregation and is not
engineered to mange the leachate discharge and emissions of landfill gases.

8
 Municipal Solid Waste Management in Asia: A Comparative Analysis

3 Sanitary landfills are those practiced in the developed countries with facilities for the interception
of the leachate generation and its treatment using a series of ponds and it has arrangements for
the control of gases from waste decomposition (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993).

Among the three, sanitary landfilling is an engineered system which is the best option taking into account
the likely environmental impacts by the MSW with respect to the pollution of air, water and soil. However,
this kind of comparable secure system is scarcely found in the region.

2.5.3. Incineration
Incineration of the solid takes a low profile in the waste disposal system practiced in the study countries,
which is similar in most developing countries. The main constraints are the high capital, operation and
maintenance costs involved. As indicated in Figure 3, the major portion of the MSW is biodegradable
with relatively high moisture content; the calorific value (CV) of the waste is low. Figure 5 shows the CV
of the MSW from four countries, which indicates, an average value of 3,000 to 4,500 kJ/kg of waste that
cannot sustain combustion. Hence it is found that the technology is unsuitable unless the bio-wastes are
separated at the source and the calorific value is suitable for the purpose. In specific cases like the
clinical and hospital wastes incineration has to be applied which for example is widely used in facilities in
Thailand.

6000

5000

4000
kJ/kg

3000

2000

1000

0
China India Sri Lanka Thailand

FIGURE 5: Calorific value range of MSW in study countries

3. MSWM ISSUES

In Asia, there are two major issues for the management of MSW, which are basically cultural issues and
climatic factors that play a vital role.

3.1. Cultural issues

As discussed above the recovery of the usable items like cloth bags, glass bottles, and metal containers
occurs at the household level by the itinerant collectors who generally pay a nominal amount for the
material or provide a useful material in exchange. This is found at the middle and lower income levels of
the populace of which there is a vast majority. This helps in reducing the quantity of refuse generated but
prompts gross negligence on the part of the generators inducing littering and unmonitored disposal. At
the level of the waste collection systems, the rag pickers and the scavengers would litter the garbage
around the bins or enclosures causing nuisance which in most cases is neglected by the collection
system for transport.

9
 Sustainable Landfill Management

3.2. Climatic factors

Climatic factors play another crucial role in the MSWM as in Asia most of the countries lie in the tropical
or sub-tropical zone with a long wet season, and heat and humidity causes the MSW to be of higher
moisture content thus increasing the weight of the refuse. In addition, high humidity with heat causes the
organic portion of the waste to decompose quickly that causes problems in handling and disposal, which
directly affects the environmental health of the waste workers and the inhabitants in the surroundings.
Further to that the climatic condition necessitates a daily collection cycle, making the collection system
even more expensive. The monsooning effect with intense precipitation is seen in south, southeast and
east Asia with the wet season ranging from 5 months to almost throughout the year especially in the
equatorial regions.

4. STAKEHOLDERS AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

There is a wide range of stakeholders - individuals, organizations and groups both in the formal and
informal sector - involved and concerned with MSWM as generators, regulators and legislators. Waste
management strategies can only be effective if all the stakeholders work in tandem for a successful
venture. The gradual changes in the environmental policies and guidelines with increase in human
resources in the field through education and training have initiated the process of effective management.
However, the main barriers are lack of financial resources for the MSWM sector, regulations and their
enforcement, and community awareness, involvement and participation. Community participation is of
utmost importance as generators of the solid waste.

4.1. Public awareness and participation

As generators of MSW, the public must be aware of the hazards posed by ineffective management of the
refuse. Hence the government, environmental organizations and others groups are required to play a
key role in bringing about this awareness through role play in the MSWM programs which in turn creates
a sense of ownership among the individuals thus developing keen interest for shouldering
responsibilities. Unless the public are involved throughout the MSWM programs by the implementing
agencies, awareness cannot be achieved. Once the public comprehend and acknowledge the main
constraints and challenges in the system, participation can be noticed in forms like:

• Voluntary involvement in MSWM campaigns;

• Following of rules and regulations concerning waste disposal;
• Willingness to pay adequate fees and charges;
• Source separation and effective use of the facilities; and
• Voicing any environmentally unethical behavior on the part of the public or the government.

One such example of the public participation is the work done by Seth Sevana (NGO) in Sri Lanka for
1,280 families in Moratuwa area who are encouraged to separate the waste at source in their
households that enabled the NGO to establish small scale composting units and biogas generation,
recycling of paper, and sharing of information within the network for the benefit of the community.
Community Environmental Initiatives Facility (CEIF) is funding this pilot project. With the success of this
project, the NGO hopes to extend the system to about 8,000 families making the project an example
(NRI-Sri Lanka, 2003).

Another example is the involvement of the Women Federation in China which encouraged its members,
particularly mothers who took out their children for cleaning the litters and encouraged them to plant
greenery every month (NRI-China, 2003).

10
 Municipal Solid Waste Management in Asia: A Comparative Analysis

4.2. Community participation

Participation by the whole community for the MSWM program is essential to bring about changes in the
management with respect to source segregation, recovery of reusable and recyclables and storage of
the garbage prior to collection. One such vivid example of a successful venture is the “Garbage for Eggs”
Project in Klong Toey slum area of Bangkok in which eggs were provided by the Environmental
Conservation Group in exchange for the recyclable materials like glass and plastic bottles, plastic bags,
and paper/boxes collected and deposited. This project was initiated by a group of 25 residents of 70 Rai
Community in 1997 after a serious flooding of the slum area. It took 8 months for the removal of garbage
from sewers and canals that caused the flooding. The sale proceeds of the materials were further used
to exchange eggs for the next batch such that the project became a self-sustaining one. Similar projects
were extended to other 23 communities in Bangkok (NRI- Thailand, 2003).

4.3. Private sector participation

Private sector has played an important role in the MSWM as witnessed in the study countries. This
comprises formal and informal sectors. Looking at the formal sector, Chennai in India and Colombo in Sri
Lanka have initiated the privatization of MSW collection. The Chennai Corporation had issued a global
tender in 1999 for privatized collection of municipal solid wastes in some zones. CES-ONYX, a French
multi national company was given the waste removal contract for a period of seven years. The company
is paid, based on the amount of waste transported to the two dumping grounds (Perungudi and
Kodingaiyur). Approximately 1,000 tons of garbage is cleared per day in Chennai. The rate fixed is Rs.
648/- (US $ 12.5) per ton. The operation is mechanized, with movable bins, one-ton autos, and
mechanical loaders (NRI-India, 2003).

The Colombo Municipal Corporation (CMC) has engaged the Burns Environmental Technologies (Pvt.)
Limited (BETL) for two sanitary districts and Abans Environmental Services to handle fifty percent of the
waste collection of the city. The CMC pays a tipping fee of Rs. 550/ton (US $ 5.7) with 5 percent annual
increment and the contract is signed between CMC and BETL for processing and final disposal for a
period of 25 years. BETL is operating the modern composting plant, which is the single largest MSW unit
in the country that manages about 800-900 tones of garbage per day. Initially BETL with the technical
cooperation of Excel Industries, India established a 600 MT/day plant. The composting facility does not
accept hazardous, industrial and liquid wastes (sewage sludge) (NRI-Sri Lanka,2003).

Privatization, a more economic approach is considered as one option to improve the collection operation.
Other attempts look into the operation of landfills and treatment facilities. Nevertheless, these endeavors
are all based on the municipalities’ direct payment to private companies. A self-financing system would
be the next objective of privatization. Legal possibilities are given and future actions are under
consideration.

4.4. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

The NGOs play a crucial role in reaching the communities helping to create awareness about the
environmental impacts associated with the disposal of wastes. A well-organized environmental program
by NGOs can initiate motivation for involvement in the MSWM program thus ensuring a continuous
participation. They can also ensure a user-fee based waste disposal system that would enable the
continuity of operation. One example of such an initiative is by a local NGO called Muskan Jyoti Samiti
(MJS) in Lucknow, India, which was established in October 1994. Through its SWM initiative called
SWASTI, MJS serves a population of over 100,000 in nearly 20,000 households, which includes 20,000
persons living in 22 of the 460 slums in Lucknow city. MJS employs 235 people, including 215 garbage

11
 Sustainable Landfill Management

collectors and rag-pickers. It operates 250 handcarts, 210 rickshaw trolleys and 5 tractor trolleys. MJS
has also started SWM work in the cities of Kanpur, Allahabad and Varanasi (WSP, 1999).

4.5. Role of informal sector

In the informal sector, there are the individuals, families, groups and small enterprises that carry out
unregistered and unregulated activities (Schubeler, 1996). The waste workers are motivated by the
income from the sale of the wastes and work as scavengers, collectors and sweepers despite health
hazards. The nature of their involvement in MSWM makes it difficult to integrate. However, their
contribution to the system is not neglectable, if it could be institutionalized by providing them with
organizational and technical support. This could be achieved by the formation of co-operative societies
and micro enterprises. Scavenging and waste collection is unavoidable in the developing countries due
to the economic condition of these people and can help in the recovery of the resources for sale to the
recycling units.

4.6. MSWM and economy

Solid waste generation depends on the economy of the people and per capita generation increases with
the level of income of the family or individual. The correlation is shown in Figure 6. Studies have
indicated that for every Indian Rs.1000 increase in income the solid waste generation increases by one
kilogram per month. It is a common observation that with an increase of economic growth the waste
generation grows in an equal manner. Growth and waste generation has not been decoupled in both the
developing and the industrialized world.

40
Waste Generated (kg / month)

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
2,200 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000

Average Income (Indian Rupees / month)

FIGURE 6: Correlation of per capita income with waste generation

To effectively manage the MSW systems, adequate financial resources are required. As of the study
period, there is a lack of information regarding the MSWM costs with the concerned authorities thereby
leading to underestimating the budget requirements causing a shortfall in the system. Actually real costs
of all environmental endeavors in the region cannot be allocated as they are subsidized by central and
local funds and the accounting system is not in place. Accordingly the cost information about MSWM is
always a rough estimate. In Sri Lanka, only a small fraction (3.15%) of the total budget outlay for the

12
 Municipal Solid Waste Management in Asia: A Comparative Analysis

Local Authority is earmarked for MSWM, of which more than four-fifths are for collection and transport
while less than one fifth is available for processing, disposal and overheads of the management. This is
clearly illustrated by Figure 7. The situation is similar for almost all developing countries of Asia as can
be concluded from other study countries.

3 - 15 %
> 80 %

20 %

Total Budget of Local Authority

Collection and Transportation
SWM budget Others

FIGURE 7: Total budget allocations for MSWM in Sri Lanka

5. FUTURE OUTLOOK

The study of four countries provides a striking degree of similarity in MSWM. Biodegradable wastes
comprise more than 50% of the waste stream, which could easily be diverted away from the landfill
enabling a lesser volume. The bio-waste could effectively be used for resource recovery by composting,
headway for which is being made in all of the study countries. Unless an effective system is initiated by
incorporating the integrated solid waste management (ISWM) system, the reduction in the environmental
deterioration cannot be achieved.

5.1. Integrated solid waste management (ISWM)

ISWM provides a framework for the development of a sustainable MSW service, which can take place
with the use of a range of collection, transport and treatment options; active involvement of the
stakeholders, the MSW system and the industry for product design. The aspects that are involved in the
management of the waste would be:

1. Economic aspects that take into account adequate resources to enable a sustainable MSWM
system which does not collapse due to the lack of funds and not be an economic burden to
the society. It should apply the “Polluter Pays Principle” for the waste generators; and provide
technical and financial assistance for the private and community participation.
2. Environmental aspects should consider the technical aspects with adequate storage,
transport, and disposal facilities to ensure that a negative impact to the environment is

13
 Sustainable Landfill Management

avoided by way of creating nuisance and aesthetic problems in the short run and emission of
landfill gases and discharge of leachate causing air, water and soil pollution in the long run.
3. Social aspects make people aware of waste reduction, reuse and recycle benefits as well as
environmental health benefits of cleanliness and impacts arising out of lack of MSWM
system. Active involvement of the government and private organizations and NGOs would
pave way in this sphere.
4. Institutional arrangements would call for the administrative and legal setup with law
enforcement machinery for the implementation of the program to ensure effectiveness. The
government should strengthen the capacity of the SWM bodies with education, training and
infrastructural support.

6. CONCLUSION

From the study of MSWM in the four countries, waste composition in Asia is broadly similar differing
slightly due to climatic and cultural variations. The system adopted for collection, transportation and
disposal is also similar but unique to Asia, unlike in the developed countries where the MSWM is
formalized. This uniqueness is attributed to the waste composition, involvement of the informal sector,
voluntary groups, private organizations, NGOs, and community based organizations (CBOs), and rapid
privatization of collection, transportation and processing systems. Composting is seen as a major
processing system for almost one half of the waste which is biodegradable and can be enhanced with
economically friendly source separation techniques like in the developed countries. The recent trends in
technological development for MSWM systems in Asia cannot be effective by direct transfer of
technology from the west without adapting it to suit the situation in Asia. The major lacuna in the
allocation of resources for the MSWM in Asia which does not encompass the entire SWM scenario
requires immediate attention of the governments and civic organizations to curtail the growing
environmental problems. The present scenario of MSWM which is undergoing rapid changes towards
the incorporation of the ISWM could pave way for sustainable urban environment in Asia with effective
inputs in economic, environmental and social aspects with adequate institutional arrangements.

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