Prentice Hall – Science Explorer – Cells and Heredity

Chapter 1 – Cell Structure and Function

Section 1 – Discovering Cells

Questions and Comments Main Ideas; Visuals; Examples Key Terms/Connections

An Overview of Cells Cells
Cells are the basic units of structure and
function in living things.
Cells= what forms the parts of an organism
and carries out all of its processes.
Cells and Structures
The variety of ways cells are put together
determine the structures of organisms.
e.g. A tree’s cells arrange to form a trunk and
leafy branches. A red newt’s cells form a body
with a head and four legs.
Cells and Function
Cells are involved in an organism’s functions
that are the processes that allow it to stay
alive and reproduce.
e.g. cells in your digestive system absorb
food. The food provides your body with
energy and materials needed for growth.
Many and Small Connection: Like atoms,
Most cells are too small to see with your eyes they were discovered
alone. later in history because
- Until the late 1600s nobody knew cells they are too small to
existed because there was no way to see with the eyes alone.
see them.
e.g. one meter squared of your skin’s surface
contains more that 100,000 cells.
Who invented the first First Observations of Cells Microscope
microscope and how did it The invention of microscopes around 1590
contrast to the ones used allowed people to discover and learn
today? about cells.
Microscope= instrument that makes small
objects look larger…microscope?
What were the boxes Robert Hooke
within the cell that Hook He was an English scientist who was one of
observed? the first to observe cells.
In 1663 he used the compound microscope
he made to observe the structure of a thin
cork slice.
- Cork is made up of dead cells, and to
Hooke these empty paces looked like
small rectangles. Thus, he called them
 cells (small rooms).
- He described the cells contained many
boxes within and calculated that in a
cubic inch there were about 1,200
million cells.
What are examples of Anton van Leeuwenhoek
single-celled organisms? At about the same time as Hooke,
Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch businessmen who
Was he the first to built simple microscopes in his free time
observe these single- began to observe tiny objects like drops of
celled organisms? lake water, scraping from teeth and gums,
and water from rain gutters.
- In these he found many one-celled-
organisms that whirled, hopped or shot
through water.
- He called these animalcules (little
animals).
Development of the Cell Theory
Many other scientists began to use
microscopes to learn more about cells.
Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow
These were three German scientists.
In 1838 based on his and other’s research
Schleiden concluded all plants are made of
cells.
The next year, Schwann concluded all
animals are made of cells—thus, he stated all
living things are made of cells.
In 1855, Virchow stopped the theory that
organisms sprung from nonliving matter by
proposing new cells formed from cells that
already exist.
What the Cell Theory Says Cell theory
Cell theory= widely accepted explanation of
the relationship between cells and organisms.
The cell theory states:
- All living things are composed of
cells.
- Cells are the basic units of
structures and function in living
things.
- All cells are produced from other
cells.
Since cells are common in all organisms they
provide information about the functions of
organisms.
 Since cells come from other cells one can
study cells to learn about growth and
reproduction.
Light and Electron Microscopes Connection: I learned
A useful microscope must have good about resolution in
magnification and resolution. Digital Photography.
Magnification and Lenses
Lenses in light microscopes magnify
(enlarge) an object by bending the light
that passes through it.
- The lens is a convex lens (curved—
thinner on the edges, thicker in the
center)
- The light passes through the sides and
bends inwards, when the lights hits the
eye the object appears larger.

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Is the quality of images Compound Microscope Magnification

produced by compound Uses more than one lens and can magnify an
microscope magnification object more.
worsened due to more - Light passes through a specimen and
magnification? Doesn’t the the first lens magnifies the object. Then
image begin to blur? the second lens further magnifies the
magnified image.
e.g. First lens magnification= x10. Second
lens magnification= x40
Total microscope magnification=10x40=400.
Resolution
Resolution is the sharpness of an image.
A good microscope helps you clearly
distinguish the individual parts of an object.
e.g. An image is made up of many small dots.
If you look at it under a microscope the
 magnification and resolutions should allow
you to see the dots.
How can you get a beam Electron Microscopes
of electrons? Since the 1930s scientists developed electron
microscopes.
What is it between an Electron microscopes use a beam of
electron beam and light electrons instead of light to produce a
that makes electron magnified image.
microscopes better? Electron microscopes can let you to see
smaller objects and have a better resolution
than light microscopes.

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 Prentice Hall – Science Explorer – Cells and Heredity
Chapter 1 – Cell Structure and Function
Section 2 – Looking Inside Cells

Questions and Comments Main Ideas; Visuals; Examples Key

Terms/Connections
Organelles= tiny cell structures that carry out Organelles
specific functions in the cell.
Enter the Cell
To get within the cell you have to pass through the
cell wall and cell membrane.
What other organisms Cell Wall
other than plants have cell Cell wall= hard layer of nonliving material, mostly
walls? cellulose, that surrounds the cells of plants and
some organisms.
A plant’s cell wall helps protect and support
the cell.
Although the cell wall is strong, many materials,
including water and oxygen, can easily pass
through.
What is the cell membrane Cell Membrane Connection, the
made of? Cell membrane= cell structure, which is like cell wall and call
another barrier that controls which substance can membrane are
enter or exit the cell. much like a wall
All cells have cell membranes. surrounding a
- In cell with cell walls it’s located just within property and the
it. gate.
- In others it forms the outside boundary
separating the cell from its environment.
The cell membrane controls what substances
enter/exit the cell.
For the cell to survive the cell membrane allows
everything it needs to enter (food, oxygen);
harmful waste products to exit and prevents
harmful materials from entering.
Sail on to the Nucleus Nucleus
Nucleus= a large, oval structure located further
within the cell. Connection: The
The nucleus is like the cell’s control center, nucleus is like the
directing all of its activities. brain of a body.
Nuclear Envelope
Nuclear envelope is the membrane surrounding
the nucleus that protects it.
- Material pass in and out of the nucleus
through pores in the nuclear envelope.
Is this your DNA? Chromatin
Do all cells contain the Chromatins are floating strands within the nucleus
same chromatin, or are that contain genetic material, the instructions for
they selective to the cell’s directing the cell’s functions.
job?
Nucleolus
The nucleolus is a small floating structure seen at
the end of the nucleus where ribosomes are made.
Organelles in the Cytoplasm Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm= region of clear, thick, gel-like fluid that
is in constant motion, between the cell membrane
and nucleus.
- Many organelles are found here.
Mitochondria Mitochondria
Mitochondria= rod shaped structures that convert
energy in food molecules to energy the cell Connection:
can use to carry out its functions. Mitochondria
provide the cell
with energy just
like powerhouses
provide a city with
energy.
Does the endoplasmic Endoplasmic Reticulum Endoplasmic
reticulum just provide a Endoplasmic Reticulum= maze of passageways Reticulum
passageway for materials where proteins and other materials are carried
to travel through, or does from one part of the cell to another. Connection: Like
it direct their path too? the school
hallways.
Ribosomes Ribosomes
Ribosomes= small, grain like structures attached
to some surfaces of the endoplasmic reticulum or Connection:
float in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes are like
Ribosomes produce the very important factories.
proteins.
Isn’t the membrane in Golgi Bodies Golgi Bodies
charge of releasing things Golgi bodies= look like flattened sacs and tubes
outside of the cell? seen leaving the endoplasmic reticulum. Connection: These
They receive proteins and other newly formed organelles are like
materials from the endoplasmic reticulum, the mail room in a
package them, and distribute them to other city by packaging
parts of the cell. and distributing
- They also release materials outside the things.
cell.
Chloroplasts Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts= large green structures floating in
cytoplasm. Connection:
They are only in plant cells and cells of other Chloroplasts are
 organisms that capture energy from sunlight like solar cells.
and use it to produce food.
- They also make leaves green.
How do animals that don’t Vacuoles Vacuole
have vacuoles store Vacuole= large, water-filled sac floating in the
needed materials? cytoplasm. Connection:
They are the storage areas for food and other Vacuoles are like a
Which animals have materials needed as well as waste products. storage room.
vacuoles and which don’t? - Most plant cells have one large vacuole.
- Some animal cells don’t have vacuoles,
some do.
What is the average life Lysosomes Lysosomes
expectancy for most cells? Lysosomes= small, round structures that
contain chemicals to break down certain Connection:
materials in the cell. Lysosomes are like
e.g. some break down large food particles into the clean up crew
smaller ones or old cell parts to release
substances to be reused.
Specialized Cells
Plants and animals are many-celled organisms
with different cells specialized to perform specific
functions.
e.g. nerve cells are specialized to transmit
information from one part of the body to another
while red blood cells are specialized to carry
oxygen throughout your body.
In many-celled organisms cells are often
organized into tissues, organs and organ
system.
- A tissue is a group of similar cells that
collaborate to perform a specific function.
- An organ is a group of tissues that function
together.
- An organ system is a group of organs that
collaborate to perform a major function.
e.g. The brain is made of nervous tissues, which
consist of nerve cells. Your brain is also part of the
nervous system that directs body activities and
processes.
How does a bacterial cell Bacterial Cells
carry out all the functions Bacterial cells are much smaller that plant or
animal and plant cells animal cells.
carry out with the several e.g. a skin cell is about ten times larger than an
other organelles they average bacterial cell.
contain? A bacterial cell has a cell wall and cell
membrane, but no nucleus. Its genetic material
Do bacterial cells contain is a thick, tangled sting found in the
other organelles plant and cytoplasm.
animal cells don’t? - The only organelle that a plant and animal
cell have that they contain is ribosomes.

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 Prentice Hall – Science Explorer – Cells and Heredity
Chapter 1 – Cell Structure and Function
Section 3 – Chemical Compounds in Cells

Questions and Comments Main Idea; Visuals; Examples Key Terms/Connections

Elements and Compounds
Air is a mixture of gases including both
elements and compounds.
e.g. 3 gasses in the air are oxygen, nitrogen
and carbon dioxide.
Elements Element
Element= Any substance that can’t be
broken down into simpler substances.
The smallest unit of an element is an atom.
- An element is made up of only one
type of atom.
e.g. elements found in organisms include
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphors and
sulfur.
Compounds Compound
Compound= two our more elements
chemically combined.
Smallest unit of many compounds are
molecules
- Most elements in organisms are
compounds.
e.g. Each water molecule is made up of 2
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
What is the main Organic and Inorganic Compounds
difference between Most compounds that contain carbon are
organic and inorganic organic compounds.
compounds regarding - Most compounds in organisms are
their function, structure, organic.
properties…etc? Some important groups of organic
compounds in organisms are
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic
acids.
- Many of these are found in the foods
you eat, which come from other
organisms.
Compounds that don’t contain the element
carbon are inorganic.
- Organisms contain many inorganic
compounds.
e.g. water and sodium chloride.
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrate= energy-rich organic compound
made of the element carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen.
e.g. sugar and starches.
Sugars are produced during photosynthesis.
- Fruits and some vegetable contain a lot
of sugar.
Sugar molecules can combine and form large
molecules called starches—complex
carbohydrates.
e.g. plant based foods like pasta, potatoes,
rice and bread contain starch.
When you eat these, your body breaks down
the starch into glucose, a sugar your cells can
use to produce energy.
Carbohydrates are important components of
some cell parts.
e.g. cellulose in cell walls is a type of
carbohydrate. Cell membrane also has
carbohydrates.
Lipids Lipids
Lipids= energy-rich organic compounds, such
as fats, oils or waxes, that are made of
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
- Lipids contain even more energy than
carbohydrates.
Cells store energy in lipids.
e.g. During the winter, a bear live on the
energy stored in fat cells.
Cell membranes are also made mainly of
lipids.
What compounds do Proteins Proteins
proteins make up? Protein= large organic molecule made of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
sometime sulfur.
e.g. foods containing protein are meat, eggs,
nuts, beans.
Structure of Proteins Amino acids
Amino acids= smaller molecules that are
chemically linked to other amino acids to form Connection: 20 amino
protein molecules. acids are like the 26
There are 20 common amino acids that cells letters in the alphabet.
can combine in different ways to from 1000s They can form
of different proteins. thousands of words.
- The kinds of amino acids and the order The letters you use and
they are linked determine the type of the order they are used
 protein. in determines the word.
Even a change in one
latter creates a new
word.
What organelles are made Functions of Proteins Enzyme
up of proteins? Proteins form parts of the cell membrane and
make up main organelles.
Enzyme= type of protein that speeds up
chemical reactions that take place in cells.
-Without them crucial chemical
reactions would either take too long or
not occur.
e.g. enzymes in your saliva speed up
digestion by breaking down starches into
sugars in your mouth.
Where else is DNA found? Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids= very long organic molecules
made of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen
and phosphorus that contain instructions cells
need to carry out all functions.
There are 2 kinds of nucleic acids:
- Deoxyribonucleic (DNA) is genetic
material that carries information about
an organism, which directs all cells’
functions and is hereditary. It is mostly
found in the nucleus’ chromatin.
- Ribonucleic acid (RNA) plays an
important role in protein production and
is found in the cytoplasm and nucleus.
Water and Living Things
Water makes up 2/3 of your body and plays
many important roles in cells.
Most chemical reactions in cells couldn’t
take place without water.
Water also helps cells keep their size and
shape.
e.g. a cell without water is like a balloon with
no air.
Water helps keep the temperature of cells
from changing rapidly because it changes
slowly.
Prentice Hall – Science Explorer – Cells and Heredity
Chapter 1 – Cell Structure and Function
Section 4 – The Cell in Its Environment

Questions and Main Idea; Visuals; Examples Key

Comments Terms/Connections
Are cell walls in plants Selectively permeable= Selectively
and other organisms property of cell membrane that permeable
also selectively lets some substance pass
permeable. through and not others.
- Cell membranes must
let things needed, like
food and oxygen, enter,
while let waste products
exit.
Diffusion Diffusion
Diffusion is the main method
small molecules move
across the cell membrane.
Diffusion= process where
molecules move from an area
of higher concentration to lower
concentration.
- Concentration of a
substance is the amount
of that substance for a
given volume.

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So cells do not control What Causes Diffusion

weather they need a As molecules move, they bump
material or not. If there into each other and spread
is a lower apart.
concentration outside - The more molecules in
and the cell membrane an area, the more
is preamble to it, it collisions, which will
diffuses in? cause them to push
further apart overtime
until eventually, they’ll
be spread evenly
throughout the area.
Diffusion of Oxygen Connection: I
 One-celled organisms in ponds previously learned
obtain oxygen from the water. the cell membrane is
- The oxygen molecules permeable to oxygen
diffuse from the area of molecules, which is
higher concentration why this can occur.
(pond) through the cell
membrane to the area of
lower concentration
(inside cell).
Osmosis Osmosis
Osmosis= diffusion of water
molecules through a selectively Connection: I
preamble membrane. previously learned
Since cells can’t function that the cell
properly without adequate membrane is also
water, many cellular preamble to water
processes depend on molecules, making
osmosis. osmosis possible too.
Osmosis and Diffusion
In osmosis, water molecules
move by diffusion from an area
where they are highly
concentrated through the cell
membrane to an area where
they are less concentrated.
When does an Effects of Osmosis
imbalance in water Osmosis can have important
molecules between consequences on cells.
inside the cell and - When the concentration
outside of the cell of water in the cell is the
occur and how can you same as outside the
prevent it? shape is normal.
- When the cell is floating
What are the in water that contains a
consequences of a cell lot of salt the
shrinking or swelling? concentration of water
molecules outside the
cell is lower than inside.
Thus, water moves out
of the cell by osmosis
and the cell shrinks.
- When the cell is floating
in water that contains a
very small amount of
salt the water inside the
cell contains more salt.
 Thus, the concentration
of water outside the cell
is higher than inside so
the water moves into the
cell causing it to swell.

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Active Transport Passive transport

Moving materials through the
cell membrane by diffusion or Active transport
osmosis doesn’t require the cell
to use its own energy. Connection: Passive
Passive transport= movement transport is like riding
of dissolved material through a your bike down the
cell membrane without using hill while active
cellular energy. transport is like riding
If the cell needs a substance it up the hill. Going
that is present in higher downhill, no energy
concentration inside than out it needs to be exerted,
needs to use its own energy to but going up hill can
move the molecules in the pose as a physical
opposite direction they demanding task.
normally would.
Active transport= movement of
materials through a cells
membrane using cellular
energy.
Active transport requires the
cell to use its own energy,
passive transport doesn’t.
Transport Proteins
One method of active transport
is for transport proteins in the
cell membrane to pick up
molecules outside and carry
them in/take out substances
using energy.
 e.g. calcium, potassium and
sodium are carried in and out
of the cell in this way.

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How can the cell Transport by Engulfing

membrane engulf a Another method is for the cell
particle when it is membrane to surround and
already surrounding engulf a particle.
and holding a cell - Then, the cell
together? membrane wraps
around the particle and
How does wrapping forms a vacuole within
around a particle form the cell.
a vacuole within the - It uses its energy
cell? throughout the entire
process.
How does this bring in
or take out a
substance into/from
the cell?
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Why Cells Are Small Connection: The way
Once a molecule enters the the stream of moving
cell, if it were bigger, the cytoplasm moves
stream of moving cytoplasm molecules around the
that carries it to its destination cell is like the
would have to travel farther to currents of an ocean
bring it to all parts of the cell, move a raft.
making it more time
consuming.
- It would also take longer
to remove wastes.
A big cell couldn’t function well
enough to survive.