BIOTECHNOLOGY

QUARTER I
WEEK 1 – 2

Cellular Structures
The ideas of these three men led to the creation of the cell theory. These are
the three main principles of cell theory.
1. All living organisms are made up of cells.
2. Cells are the most basic unit of life.
3. Cells only come from the division of pre-existing cells. In other words,
spontaneous generation of cells does not occur.
The history of cell theory
17th Century
 Malpighi develops microscopy
 Hooke gives the cell its name
 Leeuwenhoek observes microorganisms
19th Century
 Brown defines the nucleus
 Ramon y Cajal studies nervous tissue
 Schleiden, Schwann and Virchow develop the cell theory
20th Century
 Microscopes are perfected
In the 19th century, optical microscopes were greatly improved, enabling
scientists to explore cells in more detail due to the clearer and more
magnified images offered by the instruments. Microscopes continue to
evolve today.
The development of the electronic microscope revolutionized cell biology.
It can magnify images up to one million times their actual size, which means
that we are able to observe tiny details inside cells and organelles.
First Cells Seen in Cork

While the invention of the telescope made the Cosmos

accessible to human observation, the microscope opened up smaller worlds,
showing what living forms were composed of. The cell was first discovered and
named by Robert Hooke in 1665. He remarked that it looked strangely similar
to cellula or small rooms which monks inhabited, thus deriving the name.
However what Hooke actually saw was the dead cell walls of plant cells (cork)
as it appeared under the microscope. Hooke’s description of these cells was
published in Micrographia. The cell walls observed by Hooke gave no
indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells.
Using handcrafted microscopes, Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first person
to observe and describe single celled organisms, which he originally referred to
as animalcules (which we now refer to as microorganisms). He was also the first
to record and observe muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa and blood flow in
capillaries (small blood vessels).
Landmarks in the Study of Cell Biology
Prior to 1931 when the first electron microscope was developed, magnification
of microscopes was limited to about 2 000 times. The small cell structures did
not show up well or remained invisible. The electron microscope not only
showed more detail of previously known parts of the cell but also revealed new
parts. Cells and cell structures can now be examined at magnifications of up to
500 000 times and more.
Cells Have Structures
Imagine that you could become smaller, down to the size of one micron (1
micron = 1/1000 inch). Your whole body would be smaller than the typical
animal cell (see figure 4). Imagine, that you could step inside this cell and
explore it. Find out some structures inside a cell. Be able to explore how
bacterial cells are different from other cells such as plant and animal cells.

The Structure of the Cell

While cells differ in size and shape, most of them have common structures. The
cells of animals, plants, and related organisms have three basic structures:
1. Cell Membrane - serves as the outer boundary of the cell and organelles
the passage of materials to and from the cell.
2. Nucleus - serves as the control center of the cell.
3. Cytoplasm - the material between the nucleus and the outer boundary
where organelles are found.
Cell Membrane
The cell membrane is a thin semi•permeable membrane that surrounds the
cytoplasm of a cell, enclosing its contents. Its function is to protect the integrity
of the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances into the cell, while
keeping other substances out. It also serves as a base of attachment for the
cytoskeleton in some organisms and the cell wall in others. Thus, the cell
membrane also serves to help support the cell and help maintain its shape.
The first thing you see as you approach this cell is a thin sac-like membrane.
The cell membrane covers the entire surface of the cell. As you take the
imaginary step through the cell membrane, you immediately come in contact
with the cytoplasm. Moving through the cytoplasm would be like moving
through a jar of jelly.
Cytoplasm Structures
The cytoplasm consists of all of the contents outside of the nucleus and
enclosed within the cell membrane of a cell. This includes mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome, Golgi bodies, lysosomes, and vacuole.
•Mitochondria
As you walk through the cytoplasm, you might bump into sausage-shaped
bodies called mitochondria. They are commonly called the “power houses” of
the cell. They trap the energy that results when food is broken down. Just as a
power plant supplies energy to a business, mitochondria provide energy for the
cell. Some types of cells are more active than others, that’s why they can have
more mitochondria.
Analyze this: Why might a muscle cell have more mitochondria than other
cells?
Feedback: Muscle cells are always undergoing some type of movement.
Muscles are also the ones exposed to strenuous activities like doing some
household chores, running, walking, etc.

•Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of canals extending from the nucleus to
the cell membrane and takes up quite a lot of space in some cells. It moves
material from one place to another place inside the cell.
There are two regions of the endoplasmic reticulum that differ in both structure
and function:
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum because it has ribosomes attached to the
cytoplasmic side of the membrane and it is a series of flattened sacs.
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum because it lacks attached ribosomes and
it is a tubule network
•Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the tiny dots you see on the edges of some of the endoplasmic
reticulum. Some cells may contain millions of ribosomes. The actual building
blocks of the cell (proteins) are made on the surfaces of these very tiny
structures.
•Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are the packaging and releasing structures of the cell particularly
those from those from the endoplasmic reticulum. When something is released,
it is given off by the cell.
Compare your answer to this: The fact that plants produce so many materials
(food, oils, resins, etc.), they will need more Golgi bodies to store the said
materials.
•Lysosomes
Do you know that cells also produce wastes? In the cytoplasm, structures called
lysosomes contain chemicals that digest wastes and worn-out/damaged cell
parts. When a cell dies, chemicals in the lysosomes act to quickly break down
the cell. In a healthy cell, the membrane around the lysosome keeps it from
breaking down the cell itself. Plant cells do not have lysosomes.
•Vacuoles
Vacuoles are storage areas in cells. They may store water, food, or waste
products. In plant cells, vacuoles are big.it can be found in animal and plant
cells. In animal cells, vacuoles are small. Why do you think so?
Feedback: Plants are said to be the producers of food in the environment. They
may produce sugar, oil, nectar, etc. They need bigger vacuoles to store such
materials.
The Nucleus
A large, round nucleus is found somewhere in the cytoplasm. As the “control
center” of the cell, the nucleus contains coded instructions for all of the cell’s
activities. These coded instructions are stored on special structures called the
chromosomes. Chromosomes are seen when a cell is reproducing.

Chromosomes are tiny threads that are present in all cells apart from red blood
cells. They contain all the information for an entire person to develop. There are
46 chromosomes in each cell. They come in 22 pairs, plus another special pair
that determine the person’s sex. DNA strands look like a twisted ladder.
Sections of DNA are called genes. All the instructions for growing a new
human being are coded into the DNA molecule.
Just as the cell membrane covers the cell, a nuclear membrane covers the
nucleus of the cell. It regulates the passage of materials in and out of the
nucleus.

You have just looked at the inner workings of an animal cell. Imagine now that
you are taking a microscopic tour through the green plant cell below. You will
find that some structures in this cell are quite different from the structures in an
animal cell. Take note of them.

•Cell wall
The outer covering of the plant cell is not soft and thin. Instead, it is surrounded
by a rigid/tough structure called the cell wall that supports and protects the plant
cell.

•Chloroplasts.
Substances inside the chloroplast help a green plant cell trap the sun’s energy
and then produce food.

Cells Vary in Shape, Size, and Arrangement

Just as there is a variety among organisms, there is also a variety among cells.
Your own body contains over a hundred different kinds of cells. Some of these
cells are round. Others are shaped like long, tangled strings.
Cells vary greatly in size, too. The bacteria that naturally live deep inside your
body are very tiny. The ostrich egg cell below is 800,000 times bigger than the
bacterial cells.

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Not all organelles described in the previous section are present in all cells. Cells
can be grouped into two large categories: prokaryotes (cell without a true
nucleus) and eukaryotes (cell with a true nucleus).
Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes are single celled organisms that are the earliest and most primitive
forms of life on earth. As organized in the Three Domain System, prokaryotes
include bacteria and archaeans. Prokaryotes are able to live and thrive in various
types of environments including extreme habitats such as hydrothermal vents,
hot springs, swamps, wetlands, and the guts of animals.
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Prokaryotic cells are not as complex as eukaryotic cells. They have no true
nucleus as the DNA is not contained within a membrane or separated from the
rest of the cell, but is coiled up in a region of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.
Prokaryotes do not have membrane bound organelles like mitochondria and
endoplasmic reticulum. They do not possess lysosomes, vacuoles, and Golgi
bodies. Their ribosomes are small. Chlorophyll, when present, is not contained
in chloroplasts.
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes include animals, plants, fungi and protists. Typically, eukaryotic
cells are more complex and much larger than prokaryotic cells. On average,
prokaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller in diameter than eukaryotic cells.
Eukaryotes have well-defined nuclear membrane and distinct nucleolus.
Membrane bound organelles are found in eukaryotes, such as Golgi bodies and
mitochondria.
What are the differences between these cell types? A major difference between
the two is the presence of membrane-bound organelles. Inside these cells we get
things like mitochondria, Golgi bodies, a nucleus, etc. They are clearly defined
because they have internal membranes around them. The membranes hold them
together. Prokaryote lacks these membranes, so consequently they don’t have
these organelles. Instead of a clearly defined nucleus with chromosomes, they
have a single, circular piece of DNA. Thus, prokaryotes are simple and smaller
than eukaryotes.
What do they have in common? Well, while the prokaryotes do not have
internal membranes, they do have a cell membrane just like the eukaryotes.
They are also filled with cytoplasm. Finally, they have organelles which do not
require membranes, (e.g. ribosomes).
Imagine you could take a trip into a tiny bacterial cell. Bacteria and blue-
bacteria are quite different from other cells. They have fewer structures
than plant or animal cells.
However, they carry out all of the life processes that other cells carry out. You
can see that a bacterium has a cell wall, a cell membrane, and cytoplasm. The
chromosome material, which directs the cell’s activities, floats freely through
the cytoplasm. The other structures are lacking.

Table 1. Comparison of prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells