NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology

Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
LECTURE ACTIVITIES NO. 8
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Name: Santiago, Prancheska Abigayle P. Section: 12 Date Submitted: Oct. 27, 2020

I. INTRODUCTION

The nervous system is the coordinating complex of the human body that transmit the essential sensory
information (affector division) to the effectors such as muscles and glands (effector division). These two
main subdivisions make up the Peripheral nervous system (PNS). Integration of the signals takes place in
the Central Nervous system (CNS). The PNS and the CNS are major divisions of the nervous system.

II. ACCOMPLISH THE ACTIVITY TABLE 1.

GUIDE QUESTIONS ANSWERS

8.01A. List the functions of the nervous 1.Receiving sensory input - carry sensory information
system. through pathways that connect the skin and skeletal muscles
to the CNS for processing.
2.Integrating information - Stimuli that are received by
sensory structures are communicated to the nervous
system where that information is processed.
3.Controlling muscles and glands - The nervous
system activates effector organs such as muscles and
glands to cause a response called motor output.
4.Maintaining homeostasis - It provides monitoring,
response, and regulation of all systems in the human body
and other organisms.
5.Establishing and maintaining mental activity

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Biofacultymember2020
NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology
Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
8.02A. List the divisions of the nervous 1. Central nervous system (CNS) - the central nervous
system and describe the characteristics of system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain plays
each. a central role in the control of most bodily functions, including
awareness, movements, sensations, thoughts, speech, and
memory. Some reflex movements can occur via spinal cord
pathways without the participation of brain structures.
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - The PNS consists of
the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord. The
main function of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the limbs and
organs, essentially serving as a relay between the brain and
spinal cord and the rest of the body.
3. Sensor division - Conducts action potentials from sensory
receptors to the CNS. Sensors are characterized depending on
the value of some of the parameter:
1. Input characteristics
2. Transfer characteristics
3. Output characteristics
4. Motor division - Conducts action potentials to effector
organs, such as muscles and glands
5.Somatic nervous system - The somatic nervous system (SNS or
voluntary nervous system) is the part of the peripheral nervous system
associated with the voluntary control of body movements via skeletal
muscles.The somatic nervous system consists of afferent nerves or sensory
nerves, and efferent nerves or motor nerves.

6. Autonomic nervous system -The autonomic nervous system transmits

action potential from the CNS to control system that acts largely
unconsciously and regulates bodily functions, such as the heart rate,
digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual
arousal.

7. Enteric nervous system - A special nervous system found only in the

digestive tract. The enteric nervous system (ENS) is a quasi autonomous
part of the nervous system and includes a number of neural circuits that
control motor functions, local blood flow, mucosal transport and
secretions, and modulates immune and endocrine functions.

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Biofacultymember2020
NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology
Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
8.03A. Describe the structure of Neuron:
neurons and the function of their 1. Cell body–which contains a single nucleus
components. Describe the location, 2. Dendrite–which is a cytoplasmic extension from the cell body,
structure, and general function of that usually receives information from other neurons and
glial cells. transmits the information to the cell body
3. Axon–which is a single long cell process that leaves the cell
body at the axon hillock and conducts sensory signals to the
CNS and motor signals away from the CNS

Glial:

The myelin sheath is not actually part of the neuron. Myelin is produced
by glial cells (or simply glia, or “glue” in Greek), which are non-neuronal
cells that provide support for the nervous system. Glia function to hold
neurons in place (hence their Greek name), supply them with nutrients,
provide insulation, and remove pathogens and dead neurons. In the
central nervous system, the glial cells that form the myelin sheath are
called oligodendrocytes; in the peripheral nervous system, they are called
Schwann cells.

8.03B. Define and describe the structure Nucleus - is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Inside its
of a nucleus, a ganglion, a nerve tract, fully enclosed nuclear membrane, it contains the majority of the
and a nerve. cell's genetic material. This material is organized as DNA
molecules, along with a variety of proteins, to form
chromosomes.
Ganglion - is a group of neuron cell bodies in the periphery. ...
These ganglia are the cell bodies of neurons with axons that are associated
with sensory endings in the periphery, such as in the skin, and that extend
into the CNS through the dorsal nerve root. The ganglion is an
enlargement of the nerve root.

Nerve tract - are usually given composite names that indicates their origin
and termination.

Nerve - is the primary structure of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

that encloses the axons of peripheral neurons. A nerve provides a
structured pathway that supports neuron function. A nerve consists of
many structures including axons, glycocalyx, endoneurial fluid,
endoneurium, perineurium, and epineurium.

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Biofacultymember2020
NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology
Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
8.04A. Describe a resting membrane The resting membrane potential of a cell is defined as the
potential and explain how an electrical potential difference across the plasma membrane when the cell is
action potential is generated and in a non-excited state. Traditionally, the electrical potential difference
propagated. Compare the roles of across a cell membrane is expressed by its value inside the cell relative to
leak and gated ion channels. the extracellular environment. During the resting state the membrane
potential arises because the membrane is selectively permeable to K+.
An action potential begins at the axon hillock as a result of depolarisation.
During depolarisation voltage gated sodium ion channels open due to an
electrical stimulus.

Leak channels, also called passive channels, are always open, allowing the
passage of sodium ions (Na ) and potassium ions (K ) across the membrane
to maintain the resting membrane potential of –70 millivolts. Voltage-
gated ion channels open and close in response to specific changes in
the membrane potential.

8.04B. Describe the structure and function Synapse - The synapse is the chemical junction between the axon terminals
of a synapse. of one neuron and the dendrites of the next. It is a gap where specialized
chemical interactions can occur, rather than an actual structure. The
synapse consists of three elements: 1) the presynaptic membrane which is
formed by the terminal button of an axon, 2) the
postsynaptic membrane which is composed of a segment of dendrite or cell
body, and 3) the space between these two structures which is called the
synaptic cleft.

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Biofacultymember2020
NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology
Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
8.04C. List the parts of a reflex arc and A reflex arc is the neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs and has five
describe its function. basic components.

Most reflex arcs have five main components: 1. receptors - Sensory

receptors can be classified by the type of stimulus that generates a response
in the receptor. Broadly, sensory receptors respond to one of four primary
stimuli: Chemicals (chemoreceptors) Temperature (thermoreceptors)
Pressure (mechanoreceptors)

2. sensory neurons - A sensory neuron is a nerve cell that detects and

responds to external signals. Sensory neurons receive information via their
receptors, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, and convert
this information into electrical impulses.

3. Interneurons - are the ones in between - they connect spinal motor and
sensory neurons. As well as transferring signals between sensory and
motor neurons, interneurons can also communicate with each other,
forming circuits of various complexity. They are multipolar, just like motor
neurons.

4. motor neurons - A motor neuron (or motoneuron) is a neuron whose

cell body is located in the motor cortex, brainstem or the spinal cord, and
whose axon (fiber) projects to the spinal cord or outside of the spinal cord
to directly or indirectly control effector organs, mainly muscles and glands.

5. An effector organ - Effectors are parts of the body - such as muscles and
glands - that produce a response to a detected stimulus.

However, not all reflexes use interneurons. Some connect sensory

neurons directly to motor neurons and do not use interneurons.

8.04D. Describe a converging and a A converging pathway is a simple pathway in which two or more neurons
diverging circuit and the role of synapse with the same postsynaptic neuron.This allows information
summation in neural pathways. transmitted in more than one neuronal pathway to converge into a single
pathway.

A diverging pathway is a simple pathway in which an axon from one

neuron divides and synapses with more than one other postsynaptic
neuron.This allows information transmitted in one neuronal pathway to
diverge into two or more pathways.

Summation of signals in neuronal pathways allows integration of multiple

subthresholdlocal potentials.Summation of the local potentials can bring
the membrane potential to threshold and trigger an action potential.

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Biofacultymember2020
NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology
Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
8.05A. Compare and contrast the central Sensory (afferent) - carry information INTO the central nervous
and peripheral nervous systems. system from sense organs or motor (efferent) - carry information away
from the central nervous system (for muscle control). Cranial - connects
the brain with the periphery or spinal - connects the spinal cord with
the periphery.

The central nervous system or the CNS contains the brain and the spinal
cord. All together, the brain and the spinal cord serve the nervous
system's command station. The peripheral nervous system or PNS
contains the nerves, which leave the brain and the spinal cord and travel to
certain areas of the body.

8.06A. Describe the relationship between Each spinal nerve is attached to the spinal cord by two roots: a dorsal (or
the spinal cord and the spinal nerves. posterior) sensory root and a ventral (or anterior) motor root. The fibers of
the sensory root carry sensory impulses to the spinal cord —pain,
temperature, touch and position sense (proprioception)—from tendons,
joints and body surfaces. At 31 places along the spinal cord the dorsal and
ventral roots come together to form spinal nerves. Spinal nerves contain
both sensory and motor fibers, as do most nerves. Spinal nerves are given
numbers which indicate the portion of the vertebral column in which they
arise.

8.06B. Describe a cross section of the A cross section of the spinal cord reveals white matter arranged around a
spinal cord. butterfly-shaped area of gray matter. The white matter consists of
myelinated fibres, or axons, that form nerve tracts ascending to and
descending from the brain. The white matter is grouped into discrete
sectors called funiculi.

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Biofacultymember2020
NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology
Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
8.07A. Define plexus, and describe the - where neurons of several spinal nerves come together and
three primary plexuses, including their intermingle. This reorganizes the neurons so that the branches
branches. of nerves extending from each plexus contains neurons from
different spinal segments. The three major plexus:
1. Cervical plexus - The cervical plexus is a network of nerve fibres that
supplies innervation to some of the structures in the neck and trunk. It is
located in the posterior triangle of the neck, halfway up the
sternocleidomastoid muscle, and within the prevertebral layer
of cervical fascia.

2. Brachial plexus - The brachial plexus is the network of nerves that sends
signals from your spinal cord to your shoulder, arm and hand. A brachial
plexus injury occurs when these nerves are stretched, compressed, or in the
most serious cases, ripped apart or torn away from the spinal cord.

3. Lumbosacral plexus - The lumbosacral plexus is a network of nerves

derived from lumbar and sacral roots with each one of them dividing into
anterior and posterior branches. Their communications are called
lumbar plexus (compare: brachial plexus).

8.08A. List the parts of the brain. 1. Brainstem

2. Medulla Oblongata
3. Pons
4. Midbrain
5. Reticular formation
6. Cerebellum -
7. Diencephalon
8. Thalamus
9. Epithalamus
10. Hypothalamus
11. Cerebrum

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NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology
Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
8.08B. List the parts of the brainstem, and Brainstem - is the lower part of the brain that's connected to the
state their functions. spinal cord (part of the central nervous system in the spinal
column). The brain stem is responsible for regulating most of
the body's automatic functions that are essential for life. The
three components:
1. medulla oblongata - - the lowest part of the brain and the lowest portion
of the brainstem. The medulla oblongata is connected by the pons to
the midbrain and is continuous posteriorly with the spinal cord, with
which it merges at the opening (foramen magnum) at the base of the skull.
The medulla oblongata plays a critical role in transmitting signals between
the spinal cord and the higher parts of the brain and in controlling
autonomic activities, such as heartbeat and respiration.

2. Midbrain - The midbrain is a portion of the brain located just above the
medulla and pons and contains basic vision and hearing functions; it also
is the input center for muscle movement.

3. Pons - is part of the brainstem, and in humans and other bipeds lies
inferior to the midbrain, superior to the medulla oblongata and anterior to
the cerebellum.

8.08C. State where the cerebellum is The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a structure that is located at the back of
located. the brain, underlying the occipital and temporal lobes of the cerebral
cortex. Although the cerebellum accounts for approximately 10% of
the brain's volume, it contains over 50% of the total number of neurons in
the brain.

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NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology
Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
8.08D. List the parts of the diencephalon, Diencephalon - The diencephalon is the region of the embryonic vertebrate
and state their functions. neural tube that gives rise to anterior forebrain structures including the
thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior portion of the pituitary gland, and the
pineal gland. The 4 main components:

1. Thalamus - a pair of large ovoid organs that form most of the lateral
walls of the third ventricle of the brain. The thalamus translates neural
impulses from various receptors to the cerebral cortex.

2. Subthalamus - Receives afferent connections from the substantia nigra

and striatum and regulates skeletal muscle movements. thalamus: Either of
two large, ovoid structures of gray matter within the forebrain that relay
sensory impulses to the cerebral cortex.

3. Hypothalamus - The hypothalamus is a small region of the brain. It's

located at the base of the brain, near the pituitary gland. While it's very
small, the hypothalamus plays a crucial role in many important functions,
including: releasing hormones. regulating body temperature.

4. epithalamus.- The epithalamus is a posterior segment of the

diencephalon. The function of the epithalamus is to connect the limbic
system to other parts of the brain. Some functions of its components
include the secretion of melatonin by the pineal gland (involved in
circadian rhythms), and regulation of motor pathways and emotions.

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Biofacultymember2020
NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology
Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
8.08E. List the lobes of the cerebrum, and Cerebrum - - the principal and most anterior part of the brain in
state a function for each. vertebrates, located in the front area of the skull and consisting of two
hemispheres, left and right, separated by a fissure. It is responsible for the
integration of complex sensory and neural functions and the initiation and
coordination of voluntary activity in the body.

1. Prietal lobe - is one of the major lobes in the brain, roughly located at the
upper back area in the skull. It processes sensory information it receives
from the outside world, mainly relating to touch, taste, and temperature.
Damage to the parietal lobe may lead to dysfunction in the senses.

2. Occipital lobe - is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the
brain of mammals. The occipital lobe is the visual processing center of the
mammalian brain containing most of the anatomical region of the visual
cortex. The primary visual cortex is Brodmann area 17, commonly called
V1 (visual one).

3. Frontal Lobe - The frontal lobes are important for voluntary movement,
expressive language and for managing higher level executive functions.
Executive functions refer to a collection of cognitive skills including the
capacity to plan, organise, initiate, self-monitor and control one's responses
in order to achieve a goal.

4. Temporal lobe - The temporal lobes sit behind the ears and are the
second largest lobe. They are most commonly associated
with processing auditory information and with the encoding of memory.

8.09A. List the major ascending tracts, 1. Spinothalamic - It is responsible for the transmission of pain,
and state a function for each. temperature, and crude touch to the somatosensory region of
the thalamus.
2. Dorsal column - It conveys sensation of fine touch, vibration,
pressure, two-point discrimination and proprioception
(position) from the skin and joints.
3. Spinocerebellar (anterior and posterior) - transmit information about
body position to the cerebellum.

8.09B. Describe the sensory and Sensory areas - ascending tracts projects to specific region of the cerebral
association areas of the cerebral cortex cortex.
and discuss their interactions.
Association areas - integrate incoming sensory information, and also form
connections between sensory and motor areas.

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Biofacultymember2020
NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology
Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
8.10A. Describe the motor area of the The motor cortex is the region of the cerebral cortex involved in the
cerebral cortex and discuss how it planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements. Classically,
interacts with other parts of the frontal the motor cortex is an area of the frontal lobe located in the posterior
lobe. precentral gyrus immediately anterior to the central sulcus. The premotor
area of the frontal lobe is where motor functions are organized before they
are actually initiated in the primary motor cortex.

8.10B. Distinguish between upper and Upper Motor neurons - have cell bodies in the cerebral cortex. The axons
lower motor neurons and between of upper motor neurons forms descending tracts that connect to lower
direct and indirect tracts. motor neurons.

Lower motor neurons - have cell bodies in the anterior horn of the spinal
cord gray matter or in cranial nerve nuclei.

Direct tracts - they extend directly from upper motor neurons in the
cerebral cortex to lower motor neurons in the spinal cord.

Indirect tracts - controlled by the cerebral cortex, basal nucleic, and

cerebellum. These are indirect because no direct connection exists between
the cortical and spinal neurons.

8.10C. Discuss how the basal nuclei and The cerebellum corrects the errors in each movement command and
cerebellum regulate motor functions. imparts motor skills. The basal ganglia release appropriate movements
from the premotor and motor areas. As well, they release appropriate
behaviors from the prefrontal association areas.

8.11A. Discuss the right and left cerebral The right cerebral hemisphere receives sensory input from and control
hemispheres and speech. muscular activity in the left half of the body. It is more involved in
functions such as three-dimensional or spatial perception and musical
ability.
The left cerebral hemisphere receives sensory input from and control
muscular in the right half of the body.The left hemisphere is more
analytical hemisphere, emphasizing such skills as mathematics and speech.
Sensory Speech area - Wernicke's area is the region of the brain that is
important for language development. It is located in the temporal lobe on
the left side of the brain and is responsible for the comprehension
of speech, while Broca's area is related to the production of speech.
Motor speech area - To speak clearly, you must move the muscles of your
mouth, tongue, and throat. This is where the motor cortex comes into play.
Located in the frontal lobe, the motor cortex takes information from
Broca's area and tells the muscles of your face, mouth, tongue, lips, and
throat how to move to form speech.

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Biofacultymember2020
NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology
Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
8.11B. Compare and contrast the features Working memory - Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited
of working, short-term, and the two capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is
types of long-term memory. important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and
behavior.

Short-term memory last longer than working memory and can be retained
for few minutes to a few days and is stored by a mechanism involving
increased synaptic transmission.

The short-term memory is transferred to long-term memory, where it may

be restored for only a few minutes or become permanent, by consolidation,
and stored by a mechanism involving the formation of new and stronger
synaptic connections.

The two types of long-term memory:

1. Declarative memory or explicit memory involves the retention of facts,

such as names, dates, and places, as well as related emotional undertones.

2. Procedural memory - or reflexive memory, involves the development of

motor skills, such as riding a bicycle. Only a small amount of procedural
memory is lost overtime.

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NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology
Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
8.12A. Describe the three meningeal There are three layers of meningeal layers of the central nervous system:
layers surrounding the central nervous
system, the four ventricles of the brain, 1. Dura - The dura mater is the outermost layer of the meninges, lying
and the origin and circulation of the directly underneath the bones of the skull and vertebral column. It is thick,
cerebrospinal fluid. tough and inextensible.

2. Arachnoid mater - The arachnoid mater is the middle layer of the

meninges, lying directly underneath the dura mater. It consists of layers of
connective tissue, is avascular, and does not receive any innervation.

3. Pia Mater - The pia mater is located underneath the sub-arachnoid space.
It is very thin, and tightly adhered to the surface of the brain and spinal
cord. It is the only covering to follow the contours of the brain (the gyri
and fissures).

The four ventricles of the brain:

1. Right and left lateral ventricle - The left and right lateral ventricles are
located within their respective hemispheres of the cerebrum. They have
‘horns’ which project into the frontal, occipital and temporal lobes. The
volume of the lateral ventricles increases with age.

2. Third ventricle - The lateral ventricles are connected to the third

ventricle by the foramen of Monro. The third ventricle is situated in
between the right and the left thalamus. The anterior surface of the
ventricle contains two protrusions:

Supra-optic recess – located above the optic chiasm.

Infundibular recess – located above the optic stalk.

3. Fourth ventricle - The fourth ventricle is the last in the system – it

receives CSF from the third ventricle via the cerebral aqueduct. It lies
within the brainstem, at the junction between the pons and medulla
oblongata.

Cerebrospinal Fluid Circulation and Absorption

Beginning in the lateral ventricles, CSF flows through two passageways

into the third ventricle. From the third ventricle it flows down a long,
narrow passageway (the aqueduct of Sylvius) into the fourth ventricle.

©
Biofacultymember2020
NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology
Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
8.13A. List the various types of cranial 1. Olfactory nerve - transmits sensory information to your brain
nerves, and briefly describe their regarding smells that you encounter.
functions. 2. Optic nerve - sensory nerve that involves vision
3. Oculomotor nerve - muscle function and pupil response.
4. Trochlear nerve - controls your superior oblique muscle. This is the
muscle that’s responsible for downward, outward, and inward eye
movements.
5. Trigeminal nerve- largest of your cranial nerves and has both sensory
and motor functions.
6. Abducens nerve - controls another muscle that’s associated with eye
movement, called the lateral rectus muscle. This muscle is involved in
outward eye movement.
7. Facial nerve - provides both sensory and motor functions
8. Vestibulocochlear nerve - involving hearing and balance.
9. Glossopharyngeal nerve - has both motor and sensory functions
10. Vagus nerve - a very diverse nerve. It has both sensory and motor
functions.
11. Accessory nerve - a motor nerve that controls the muscles in your
neck. These muscles allow you to rotate, flex, and extend your neck
and shoulders.
12. Hypoglossal nerve - responsible for the movement of most of the
muscles in your tongue. It starts in the medulla oblongata and moves
down into the jaw, where it reaches the tongue.
8.14A. Contrast the structure of the The somatic nervous system has sensory and motor pathways, whereas
autonomic nervous system and the the autonomic nervous system only has motor pathways. The autonomic
somatic nervous system. nervous system controls internal organs and glands, while the somatic
nervous system controls muscles and movement.

8.14B. Name the two divisions of the The autonomic nervous system (ANS) contains two subdivisions:
autonomic nervous system and describe 1. Parasympathetic (PSNS) nervous system - The parasympathetic nervous
the anatomical and neurotransmitter system is responsible for the body's rest and digestion response when the
differences between them. body is relaxed, resting, or feeding. Anatomically defined division of
the autonomic nervous system, being that part whose motor components
run in cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X and in the sacral nerves.
2. Sympathetic (SNS) nervous systems - directs the body's rapid
involuntary response to dangerous or stressful situations. A flash flood of
hormones boosts the body's alertness and heart rate, sending extra blood to
the muscles.

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Biofacultymember2020
NUR11O1 Integrated Human Anatomy and Physiology
Department of Biology
Institute of Arts and Sciences
Far Eastern University
8.14C. Compare and contrast the general The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for the
functions of the parasympathetic and “fight or flight” response during any potential danger. On the
sympathetic nervous systems. other hand, the parasympathetic nervous system inhibits the
body from overworking and restores the body to a calm and
composed state.
8.15A. Discuss how the enteric nervous The enteric nervous system can operate autonomously. In vertebrates,
system can act independently of the CNS. the enteric nervous system includes efferent neurons, afferent neurons, and
interneurons, all of which make the enteric nervous system capable of
carrying reflexes and acting as an integrating center in the absence
of CNS input.

8.16A. Describe the changes that occur in As you age, your brain and nervous system go through natural changes.
the nervous system with advancing age. Your brain and spinal cord lose nerve cells and weight
(atrophy). Nerve cells may begin to pass messages more slowly than in the
past. Waste products can collect in the brain tissue as nerve cells break
down.

III. CONCLUSION: Make general statement (Maximum of three sentences on what you have learned on this
activity.

I have learned that our nervous system is responsible for our every movement, responses, the way we think,
and for our well-being. Without the nervous system it is impossible to walk, breath, talk, and unable to
move eyes, mouth, finger and muscles.

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