An Assignment Submitted In Partial Fulfillment for the Requirement of the Award of the

Doctorate in Theology Degree at the University of America - TX (USA).

TOPIC

ADVANCED RESEARCH METHODS

Book Review

(‘Research Methods: An Introduction’ by Olive M and Abel M)

STUDENT NAME

Martin Nyagah

Submitted To

Dr Macharia

IFTC

2nd May, 2021.

 INTRODUCTION

THE AUTHORS

Abel Mugenda

Abel Mugenda is a renowned university don with many years of teaching and research at the
university at the University of Nairobi. Professor works at the faculty of Humanities and Social
Social sciences in the University of Nairobi where he has taught sociology and conducted
research for decades. He doubles up as an administrator in the same university. A widely
travelled scholar Abel has authored several books among them‘Research Methods: an
introduction’ and ‘Social science research; theory and principles’

Professor Abel Mugenda is married to Olive Mugenda, the vice chancellor of the Kenyatta
University with whom they have three children.

Olive Mugenda

A long serving lecturer and educationist cum administrator of repute, Olive Mugenda is currently
the Vic Chancellor of Kenyatta University. She is reputed as the star of transformation at the
university that has been occasioned by tremendous infrastructural and population growth.

A mother of four children,Olive is the wife to Abel Mugenda, a don and administrator at The
University of Nairobi. Professor Olive Mugenda is a home economist with great academic
achievements as a lecturer and author.She has authored two other books, namely…

Born in 1946 Olive Mugenda has a passionate inclination towards empowerment through quality
education.
The book, ‘Research Methods: An Introduction’, just as its title suggests is an adequate
introduction to research methods in the education and social science spheres. The book has
covered the most important aspects of academic writing at undergraduate and graduate studies
level. It provides clear guidelines and examples for any starting or needy researcher and writer.

CHAPTER ONE: MEANING AND PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

Owing to the glowing global need to address emerging social,political and economic issues there
is a broadened interest in research. This chapter explores the meaningand purpose of
research,sources of knowledge and the relationships among research,science and theory.

Research means carrying out a diligent inquiryor a critical examination of a given phenomenon.
it also involves the critical analysis of existing conclusions or theories with regard to newly
discovered data.

In Moly’s definition, research is a process of arriving at effective solutions to problems through

systematic collection analysis and interpretations of data.

There are fourmain purposes of data collection are; the first and main is to discover new
knowledge. Secondly it is to describe a phenomenon. The third purpose is to enable predictions;
the fourth is to enable control which concerns itself with the ability to regulate a phenomenon
under study. The fifth purpose of reach is to enable explanation of phenomenon and lastly the
sixth purpose of reseach is to enable theory development.

To understand this topic on meaning and purpose of knowledge it is important to understand that
knowledge has the following main souces; research. Experience ,tradition,authotitative expertise,
and also intuition which is the perception, or the explanation or insight into a phenomenon by
instinct.
Research and science are terms that are often times used interchangeably though they are quite
different in meaning and use. Research and science are correlated in that both are concerned with
the discovery ofnew facts. In research facts are often collected to serve a useful purpose , with
focus on application. In science the facts are are collected with the sole purpose of testing or
developing theory.y based is termed as basic research or scientific inquiry.

Research and scientific theory are interrelated in that research is inquiry through
describing,predicting,control and explanation into phenomenon based on the assumption that
phenomena are not only orderly and are discoverable but also can be manipulated. These
assumptions form the basis of scientific theory. A theory is a system of explaining phenomenon
by stating constructs and the laws that interrelate these constructs to each other. Scientific
theories purposefully serves to ; through theoretical concepts to show commonalities in
phenomenon that may seem isolated at a glance, by its very laws to help us to make predictions
and control events. And thirdly to help us organize isolated findings from different research
studies into an explanatory framework. Through further research, the researchers are able to
revise,test and improve on earlier accepted theories and conclusions.

The author though well intentioned in lifting the discipline of research above other forms of
inquiry, creativity and discovery fails to recognize any other way in which knowledge can be
acquired. The more natural forms of discovery are out rightly ignored since they are not
considered scientific. Unlike in some other chapters of the book , the authors do not give
practical examples.

CHAPTER TWO: BASIC TERMS IN RESEARCH

This chapter serves to expain the basic terms used in research, as a key prerequisite toeffective
communication.

Population is the entire group of individuals, eventsor objects with a common observable
characteristic or an aggregate of all that conforms to a given characteristic. For example all
patients suffering diabetes in the province. The generalized population is called the target
population from which the researcher identifies an accessible population which in turn provides
a sample population that is comparable to the target population in the characteristics that are
most important to the study. For example an acceible population could be all diabetic patients
attending clinics in Nairobi Hospitals.

Sampleis aselectsmaller group obtained from the accessible population. Members or cases in a
sample are referred to as respondents or interviewees. For instance, one hundred diabetic patients
from Nairobi clinics.

Sampling defines the process of selecting respondents to form a representative group of the
whole.

Variable is a measurable characteristic that assumes different values among the subjects. It is a
logical way of expressing a particular attribute in a subject. Variables are either quantitatively
or categorically expressed in for example number or colourrespectively.Variables are variously
classified as discussed later in chapter five.

Conceptual or Theoretical definition of variables refers to the specific meaning implied when
using a particular term to refer to a variable. For example, the variable age is conceptualized as
the period between when one was born to date. It can be recorded in years or in years and
months. Terms that are difficult to define due to their multiple meanings can only be defined by
reference to other variables. For example, the variable socio-economic status can only be
meaningfully definedreference to other measurable surrogate concepts such as
income,educationlevel,occupation and so on. In scientific inquiry the researcher must specify the
working definitions of the main varables in the study.

Operational definition refers to the measurement of a variable and the description of the
operation that will be used in measuring the variable.

Data is defined as all the information the researcher gathers for his study. Data can be classified
as primary or secondary data and also as quantitative or qualitative data.

Parameter refers to a population characteristic, in contrast to a variable that is the characteristic

of a sample drawn from a population.

Statistics is the science of organizing, describing and analyzing quantitative. it also refers to the
indices, such as means,standard,deviation,correlation coefficient etc., derived from data through
statistical procedures. A sample statistic is assumedly the unbiased estimate of of the population
parameter.

A difference is drawn between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

Objectives are the desired end or condition of a study.

Literature Review is the gathering of and reading all information and material related to ones
area of study.

This chapter further defines and gives examples on other important terms in reseach such as
problem statement, units of analysis, units of observation ,hypothesis and theory.

In defining the terms used in research the author ought to have made some distinction between
how terms such as population differ in use in other subjects as compared to research. Though the
chapter gives the common terms used in research it would have been prudent for the authors to
caution their readers that this is not an exhaustive detail of all research terms. Otherwise a reader
could be misled to believe that when they are reading this chapter they have exhausted research
terms.

CHAPTER THREE: INTRODUCTION SECTION

In this section the process of identifying a research problem,the characteristics of a good research
problem,and stating the problem,the purpose, objective(s) and the hypothesis(ses) of a research
study are explained with relevant examples. To identify a research problem, first identify the
broad study area of interest which should be related to the professional goals and interests of the
researcher. Secondly, identify a specific area that will form the basis of your study. In stating
both the problem and the purpose the researcher starts from the general area down to the specific
area of study.

Hypothesis being the prediction of the researcher regarding the outcome it states the possible
differences,relationships or causes between two variables or concepts. The hypothesis is
important as it offers direction,ensures collection of the necessary evidence,enables assessment
of collected data in terms of relevance and organization and among others it guides the collection
of data and provide for their meaningful interpretation relative to the problem under
investigation. This section also analysis the characteristics of a good hypothesis. There is a null
hypothesis which is a statistical hypothesis that shows that no relationship or difference exists.
There is also an alternative or non-directional hypothesis also called a research hypothesis which
states that there is a relationship or differences but the researcher does not know the nature of
such a relationship or difference.

Assumptions and Limitations.

An assumption is any fact that the researcher takes to be true without verifying it. A limitation
refers to an aspect of the research that may influence the results negatively but the researcher has
no control over them.

Apart from this detailed explanation of the introduction and the other parts of research paper,
there author would have done the reader a lot of good by including a complete sample paper or in
the various parts.

CHAPTER FOUR: THEREVIEW LITERATURE

Review of literature serves to serves to determine what has already been done in relation to the
research problem. The review will reveal what strategies ,procedures and measuring instruments
have been found useful in investigating the problem in question.It will also suggest other
procedures and approaches. Among many other purposes the review of literature is to familiarize
the researcher with the previous studies thus facilitating interpretation of the study results ,helps
the researcher to redefine and limit the research problem,gives the researcher the benefit of
reading the recommendations of other researchers and finally the review of literature provides an
opportunity to identify gaps in previous studies. The scope of literature review is determined by
a number of factors as outlined ,they ranging from the type and extent of literature review to be
done. The careful steps in carrying out the review of literature range from familiarity with the
library, making a list of words or phrases, the actual library visit, summarizing of the reference
cards and collect, analyze, organize and report the literature in an orderly manner among other
steps outlined in the book. The author further discusses the sources of literature with a an
informative list of examples of such sources; namely scholarly
journals,theses,dissertations,government sources,conference papers,books, references on quoted
books,international indices,abstractand periodicals among many other sources discussed. In this
section the authors continue to give tips on good reviewing of literature, referencing within text,
footnotes,quotations and cited reference and bibliography.

CHAPTER FIVE: THE METHOD SECTION

Here the authors describe the procedures that have been followed in conducting the study.
Further discussions on populations and samples is done. The authors define and analyze the
procedures of sampling, sample size and the types of sampling. The chapter explains the various
types of probability sampling, namely; probability sampling, simple random sampling,
systematic random sampling,stratified random sampling, and cluster sampling . On the other
hand is the non-probability sampling or non biased sampling with its various types; purposive
sampling, maximum variation versus homogenous sampling, snowball sampling, quota
sampling, and the convenient sampling or accidental sampling. The sampling error and sampling
flunctuation are here defined ,where the former is the discrepancy between the characteristics of
the population and the characteristics of the sample though drawn from that particular
population. This is error that is indeliberate on the part of the researcher. Curves are further
discussed as to their meanings and types with graphic illustrations.

Classification of Variablesprovides the basis for the sufficient and detailed description of
variables in the study. Procedures used to measure the variable (otherwise referred to as the
operational definition of variables) are explained here.

Control variables, extraneous variables,intervening variables, antecedent variables, suppressor

variables,distorter variables,exogenous and endogenous variables are discussed in detail as the
types of varaibles that can affect the results of a study deliberately or in deliberately on the part
of the researcher. In this section the author finally explains the measurement scales; the nominal
scale, the ordinal scale,the interval scale,the ratio scale and their specific appropriateness in
variable measurements.

This chapter is quite elaborate and serves its purpose though illustrations would have added to its
richness.
CHAPTER SIX: DEVELOPING RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

This chapter discusses research instruments, namely questionnaires, interview schedules,

observational forms and standardized tests with the accompanying process of developing them.

Questionnaires are used to obtain information about the population witheach item in the
questionnaire being developed to address a specific objective, research question or hypothesis of
the study. The types of questions used in questionnaires are either structured or closed ended
questions and unstructured or open eneded questions. The authors further show examples of both
and the advantages or disadvantages of either type.The rules for constructing questionnaires are
clearly laid out here. Items in a questionnaire must be well ordered in a logical sequence so that
respondent can find their way around with ease with the well-organized questionnaire. Tips on
how to organize a questionnaire are offered and explained.

The techniques of questionnaire presentation,pretesting and followups are discussed with the
authors going firther to discuss the subject of response rate and the all important issue of non
respondents where guidelines are offered on how to treat non respondents. When 30 percent or
more of the respondents do ot return the questionnaires then this should be a concern to the
researcher as this could affect the results of the study especially if the non respondents are
similar in characteristics that are critical to the study.

Interviews refers to the oral administration of a questionnaire or an interview schedule. The

various types of interviews ,theiradavantages or disavantages and examples are illustrated in this
section. Note taking and tape recording with the accompanying pros and cons for each are clearly
discussed. The need for effective communication, and the training of interviewers are
emphasized. The necessity for probing questions and examples of such questions is further
elaborated.

Telephone interviews can be conducted when appropriate. It has its advantages and
disadvantages as shown in this chapter.

Standardized tests are divided into norm referenced tests and criterion,they have consistency
and uniform procedures for administering while the non standardized testshave not established
a considerable procedure nor gone through the construction process to minimize errors.
Observation forms, schedules or checklists are used to record what is observed during data
collection. The researcher first develops a list of behaviours to be observed and they are checked
off during data collection as they occur.in some instances rating scales are used. More
information is given on points to bear in mind when using observation forms. The training of
observers is essential for effective work and reliable data collection.

The chapter lacks in practicality as far as questionnaire administration and interviewing are
concerned.the dynamics of carrying out an actual interview in varying settings and for diverse
needs is not given due attention. A researcher who is learning the skills of the trade or seeking to
sharpen them would like to read some elaboration on how to carry out Focused Group
discussions, Key In-depth Interviews or even the ethnographic studies.

CHAPTER SEVEN: RELIABILITY VALIDITY IN RESEARCH

Reliability is the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results or data after
repeated trials. Reliability is largely influenced by random error which is the deviation from a
true measurement due to factors that are not effectively addressed by the researcher. Reliability
increases as random error decreases. Research intruments yield data with both the true value and
an error component with the later reflecting the limitations of the instrument. The three types of
error that arise during the time of data collection are ; error due to the inaccuracy of the
instrument, error due to inaccuracy of scoring by the researcher and unexplained error. The four
techniques of testing data reliability are test- retest (double administering the same to the same
group within a given time lapse in between); equivalent –form (use two equivalent instruments
with specific forms in each form different but designed to measure the same concept); split half
(an instrument measures two parts in one session and the subject’s scores are correlated) ; and
internal consistency (obtained from a single test administered to a sample of subjects where a
score obtained in one item in the instrument is correlated with scores obtained from other items
in the instrument).The Cronbach Coefficient Alpha(a general form of the Kunder-Richardson K-
R 20) formula) is then computed to determine how the items correlate .

The correlation coefficient in the test retest technique refers to the score correlations between
two tests and is also called the coefficient of reliability or stability. The higher it is the the higher
the instrument data test retest reliability is said to yield.
Validity

This is the accuracy and meaningfulness of the inferences,based on the study results.Refers to the
accuracy of data obtained in the study in representing the varaibles of the study. Validity is a
matter of degree and no study will be perfect. Validity is largely determined by the absence or
the presence of systematic error(non random error) which has a consistent boosting effect on the
instrument. From the foregoing a contradiction appears; an instrument can yield reliable data that
are not necessarily valid. However an instrument that yields valid data will necessarily yield
reliable data but an instrument that yields relable data will not necessarily yield valid data.

There are three types of validity in data;

Construct Validity; measure of the degree to which data obtained from an instrument
meaningfully and accurately reflects or represents a theretical concept. For example readin score
test, concepts such as management, creativity and motivation that are highly abstract and
hypothetical.

Content validity; measure of the degree to which data collected using a particular instrument
represents a particular domain of indicators or content of a particulat concept.For example, a test
of arithmetic for standard four pupils would not yield content valid data if items would not
include all four operations of addition,substraction, multiplication and division.

Criterion related validity; refers to use of a measure in assesing subjects ‘ behavior in specific
situations. For instance, if an instrument purports to measure job performance ,the subjects who
score high in the test must also perform well in their jobs. The two types of criterion related
validity are the predictive and the concurrent.

Two additional types of validity are the internal validity (depends on the degree to which
extraneous variables have been controlled in the study) and the external validity which refers to
the degree to which the study findings can be generalized to populations and environments
outside the experimental seeting.

Threats to internal validity are identified as history, maturation, instrumentation, pretesting,

statistical regression, attrition, differential selection and selection-maturation.
The threats to external validity are accessible and target populations, control of extraneous
variables, pro-test treatment interaction, explicit description of the variable, non-randomness of
the sample, and the multi-treatment interference.

The common research effects that can also threaten both the internal and external validity
simultaneously are the Hawthorne effect, the Placebo effect, the John Henry effect, the
pygmation effect and the Halo effect.

This chapter largely dwells on explaining technical terms in reliability and technicality but does
not offer adequate solutions to the challenge of unreliable or invalid data especially when
dealing with manipulated data. The chapter does not address the challenge of computer errors but
only views data as the raw data that has been collected from the field as the only likely source of
problems with reliability and validity.Compuers and other digitalized tools for data collection
can corrupt, manipulate or lose data leading to gaps between what the researcher knows he
collected and what is actually presented.

CHAPTER EIGHT: DATA ANALYSIS

This chapter discusses the process of data coding, data entry and the common statistical
procedures used in data analysis. Data analysis on a small scale can be done using manual
tabulations but

Pre-analysis of data

Involves the systematic organization of raw mass data to an analyzable form. For empirical and
quantitative analysis the responses to the questionnaire must be assigned numerical values whose
eecan be predetermined by the use of closed ended questions in the questionnaire. Open ened
questions are best analyzed using the qualitative data analysis techniques.

Coding and entering data

Coding refers to the conversion of data to numerical codes representing attributes or

measurements of variables. Coding should be as inclusive as possible,, the coding scheme should
be clearly and well understood by all those who are coding for the purpose of consistency. The
code categories in a questionnaire should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. The initial
coding process, especially necessary for manual coding must start with th preparation of a code
book. Advanced technology has greatly eased the coding and entry of data especially with the
latest two developments ; one, using the bubble sheets and two, using escapable questionnaires.
Once data has been entered into the computer, the choice of statistical procedure depends on
;proposed hypothesis and objectives, the research design used, and the type of measurement
scale used in the measurement of variables.

Qualitative Data Analysis;

Refers to non-empirical analysis. This involves non-quantifiable data such as case

studies,content analyses and historical studies. The researcher systematically analyzes data to
obtain detailed information that can help establish patterns,trends and relationships.

Quantitative Analysis

Commences with the description or summay of the data using descriptive statistics.

Measures of variability

Variability is the distribution of scores around a particular central value or the mean of the
distribution. Measures of variability serve to give information on the extent of individual
differences on a given variable. They also provide us with indices which we can use to describe
distribution of scores.

The three most used types of measures of variability are the range(difference between the highest
score and the lowest score); the standard deviation(extent to which scores in a distribution
deviate from their mean or average. Standard deviation involves substracting the mean from each
score to get the deviation. Variance is gotten by squaring the each deviation, sum the squared
deviation and divide this total by the degrees of freedom to obtain a measure of variability.

Frequency distribution

In this section the authors detail the shape of the distribution, frequency distribution tables,
grouped frequencies, graphic representation of a frequency distribution(histograms, polygons,
bar charts), and percentages.
Relationships

Refers to the last group of descriptive statistics that give a measure of the relationship between
two or more variables.

Inferential Statistics

Defined as the hypothesis testing techniques used to generalize from the sample to the general
population. Inferential statistics are concerned with the determination of how likely it is for the
results obtained from a sample to be similar to results expected from the general population. The
choice of test hypothesis is dependent on size of the sample, types of variables and measurement
scale and finally the type of research design.

Statistical Procedures used in inferential statistics are either parametric or non- parametric with
the former being more powerful when making inferences.

Correlation technique is used to analyze the degree of relationship between two variables. The
choice of correlation technique to use depends one, whether the variables of the study are
discrete or continuous or , two, whether the scale of the measurement used is
nominal,ordinal,interval or ratio. In the rest of this section, the pearson product-moment
correlation, the correlation co-efficient, the chi-square test, regression, the analysis of
variance(plus the t-test) are discussed with examples and their various models.

Tests of Significance

Once analysis is complete there must be a determination as to the statistical significance of the
results. The F-test and the t-test are commonly used. The regression coefficient(bi), the chi-
square value (x2),the correlation coefficient (r) and the coefficient of determination in
regression(r2) all must be tested for statistical significance.

Probability level or confidence level

These are normally indicated with the Greek letter α as ; α= 0.05, α=0.01, α=0.0001. For instance
,in an experimental design probility level of 0.05 means that of 100 studies we will expect
differences between groups to be caused by a treatment or intervention in 95 of the studies. The
0.05 isthe most used significant level in testing hypothesis in education and the social sciences.
A significance error of 0.1 is only used in e3xplanatory studies because it is too liberal.

The type i error and the type iierror refer to a situation where the null hypothesis is rejected
when it is true and where the null hypothesis is not rejected when it is false. The degree of the
level of significance determines probability of making type I or two errors.

Critique

Data analysis on a small scale can be done using manual tabulations but huge amounts of data
are better analysed using modern technological information packages.teh authors do not get to
explain the all important data ,collection, entry and generation (analysis) packages such as
stata,SPSS or Nvivo software. The chapter also lacks in practical steps in actual analysis and
may be good only for theoretical understanding of analysis.

CHAPTER NINE: WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

A problem solving document that informs the reader of the problem the problem the researcher
initially set out to investigate ,the method of investigation and the researchers findings.

The components of a reseach report include;

Title; a short and simple yet informative head that gives the reader some initial clue about the
area of research the report has covered and also indicate the major variables of the research, the
target population and possibly the geographic location of the reach. Secondly the title is used for
indexing once the document becomes official.

Dedication to some special person or persons in the rseacher’s life.

Abstract contains the meat, the salient findings of the research study and is placed at the front of
the report on a separate page.

Table of contents is like a map that guides the reader into all the sections of the report and
comprises the chapter headings, the main headings and the sub-headings with the corresponding
page of each in the body of the document.

List of tables ,list of figures and list of abbreviations and acronyms follow subsequently.
Executive Summary is a short version of the report that provides the reader with a concise and
accurate picture of the entire document.

Introduction comprises the background of the stud ,the problem statement,objectives,

hypothesis or research questions and the limitations of the study. This part of the report plays the
role of outlining the gap or gaps that exist in the area of study and present the rationale of the
study.

Literature Review is the review of information that is relevant to the researchers area of study.
It is the researcher’s critique of findings of studies done in related areas.

Methodology details the procedures used in carrying out the study and comprises of the
population, sample and sampling techniques, the research design,description of instrument or
tools used to collect data,the measurement of variables and the techniques for data analysis. It
may also include the stated level of significance. The methodology should be so discrete as to
allow replicability.

Results and discussion serves to present the results or the findings of the study in a systematic
way. Empirical studies require the use of statistics for summarizing the results and to generalize
on the general population. The basic principles in presenting data are to give all the evidence
relevant to the research questions and objectives.

The rest of the parts of a research report consists of the summary,conclusion and
recommendations; References; Acknowledgements (courtesy) and lastly the Appendices(data
collection instruments,statistical tables,consent forms,letters of approval etc.).

Chart and graph presentations are not n easy thing to do accurately. Unfortunately the authoirs
overlook this challenge and again assume that every researcher who goes to the field is computer
proficient. The authors overlook the context of their writing and fail to identify with the
challenges of research in the third world.

CHAPTER TEN: TYPES OF RESEARCH

It is evident from existing literature that research variously classified by different authors and in
this chapter the three main ways of classification shall be considered.
Broad Classifications are categorized into qualitative and quantitative research. Qualitative
research includes designs,techniques and measures that do not produce discrete numerical data.
Data is in words and is collected by direct observation, or participant observation and by
interview methods. Quantitative data uses designs ,techniquesand measures that are numerical or
quantifiable data. The advantages and disadvantages of using both classifications are discussed
briefly in this section.

Classifications by Purpose

The following classifications of research are analyzed by the author and briefly defined.

Basic Research is also called pure or fundamental research with a primary focus on adding to
the universe of scientific knowledge. No consideration is given to the practical application of the
findings to actual situations or problems.

Applied Research is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and evaluating its
usefulness in solving problems. It provides data to support theory, guide theory revision or or
suggest the development of new theory.

Action Research is conducted with the primary intention of solving a specific immediate and
concrete problem in a local setting.

Evaluation Research by Gay’s definition is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing
data in order to make decisions. It is therefore a process determining whether the intended results
were realized.

The Authors further discuss the four models of evaluation research. They identify and explain
the types of evaluation research as ; needs assessment, formative evaluation and summative
evaluation.

Classification by Methods of Analysis

Descriptive Research

Gay defines descriptive research as a process of collecting data in order to test hypothesis or to
answer questions concerning the current status of the subjects in the study. The author lays down
the purpose of descriptive research and further explains the steps involved in descriptive research
as formulation of objectives of study, designing data collection methods,sample selection, data
collection, and analyzing results.

Causal – comparative Research

This is used to explore relationships between variables.it mainly serves to determine reasons for
the current status of the phenomenon under study. The authr goes on to describe the steps
involved in causal-comparative study, its advantages and disadvantages.

Correlation Methods

Quantitative description of the degree to which variables are related. The steps involved are
problem statement, selection of subjects, data collection and data analysis. The advantages and
disadvantages of this method are discussed.

Classification by type of Research

The various classifications of research by type are Survey research, Historical Research and
observational research. Observational research is further categorized into non-participant
observation, naturalistic observation, simulation observation, participant observation,
ethnography, case studies, and content analysis.

Experimental Methods

Involve a manipulation of the independent variables to determine their effect on a dependent. In

true experiments ,the independent variables are the treatments. The types of experimental designs
are ; one short case study design, one group pre-pretest – post design, time series design, pre-test
– post test control group design or the pre-test – post testcontrol group design and matching,
posttest only control group design and the Solomon four group design.

CHAPTER ELEVEN: LOGISTICAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH

The researcher must put into consideration important logistical and ethical issues before starting
work.
Logistical issues related to research in Kenya

Considering the expensive cost of research in terms of time, financial and human resources,there
is need for careful planning.In addition to enhancing reliability and validity of data careful
planning before the research commences also minimizes the problems encountered in the field.

Logistics in research refers to all those processes, activities or actions that a researcher must
address or carry out to ensure successful completion of a research project. The three logistical
categories of conducting research are pre-field work logistics, field work logistics and post-field
work logistics.

Terms of Reference

These are necessary when a consultant is to be contracted to carry out a research project. The
terms of reference must be comprehensive because they define the scope of the research and
itemize in detail what the client expects the consultant to do.

After a research proposal is ready, a formal agreement may be drawn between the researcher and
the client. Then the researcher ,depending on their corporate status and research regularity may
or may not obtain a permit from the office of the president. Letters of approval can also be
obtained from relevant authorities when the researcher is a donor or government institution
having met all the preset conditions.

Establishing a work plan is a requirement for efficiency in research. This is a plan of action
detailing various tasks that need to be done in the whole of the research process with time frames
for each task.

Other key tasks and processes that demand attention before research work begins are ; training of
research assistants and enumerators,pre-testing the instrument , sampling, and distributing the
instrument.

Field work Logistics

The importance of field work to quality data collection is emphasized and some common field
work problems highlighted. Also provided are the tips for conducting field work. The
significance and form of Post –field work logistics are discussed and emphasized.
Ethical considerations concerning research

The issues explained in this section include ethical issues relating to individual
researcher,research plagiarism and fraud, and misuse of privileges.

Ethical considerations concerning research subjects

These are issues touching on confidentiality and privacy, anonymity, physical and psychological
harm, voluntary and informed consent, financial issues and sponsored research, dissemination of
findings and academic freedom.

Ethical issues concerning the research process

Such issues as ignoring pertinent issues in research like choice of topic which should be done
freely without fear of repercussions.

The other is ethical issues discussed are issues in experimental designs, and use of tests in
research.

The authors uses a placating approach in addressing the difficult terrain of logistics and ethics in
research. This part of research, especially the logistics is the most expensive and can render a
whole research project impossible, difficult or invalid. This forms a crucial part of quality
research. Could there be tricks to overcome the cost challenge? How can a student who is
already undergoing financial difficulties fund his or her own research? Tips of of how the
student can do this could have come in handy.

CHAPTER TWELVE: AN INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Recently, qualitative have been increasingly put to use to address social and economic problems.
The authors compare the acceptability and popularity of the two approaches of quantitative and
qualitative methods in determining the scientific method. The quantitative approach has had a
wider use and popularity as the scientific method over a long time. However qualitative mode of
inquiry is now gaining momentum.
Theoretical Debate

Both qualitative and quantitative approaches are similar in sequence and method. Proponents
from both approaches with the basis of comparison and contrast being sampling procedures
,data collection techniques,data type, data analysis procedures and interpretation of the results.
The emphasis of comparison though is in the methods other than in the bases above mentioned.
In this section the authors further lay out the ensuing debate over the two approaches.

The rest of the chapter focuses on role of qualitative research, types of qualitative research and
data analysis in qualitative research. The steps in qualitative data analysis are here discussed
under the headings of data organization, using coding, analyzing and interpreting data and
writing the report.

Visualization in Participatory Program

This is a recent innovation in qualitative research and is increasingly being used by researchers
to collect data,analyze and write a report within a relatively short time. The VIPP techniques
emphasizes group processes and involves participants in the assessment,analysis and
action(triple A) regarding a pressing issue.it is applied in a workshop setting over a few days
depending on the nature of the problem. The approach is participatory in nature and suitable for
small groups. Participants in VIPP must be knowledgeable in the subject matter under
investigation. Finally the steps involved in VIPP are listed and explained.

The authors put across their knowledge almost selectively leaving out some vital facts of
qualitative research. The style of interviewing varies with informal groups, to formal groups to
individuals which the author generalizes and presents as a one way one time fix technique. The
author does not show how both the qualitative and the quantitative data marry to produce a
comprehensive and informative report. Where and when do the two marry?The local commonly
used terms such as Focused Grouped Discussions(FGDs) and the Key Informant Interviews are
not used which could alienate the readership of the basic ,local researcher due to new terms used.
Again the authors omit the practical skills of carrying out the research apart from the use of open
ended questions.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN: WRITING A RESEARCH AND PROJECT PROPOSAL

A proposal is a document that details an intended activity and they are of two main types;
research proposal (researcher proposes to undertake a piece of research on some pertinent issue)
and project proposal ( action oriented and aimed at undertaking certainactivities to solve a
specific problem).

The components of a research proposal are; an introduction, literature Review section,

methodology section, a time schedule and a budget. These sections can still be expanded to
include the following general sections and subsections; abstract, introduction, the background to
the problem, the problem statement, the purpose of the study, the objectives of the study,
research questions,hypothesis, theoretical background or framework, conceptual framework,
rationale or justification and significance of the study, limitations and assumptions, literature
review, methodology, time schedule, budget, References and Appendix. The qualities of a good
research proposal are briefly stated and described.

The definition of a project proposal is restated with an explanation of preliminary activities

before writing a project proposal being detailed.

Writing a project proposal, the basic characteristics are described under the subheads fundable
proposals, collaborative proposals, and gender sensitive proposals.

The components of a project proposal are; a Cover Sheet with a project title, a proposed grant
period, the amount of funds requested, the implementing agency, and the funding agency.The
other components of a project proposal are similar to a research proposal aprt from a credibility
file that is more of a profile that comes just before the abstract.
CONCLUSION

Research Methods is written to meet the needs of anyone who has a quest for a starting
knowledge in research. It is informative and guiding in terms of research and presentation.
However the authors tend to be biased in their professional approachby showing a sharp
inclination towards research in education. this can be understood bearing in mind that both Olive
and Abel Mugenda are educationists. This asks the question as to the target audience of the
authors since even if the target was university students at the undergraduate, graduate or doctoral
levels it would have been important to consider that other disciplines such as health and the hard
sciences also conduct research hence they require research guidelines that fit their disciplines.
There requires to be some level of multidisciplinary inclusiveness.
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