CHAPTER ONE

Foundations of Research
1.1. Meaning and Nature of Social Inquiry
Inquiry is a process of exploration which is guided by a personal interest or question. It is driven
by our curiosity and wonder of observed phenomena. Inquiry investigations usually involve:
 Generating a question or problem to be solved
 Choosing a course of action and carrying out the procedures of the investigation
Social inquiry is an integrated process for examining social issues, ideas and themes that is
specifically linked to the social sciences.
Sources of Social Inquiry
 Traditional Knowledge
 Authoritative Knowledge
 Common Sense and Intuition
 Science as a Trustworthy Way of Knowing
1.2. Meaning and Characteristics of Research
Research is a systematic attempt to obtain answers to meaningful question and about phenomena
or events through the application of scientific procedures. The term research is composed of two
other terms ‘re’ and ‘search’. The dictionary meaning for “re” is “again”, “a new” or “over
again”, and for that of “search” is; ‘examine closely’ and carefully’, ‘to test and try’ or ‘to
probe’. Combined together it gives the meaning a careful, systematic, patient study and
investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles. (Kumar,
2005)
Scientific research is not an abrupt or accidental situation rather it is an organized, systematic
and logical process of inquiry that uses empirical observation to resolve problems and test
hypothesis. Therefore, there is great difference between research and non-research activity in
searching for truth & facts, or finding answers to questions. The process must meet certain
requirements to be called research. It should go through certain conventional procedures that
have been used before & tested for their reliability. (Punch, 2006; Kumar, 2005)

This is why most scholars emphasize on the application of scientific procedures and the search
for new facts in defining what research is. Let us see how some prominent scholars defined it;

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According to Perlinger (n.d) research is ‘‘a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of propositions about the presumed relationships among natural phenomena.’’ This
implies that, there could be simply observed phenomena that have to be tested scientifically than
simply assuming some unverified facts about it.
On the other hand to Helmstadter (n.d) ‘‘Research is the activity of solving problems that leads
to new knowledge using methods of inquiry which are currently accepted as adequate by
scholars in the field.’’ The above two definitions generally imply that, research is a structured
inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and create new
applicable knowledge.
Very simply stated, research could be conceived as the collection of information needed to
answer a question that can help you solve a problem. But it is a formal, systematic and intensive
data collection accompanied with employing scientific analysis of the raw obtained data. The
systematic collection and analysis of data may finally result in the development of
generalizations, principles, theories, predictions and generally new knowledge & solution to
problems.
The goal of research is problem solving and the problem could be of an immediate or practical
value or they could be of theoretical value.
The main characteristic of research includes:
 It is Systematic, ordered, planned and disciplined
 It is directed towards the solution of the problem
 It is critical meaning many truths are tentative and are subject to change as a result of
subsequent research.
 Is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence
 Demands accurate observation and description
 Requires expertise;
 Emphasizes the development of generalizations or principle or theories that will be
helpful in predicting future occurrences
1.3. Methodological Approaches in Social Science Research
A. Qualitative versus quantitative research
Qualitative research is a research undertaking that study things in their natural settings,
attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to

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them. It’s about getting people to talk about their opinions so you can understand their
motivations and feelings.
Major characteristics of qualitative research
• Exploring a problem and developing a detailed understanding of a central phenomenon
• Having the literature review play a minor role but justify the problem
• Stating the purpose and research questions in a general and broad way so as to the
participants’ experiences
• Collecting data based on words from a small number of individuals so that the
participants’ views are obtained
• Analyzing the data for description and themes using text analysis and interpreting the
larger meaning of the findings
• Writing the report using flexible, emerging structures and evaluative criteria, and
including the researchers’ subjective reflexivity and bias
Quantitative research is ‘Explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analyzed
using mathematically based methods (in particular statistics)’
Major characteristics of quantitative research
• A need for an explanation of the relationship among variables
• Providing a major role for the literature through suggesting the research questions
• Creating purpose statements, research questions, and hypotheses that are specific, narrow,
measurable, and observable
• Collecting numeric data from a large number of people using instruments with preset
questions and responses
• Writing the research report using standard, fixed structures and evaluation criteria, and
taking an objective, unbiased approach
B. Applied versus Basic research
Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems.
The primary criterion of success in applied research is contribution to the solution of specific
problems.
 Applied research is funded by government agencies, private firms, nongovernmental
interest organizations, to further their respective purposes in terms of social and medical
improvements, economic profitability, ideological and political acclaim, etc.

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 • Applied research helps interpret and refine the patron’s problems to make them
researchable, and then investigates possible solutions.
• Rewards are primarily for results that help the patron realize his purposes.
On the other hand basic research is a scientific investigation that involves the generation of new
knowledge or development of new theories; its results often cannot be applied directly to specific
situations.
• Basic research is successful when it discovers new phenomena or new ideas of general
interest.
• The aim is theoretical, to improve general understanding.
• It improves our grasp of what the world is like and is thus also a basis for developing
efficient technologies.
• The result of basic research, when successful, is discovery of new phenomena and new
ideas of general interest.
C. Descriptive versus co-relational research
Mainly the distinction between these two types is done based on the objective that research
aspires to attain. For instance if the research is designed to simply describe a situation problem,
phenomena, an organization, a certain region etc… the research is classified as descriptive.
Descriptive research has the primary concern of accurately describing a certain phenomena or
situation as it is available in its real world situation. For instance, describing the functions of
Jimma University, what is its administrative structure, how many programmes are opened in
distance education, how many academic staff does the University have etc… tells simple
description of facts about a certain organization.

However, on the other hand co-relational research is conducted to identify the existence of
relationships, association, and interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation. For
instance, if some body asks what is the influence of academic staff composition of Jimma
University over the quality of distance education, what is the relationship between the
organizational structure of Jimma University & the services provided to distance students, how
does advertisement influences the sale of a product etc… could serve as examples of co-
relational research.

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There is also another category which is called as explanatory research. This type of research
focuses on why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of a situation or
phenomenon. For instance why staff composition of Jimma University affects the quality of
distance education, why smoking causes lung cancer, how parental behavior affects children
behavior etc… are examples of explanatory research.

Finally there is also a type of research which is called as exploratory. The main objective of such
type of research is to explore an area which is known very little by the researcher and other
people. It is also used to investigate an area to decide whether research study can be conducted in
that area or not. Therefore, it is a kind of feasibility study before launching a full scale research
study. As the name itself indicate its main task is to explore and make a small scale study before
going in to the main task of conducting a full scale research

1.4. Paradigms in Social Science Research:

A. Positivism and Post-Positivism
A paradigm can be defined as the assumed perception of the world in different intellectual or
philosophical spectrum.
Positivism is a position that holds the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena
that we experience.
• Positivists believe that the purpose of science is simply to stick to what we can observe
and measure.
• Knowledge of anything beyond that is impossible.
The following are three tenets of positivism:
 Scientific attention should be restricted to observable facts; ‘‘inferred constructs,’’ such
as beliefs and motives have no place in science,
 The methods of the physical sciences (e.g., quantification, separation into independent
and dependent variables and formulation of general laws) should also be applied to the
social sciences
 Science is objective and value free
For post-positivists scientific reasoning and common sense reasoning are essentially the same
process.

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 • Most post-positivists are constructivists who believe that we each construct our view of
the world based on our perception of it.
• Because perception and observation is fallible, our constructions must be imperfect.
• It is difficult to believe that individual scientists would perfectly see the reality as it is.
• Scientists, like any other human being, are inherently biased by their cultural experiences,
worldviews, and so on.
Positivists and post-positivists differ in the way they look at objectivity.
Positivists
• Positivists believe that objectivity is a characteristic that resided in the individual
scientist.
• Scientists should see the world as it is
Post-positivists
• Any individual can see the world perfectly as it really is.
• Our best hope for achieving objectivity is to triangulate across multiple fallible
perspectives
B. The interpretive approach
Unlike the positivist the interpretive approach emphasizes on the importance of subjective
interpretation that individuals give to their action and to the actions and reactions of others. This
approach recommends researchers to imagine how individuals perceive social actions, how do
they feel? What meaning do they attach to particular events? etc… Therefore, their emphasis is
not on the objective study of social patterns but on how individuals perceive social actions.

It also examines how people make sense of their lives & how they define their situation because
they are influenced by how they see themselves and how others see them. This implies that, for
this approach values are relative or subjective based on specific social experiences &
socialization. The definition that we give to social actions varies across societies and time, which
means we cannot give objective judgments.

Researchers in this approach mainly rely on field studies like participant observation, in depth
interviews and case studies. They focus on few cases and their detailed description. After
conducting research results are communicated through verbal description rather than numerical
analysis.

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 Criticism of this approach

i. Some scholars argue that, all values could not be equally valid as argued by the
interpretive approach.
ii. Their emphasis on specific cases & field studies do not enable these researchers to
make clear generalizations to other similar cases.
iii. Since they emphasize on individual cases they could not analyze social patterns. For
instance, we can not generalize on interactions among social groups by studying
individuals.
iv. Emphasis on individual cases leads to knowing more about lesser/narrower events.
C. The critical approach
For these theorists certain values are correct while others are not. So their judgment towards
values is absolute. This simply means that values can be out rightly judged as good or bad giving
little consideration to individual and cultural differences.

They also believe that human beings are composed of groups where by powerful groups impose
their interests over less powerful one. For instance males’ dominance over females. They argue
that, human interactions are characterized by conflicts. Based on this they recommend that
research out comes by social scientists should result in bringing social justice and their research
directed more towards social problems. The fundamental goal of this approach therefore, is to
bring about social justice and equality.

In their methodology since they are interested in inter group interactions they usually use
historical materials, pay particular attention to comparative studies and analyses of secondary
data. Research outcomes and explanations are judged as valid if they could improve life
condition of humanity and encourage social justice and equality. This implies that this approach
has strong practical orientation.

We cannot say that one of these approaches is best & leads to best research outcome. Each
approach plays its own role to increase our understanding of human behavior. We cannot
disregard or reject any of them for each is valuable in adding more knowledge to us about human
behavior.

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 1.5. The Successive Stages in Conducting Research
• Problem identification
• Literature review
• Design and methodology
• Writing proposal
• Data collection, processing and analysis
• Interpretation and reporting finding(conclusion) and Recommendation
Problem identification: Background/ Introduction
• The background section serves several purposes, which are often misunderstood. It is not
just a literature review, as is commonly believed.
• The first purpose of this section is to demonstrate your understanding of your field by
critically analyzing the pertinent work of other investigators leading up to your proposed
work.
• "Critical" does not mean negative, however; critical means that you are able to appreciate
the salient contributions of other scientists upon whose work your work builds.
• On one level, the purpose of a background section is to give the reader the relevant facts
about your topic so that they understand the material that you are writing about and how
it links to your research question.
• This section must not, however, simply provide the general context, but must direct the
readers' attention to the empirical details through which your research topic and question
are lived and made relevant.
Statement of the problem
Identifying a research problem consists of:
 Specifying an issue to study
 Developing a justification for studying it
 Suggesting gaps in the existing knowledge
 Suggesting the importance of the study
Research Questions
• A Research Question is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied.
• The question sets out what you hope to learn about the topic. This question, together with
your approach, will guide and structure the choice of data to be collected and analyzed.

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 • A research question is a clear, focused, concise, complex and arguable question around
which you center your research. You should ask a question about an issue that you are
genuinely curious about.
• A research question can be answered directly through the analysis of data.
Hypothesis
• Research hypotheses are predictions of a relationship between two or more variables.
• For example, a research project might hypothesize that higher consumption of alcohol
independent variable) is associated with more incidents of partner violence (the
dependent variable). Data would then be gathered and analyzed statistically to see
whether the results support the hypothesis or not.
Objective of the study
• Research objectives outline the specific goals the study plans to achieve when completed.
• The research objectives are usually divided into: General objective/broad objective or
overall objective and Specific objectives
The general (broad) objective or goal and specific objectives are not the same and should be
dealt with separately.
 The general objective defines the contribution of the project in a bigger context thereby
defining the purpose of the project.
 The general objective is a goal that the project hopes to achieve.
The specific objective is a specific result that the project aims to achieve within a given time
frame.
• Specific objectives are statements of precise outcomes that can be measured in support of
the project's general objective.
Properly written specific objectives should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable,
Realistic, Timely)
Scope of the study
• Scoping is figuring out what, exactly, to explore for a study. You don’t want the scope
too broad, or you will not see patterns appear in the data, but you don’t want it too
narrow, or the participants will tell you everything they have to say about it in five
minutes. You want to get the scope just right–somewhere in between these two extremes.
Significance of the study

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 • This section explains the potential value of the study and findings to science or society. It
also identifies the target audience of the study and how the results will benefit them.
1.6 Literature Review
• A literature review is a description of the literature relevant to a particular field or topic.
• It provides the reader with a comprehensive review of the literature related to the problem
under investigation. The review of related literature should greatly expand upon the
background information already incorporated in the introduction section.
• It should be selective and critical. It should only discus relevant studies and provides a
fair evaluation of them.
• If no studies of your specific topic exist, look for parallel or broader ones.
• Since the literature review may be lengthy, it is essential to divide into sections and
subsections as needed to logically organize the information presented.
The stages of a literature review
• Introduction: define the topic, together with your reason for selecting the topic. You
could also point out overall trends, gaps, particular themes that emerge, etc.
• Body: this is where you discuss your sources. Here are some ways in which you could
organize your discussion:
• Conclusion: summarize the major contributions, evaluating the current position, and
pointing out flaws in methodology, gaps in the research, contradictions, and areas for
further study.
How to organize a literature review
• Chronologically: for example, if writers' views have tended to change over time. There is
little point in doing the review by order of publication unless this shows a clear trend;
• Thematically: take particular themes in the literature;
• Methodologically: here, the focus is on the methods of the researcher, for example,
qualitative versus quantitative approach
A literature review must do the following things
• Be organized around and related directly to the research question you are developing
• Synthesize results into a summary of what is known and not known
• Identify areas of controversy in the literature
• Formulate questions that need further research

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CHAPTER TWO
Formulating a Research Method and Design
2.1 Definition and function of research design

Ones the research problem is identified, objectives are set and hypothesis constructed the next
step that the researcher faced with is how to conduct the study in the most reliable and acceptable
manner. This is the stage at which the research has to pass the test of validity by other observers.
Because it is at this stage that the researcher decides the methods of data collection, the
instruments to be used, the sampling technique & size, the time frame of the research, how the
study population is communicated etc… These activities are very much important because it
determines the reliability of the information (data) collected based on which generalizations are
derived. The research design generally determines; how the researcher is going to conduct the
study? What procedures will be used to obtain answers to the research question?, what the
researcher should do and should not do in the process of conducting the research?

A research design is defined as, a program that guides the investigator in the process of
collecting, analyzing and interpreting observations (data). It is a logical model of proof that
allows the researcher to draw inferences concerning causal relation among variables.

Research Design is a “blueprint” for empirical research aimed at answering specific research
questions or testing specific hypotheses, and must specify at least three processes:

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 I. The sampling process
II. The instrument development process, and
III. The data collection process,
Generally a research design sets the structure and strategy of investigation to answer the research
questions validly, objectively accurately and economically by facilitating conditions for the
collection and analysis of data. Careful observation has to be made to ensure the use of
appropriate method of data collection, the representativeness of the sample selected, the validity
of instruments developed and others.

The research design has two basic functions/ importance in conducting research.

 On the one hand it helps to identify & conceptualize the procedures that are very much
necessary to complete the research study.
 While on the other hand it helps to ensure as to whether the procedures set are objective,
accurate and reliable to obtain answers to the research questions.

Any professional or senior academic verifies the reliability and validity of research findings
based on the appropriateness of the design to the research questions. If the design of a particular
research is under a severe criticism in its inability to collect reliable data the research findings
will also be put under a big question in its capacity to reflect the reality on the ground.

To make things more clear, in preparing research design the researcher should clearly specify the
procedures that he/she is going to follow starting from naming the study design to other detailed
information. These involve;

 Deciding on the study design to be used: For instance as longitudinal, cross sectional,
experimental, case study etc… This will be further discussed in the coming section.
 Giving detailed information about;
 Who will constitute the study population?
 What will be the sampling procedure to be followed if sample has to be taken?
 What method of data collection will be used & why? (The method of data
collection determines the instruments to be prepared).
 If questionnaire has to be used how it is going to be distributed & returned back.

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  In the case of interview who and where will be conducted.
 What are the ethical issues that should be taken care of in relation to the sample
population and respondents?
 What method of data analysis has to be employed
Key Attributes of a Research Design
1. Internal validity, also called causality, examines whether the observed change in
dependent variable is indeed caused by a corresponding change in hypothesized
independent variable, and not by variables extraneous to the research context. Causality
requires three conditions:
 Co variation of cause and effect
 temporal precedence
 no plausible alternative explanation
2. External validity refers to whether the observed associations can be generalized from the
sample to the population (population validity)
3. Statistical conclusion validity examines the extent to which conclusions derived using a
statistical procedure is valid.
Introduction to Some Qualitative Design
1. A grounded theory design is a systematic, qualitative procedure used to generate a
theory that explains a process, an action, or an interaction about a substantive topic.
Grounded theory generates a theory when existing theories do not address your problem
2. Ethnographic designs are qualitative research procedures for describing, analyzing, and
interpreting a culture-sharing group’s shared patterns of behavior, beliefs, and language
that develop over time.
3. Narrative research designs, a research that describe the lives of individuals, collect and
tell stories about people’s lives, and write narratives of individual experiences. As a
distinct form of qualitative research, a narrative typically focuses on studying a single
person, gathering data through the collection of stories, reporting individual experiences,
and discussing the meaning of those experiences for the individual.
Quantitative Design
1. Experimental Research

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 In an experiment, you test an idea (or practice or procedure) to determine whether it
influences an outcome or dependent variable. You use an experiment when you want to
establish possible cause and effect between your independent and dependent variables.
2. Co-relational study
In co relational research designs, investigators use the correlation statistical test to describe
and measure the degree of association (or relationship) between two or more variables or sets
of scores. In this design, the researchers do not attempt to control or manipulate the variables
as in an experiment; instead, they relate, using the correlation statistic, two or more scores for
each person.
3. Survey
Survey research designs are procedures in quantitative research in which investigators
administer a survey to a sample or to the entire population of people to describe the attitudes,
opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of the population. In this procedure, survey researchers
collect quantitative, numbered data using questionnaires (e.g., mailed questionnaires)or
interviews (e.g., one-on-one interviews) and statistically analyze the data to describe trends
about responses to questions and to test research questions or hypotheses.
2.1 Study designs based on the frequency of contact with the study population

The amount of time with which researchers make contact with their study population may differ
based on the nature of the issues to be studied. Some research activities may require data
collection & observation of the study population only at one time & then reach to generalizations
(most commonly used in social sciences). On the other hand others may require two times or
more frequent contact with the study population. Based on these research designs are classified
as follows:

2.1.1 Cross sectional study design

This is the commonly used design in most social science researches. In this design a researcher
make only a one time contact with the study population to study a phenomenon or an issue at that
specific point in time (at the time of the study). Therefore, the investigation of the study
population is carried out only once to study a particular phenomenon as it takes place during the
time of the study. That is why this design is called as one shot or status study. It is simple and
cheap type of design since it requires only one time contact with the study population. It requires

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the identification of the issue to be studied, the study population to be investigated, take sample
from the population, collect data and generalize. But this study design is less applicable when
there is a need to study changes in the issues or the phenomena under investigation within the
study population, since it is conducted only on time.
2.1.2 The pre and post study design.
This study design composed of two cross sectional study designs conducted on the same study
population to measure any pattern of change in the phenomena under investigation after some
time. This could be best applicable to measure the impact of a particular programme
implemented on a community. For instance if a Woreda administration is launching community
awareness raising programme to teach them about malaria how do we know this programme has
effected change on the awareness of the community towards malarias. In this case you might
need to study the population level of awareness before the implementation of the teaching
program. Later on, you conduct another study after the implementation to measure the changes
effected as the result of the programme. Therefore, such studies are called as pre and post study
design. The effects could be positive, negative or none. In a nutshell, this design helps you to
investigate changes effected as a result of a particular intervention on a community (like
awareness raising on malaria) that requires you two communications before & after the
intervention. However, what if the need is to investigate patterns of changes at different times in
a community?

2.1.3 Longitudinal study design

This design allows studying the patterns of change of the phenomena under investigation by
making frequent contact with the study population for a long period. The time interval could be a
month, one year or many years. For instance if the world Health Organization (WHO) is
planning to eradicate Polio from Ethiopia by the year 2012, It may launch vaccination
programme each year and after each programme it may conduct study to see the effects. In this
case the study population is investigated many times. In conducting longitudinal design the data
collected at each interval is similar, from similar population but possibly from different
respondents (individuals).

2.2 Designs based on the type of investigation

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In this case you might need to use experimental or quasi- experimental types of investigation to
conduct your research. Experimental design usually helps to determine cause and effect
relationships between variables. Let us see a very simple example. If you want to study the effect
of drinking coffee on the rate of heart beat in human beings you are studying cause and effect
relationship. The cause-drinking coffee is independent variable and the effect – heart beat is
dependent variable. You might come to observe the effect after implementing an intervention
which could be providing coffee to a certain group of people. Experimental design may have
such elements as experimental group, controlled group, post-test, pre-test, random assignment,
comparison, manipulation etc… very simply stated in experimental study you may have;

Intervention (providing the effect on heart beat

coffee to some people )

Study population Out come

cause and effect

Quasi experimental designs involve combinations of the above elements but not all of them. The
non equivalent-group designs, regression discontinuity design, the proxy pretest design etc… are
among some of the quasi experimental design. However, for this module we will see only some
of the experimental designs. Let us see only some of them:

2.2.1 Post – test only design

In this design a researcher tries to investigate impacts of a programme or intervention already
conducted on a community. Base line information is not collected to assess the situation before
the intervention. Rather it depends on respondents’ opinion of the situation before the
intervention or from information available in the existing records. The change occurred after the
intervention is measured by comparing the baseline date before the intervention and the
observation after the intervention. Therefore this design involves only full investigation of post
intervention period. This method lacks appropriate data collected before the intervention that
makes comparison between the two periods difficult. It is also difficult to conclude that the
changes occurred after the intervention are resulted only because of the intervention since it has
no control group. For instance in your community the government may teach the people to send

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their children to school (an intervention) fortunately school enrollment increased by 20%. But
how do you know that the change happened because of the intervention. For instance what if the
harvest (production) increased in that year and farmers get increased income & send their
children to school. Dear students, the following designs may resolve this problem especially a
design with controlled & experimental groups.

Intervention

Study population Post study

Baseline data

2.2.2 Pre test - post test design

This design is similar with post test design in that, a researcher investigates changes occurred as
a result of intervention on a community. However the difference is that investigation is
conducted before the intervention to asses the situation and another investigation after the
intervention. The impact of the intervention is measured by comparing data obtained in the two
periods. Even if this design may resolve the problem of insufficient data in the post intervention
period of the previous design it still lacks mechanisms to ensure whether the changes occurred in
the post intervention period are only because of the intervention or other factors influenced the
changes. To resolves this the following designs employ the use of control and experimental
group.

2.2.3 Pre test-Post-test control group design

In the previous designs there is only one study population on which intervention is introduced &
the outcome studied. But in this case the researcher selects two population group one is called as
the control group and the other is an experimental group. The experimental group is the group on
which the intervention is conducted on and the control group is the group on which no
intervention is introduced. Dear students this enables you to conclude that, the changes occurred

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after the intervention is resulted from it. For instance if you would like to asses that drinking
much coffee increase rate of heart beat, first you prepare the control and experimental groups.
Provide certain amount of coffee to the experimental group & leave the control group as it is.
After some time you asses the heart beat of both groups. Finally any change occurred in the heart
beat of the experimental group compared to the control group can be attributed to the
intervention (coffee). Still this approach calls for making sure that the two groups are
comparable for every respect except the treatment. Therefore, the members of each group should
not be determined but randomly selected. For instance similarity in age, working condition, sex
etc… could be considered. In our example can you compare the heart beat of a 20 year old young
boy & an 80 years old women by just providing coffee? Therefore the members should be
assumed similar in every other aspect except the treatment or intervention.

In this design test is conducted in the pre intervention period on both groups and another test is
done after the intervention for both of them. That is why it is called as pretest – post- test control
group designs.

2.2.4 Post – test only control group design

This design is similar in every respect with pre test-post test control group. It has control and
experimental groups and intervention done on experimental group. However, there is no
investigation of the two groups in the pre-intervention period. This approach may help to
measure the effects of the intervention by only comparing the two groups, without knowing the
magnitude of change occurred within the experimental group as the result of the intervention.

2.3 Case study

This design makes an in depth analysis of a specific case. The cases could be specific
geographical area, institution, organizations or even individuals. All data relevant to the case are
gathered and organized in terms of the case. Detailed collection and analysis of data is conducted
because any generalization about the case is assumed to apply to all other similar cases. Other
types of studies may not look a specific case in a detailed manner by overlooking some vital
issues about the case. Therefore, case study provides the opportunity to investigate many specific
details. Data could be obtained from both primary and secondary sources & also applies the use
of both qualitative and quantitative data. It can use observations, questionnaire, interview, books,
magazines, newspapers etc… dear students if you for instance like to study the impact of

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decentralized administration on quality of education in your Woreda you are studying a specific
Woreda on a specific issue in a detailed manner. Your finding could be used to be generalized
for other Woreda in similar status.

CHAPTER THREE
Introduction to Sampling and Sampling Strategy
Sampling is the statistical process of selecting a subset (called a “sample”) of a population of
interest for purposes of making observations and statistical inferences about that population.
Particularly there are six main reasons for conducting sampling: Economy, Timeliness, The large
size of the populations, Inaccessibility of some of the population, Destructiveness of the
observation
Representativeness of samples
A representative sample is a subset of a statistical population that precisely reflects the members
of the entire population. When a sample is not representative, the result is known as a sampling
error. Sampling error comprises the differences between the sample and the target population to
which the research conclusion is to be generalized.
The Sampling Process
1) Defining the target population: A population can be defined as all people or items with
the characteristics that one wishes to study (person, group, organization, country, object,
or any other entity about which you wish to draw scientific inferences).
2) Choosing a sampling frame: This is an accessible section of the target population
(usually a list with contact information) from where a sample can be drawn.
3) Choosing a sample from the sampling frame
Sampling technique
Sampling techniques can be grouped into two broad categories:
 Probability sampling and
 Non-probability sampling
Probability sampling is a technique in which every unit in the population has a chance (non-
zero probability) of being selected in the sample, and this chance can be accurately determined.
All probability sampling have two attributes in common:
A. Every unit in the population has a known non-zero probability of being sampled,
B. The sampling procedure involves random selection at some point.

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 I. Simple random sampling
Simple random sampling involves randomly selecting respondents from a sampling frame, but
with large sampling frames, usually a table of random numbers or a computerized random
number generator is used. This is the simplest of all probability sampling techniques; the sample
is unbiased and the inferences are most generalizable
II. Systematic sampling
In this technique, the sampling frame is ordered according to some criteria and elements are
selected at regular intervals through that ordered list. Systematic sampling involves a random
start and then proceeds with the selection of every kth element from that point onwards, where k =
N/n, where k is the ratio of sampling frame size N and the desired sample size n, and is formally
called the sampling ratio.
III. Stratified sampling
In stratified sampling, the sampling frame is divided into homogeneous and non-overlapping
subgroups (called “strata”), and a simple random sample is drawn within each subgroup.
IV. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is used when there exist a population dispersed over a wide geographic region
and the population is divided into “clusters” (usually along geographic boundaries), randomly
sample a few clusters, and measure all units within that cluster.
V. Matched-pairs sampling
Sometimes, researchers may want to compare two subgroups within one population based on a
specific criterion. Matched-pairs sampling technique is often an ideal way of understanding
bipolar differences between different subgroups within a given population.
VI. Multi-stage sampling
Multi stage sampling is the combination of different sampling techniques.
Non-Probability Sampling
Non probability sampling is a sampling technique in which some units of the population have
zero chance of selection or where the probability of selection cannot be accurately determined.
Typically, units are selected based on certain non-random criteria, such as quota or convenience.
I. Convenience sampling
Also called accidental or opportunity sampling, this is a technique in which a sample is drawn
from that part of the population that is close to hand, readily available, or convenient. This type

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of sampling is most useful for pilot testing, where the goal is instrument testing or measurement
validation rather than obtaining generalizable inferences.
II. Quota sampling
In this technique, the population is segmented into mutually exclusive subgroups (just as in
stratified sampling), and then a non-random set of observations is chosen from each subgroup to
meet a predefined quota.
A. Proportional quota sampling: the proportion of respondents in each subgroup should
match that of the population.
B. Non-proportional quota sampling: no need of proportional representation, but perhaps
meet a minimum size in each subgroup.
III. Expert sampling
This is a technique where respondents are chosen in a non-random manner based on their
expertise on the phenomenon being studied.
IV. Snowball sampling
In snowball sampling, you start by identifying a few respondents that match the criteria for
inclusion in your study, and then ask them to recommend others they know who also meet your
selection criteria.

Chapter Four: Developing Instruments for Data Collection

Collection of Primary Data
Primary data are information collected by a researcher specifically for a research assignment.
Primary data are those which are collected for the first time and are always given in the form of
raw materials and originals in character. They are data that were previously unknown and which
have been obtained directly by the researcher for a particular research project
The need for primary information
 The primary data are original and relevant
 The degree of accuracy is very high.
 primary data is current and it can better give a realistic view to the researcher
The tools for primary data collection
 Observation
 Interview

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  Questionnaire
 Focus Group Discussion
I. Observation
Observation is way of gathering data by watching behavior, events, or physical characteristics.
a) Participant Observation
The observer takes part in the situation being studied while carrying out the research
Merit Demerit
 you are living in the experience  Difficult to record data
with them  Time consuming
 Avoids researcher bias  Risk of losing objectivity
 A holistic approach

b) Non-Participant Observation
 It is a situation where the observer is not part of the situation being studied.
 Not usually in a natural setting…the situation could be set up by the researcher.

Merit Demerit
 Objective  Reactivity
 Easy to record data  Ethical concerns
 Researcher does not interfere  looking from the outside
with behavior

c) Naturalistic Observation
 Is where the researcher observes behavior that occurs naturally.
Merit Demerit
 High ecological validity.  Reactivity
 Allows studying a wide range of  No control over variables.
behaviors.  Difficult to establish inter-observer
reliability.

d) Overt Observation

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  The observed group is aware of the presence of the researcher and that their behavior is
being observed.
Merit Demerit
 Informed consent is obtained.  Reactivity

e) Covert Observation
 The participants are unaware of the presence of the researcher and they are NOT made
aware that their behavior is being observed.
Merit Demerit
 Prevents reactivity!!!!  Deceived participants
 Allows study of behaviors that  Consent is not obtained
otherwise might not be studied.  Violates trust
 Difficult to record data
 Can often be dangerous to researchers
II. Interviews
Interviews are necessary when researchers feel the need to meet face-to-face with individuals to
interact and generate ideas in a discourse that borders on mutual interest.
There are four main kinds of interview:
 structured interview
 unstructured interview
 non-directive interview
 Focus interview.
i. Structured interview
In structured interview, the interviewer follows a set pattern usually adhering as much as
possible to the order of questions on the interview questionnaire whilst posing the questions in a
formal manner.
ii. Unstructured Interview
The Unstructured Interview is the less formal type in which although sets of questions may be
used, the interviewer freely modifies the sequence of questions, changes the wording and
sometimes explains them or adds to them during the interaction.
iii. Non-Directive Interview

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The Non-Directive Interview or the unguided gives excessive freedom for the respondent to
express his or her ideas subjectively and spontaneously as she chooses or is able to.
There are no set questions in this style.
It is the most appropriate type of interview to use when investigating issues where the respondent
has to be allowed to talk uninterrupted on a very broad topic which will unconsciously reveal
personal motives, feelings, attitudes etc.
iv. Focus Interview
Focus Interview as the name suggests, focuses on the respondent’s subjective responses and
experience on the subject matter to elicit more information. As the story unfolds the researcher
can hum in approval of what the respondent submits or chip in a stimulating question to
encourage the flow of the conversation.
Features of Interviews
 Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on what the respondent says.
 Interviews are a far more personal
 In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the respondent.
 Unlike with mail surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow up
questions.
 Interviews are generally easier for respondent, especially if what is sought is opinions or
impressions.
 Interviews are time consuming and they are resource intensive.
 The interviewer is considered a part of the measurement instrument and interviewer has
to be well trained in how to respond to any contingency.
Preparation for Interview
 Choose a setting with the least distraction.
 Explain the purpose of the interview.
 Address terms of confidentiality.
 Explain the format of the interview.
 Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
 Provide contact information of the interviewer.
 Allow interviewee to clarify any doubts about the interview.
 Prepare a method for recording data,

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Qualification Criteria for the Interviewer
 Knowledgeable -being familiar with the topic.
 Clear -simple, easy and short questions which are spoken distinctly and understandably.
 Gentle -being tolerant, sensitive and patient to provocative and unconventional opinions.
 Steering -to control the course of the interview to avoid digressions from the topic.
 Critical -to test the reliability and validity of what the interviewee tells.
 Remembering -retaining the subject information from the interviewee.
 Interpreting -provide interpretation of what is said by the interviewee
Types of Topics in Questions
 Behaviors -what a person has done or is doing.
 Opinions/values -what a person thinks about the topic.
 Feelings -what a person feels rather than what a person thinks.
 Knowledge -to get facts about the topic.
 Sensory -what people have seen, touched, heard, tasted or smelled.
 Background/demographics -standard background questions, such as age, education, etc.
Stages of Interview Investigation
 Thematizing-the why and what of the investigation.
 Designing -plan the design of the interview.
 Interviewing -conduct the interview based on a guide.
 Transcribing -prepare the interview material for analysis.
 Analyzing -decide on the purpose, the topic, the nature and methods of analysis that are
appropriate.
 Verifying -ascertain the validity of the interview findings.
 Reporting -communicate findings of the study based on scientific criteria.
Procedure of the Interview
 Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used)is working.
 Ask one question at a time.
 Attempt to remain as neutral as possible.
 Encourage responses.
 Be careful about the appearance when note taking.
 Provide transition between major topics.

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  Don’t lose control of the interview.
III. Questionnaire
This is systematically prepared form or document with a set of questions deliberately designed to
elicit responses from respondents or research informants for the purpose of collecting data or
information.
Questionnaires may be designed as:
 Structured or closed form
 Unstructured, open ended form
Specific conditions to use questioner
 To collect factual information
 •To gather straightforward information relating to people’s behavior
 •To look at the basic attitudes/opinions of a group of people relating to a particular issue
 •To collect ‘baseline’ information which can then be tracked over time to examine
changes
Types of question
There are many different types of question you can use to get the information you need.
Generally, the questions will either be open or closed. An open question allows the respondent to
use their own words to answer whilst a closed question gives pre-defined options
Comparing close ended and open ended questions
Open questions Closed questions

 Elicits “rich” qualitative data  Elicits quantitative data

 Encourages thought and freedom of  Does not require intensive and
expression thoughtful replies
 May discourage responses from less literate  Are easy for all literacy levels to
respondents respond to
 Takes longer to answer  Are quick to answer and may
 Are more difficult to analyze; improve your response rate
 responses can be easily misinterpreted  Are easy to ‘code’ and analyze

Points to be considered while preparing questions

 Avoid leading questions

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  Be specific
 Avoid jargon and colloquialisms
 Avoid double-barrelled questions
 Avoid double negatives
 Minimize bias
 Handling difficult or embarrassing questions
 Ensure options are mutually exclusive
 Put the most important items in first half of questionnaire
 Don’t start with awkward or embarrassing questions
 Start with easy and non-threatening questions
 Go from the general to the particular.
 Go from factual to abstract questions.
 Go from closed to open questions.
Merit and demerit of using questioner
Merit Demerit
 Can contact a large number of people at a  Response rates can be low
relatively low cost

 Easy to reach people who are spread across  There is little control over who
a wide geographical area or who live in completes a questionnaire,
remote locations particularly if it is mailed
which can lead to bias

 A questionnaire (with close ended  With a postal questionnaire, the

questions) is easy to standardize. For researcher can never be certain
example, every respondent is asked the the person to whom the
same question in the same way. The questionnaire is sent actually
researcher, therefore, can be sure that fills it in.
everyone in the sample answers exactly the
same questions, which makes this a very
reliable method of research.

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  Where the researcher is not
 Questionnaires can be used to explore present, it's always difficult to
potentially embarrassing areas (such as know whether or not a
sexual and criminal matters) more easily respondent has understood a
than other methods. question properly.

IV. Focus group discussion

A focus group discussion (FGD) is a good way to gather together people from similar
backgrounds or experiences to discuss a specific topic of interest. The group of participants is
guided by a moderator (or group facilitator) who introduces topics for discussion and helps the
group to participate in a lively and natural discussion amongst them.
Specific conditions to use focus group discussion
 Explore the depth and nuances of opinions regarding an issue
 Understand differences in perspectives
 Understand what factors influence opinions or behavior
 Test materials or products
 Test reactions to actual or proposed services
 Design a large study or understand its results
 Capture opinions and perspectives of a program’s target audience
 Learn about participants by observing their interactions
Planning for focus group discussion
1. Develop the focus group guide: The focus group guide is a series a questions and
prompts for the facilitator to use. Typically, the facilitator will ask questions of the group
and allow time for participants to respond to each other’s comments.
2. Select the number and type of participants for each focus group: Each individual focus
group should be made up of similar individuals, so the number of focus groups will
depend on how many different types of groups from which you want to gather
information.
Conducting focus group discussion
 You will need a facilitator, note taker, and technician
 Focus groups can be conducted in person or via teleconference

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  Focus groups typically last about 60 to 90 minutes
 The focus group needs to be appropriate for the type of participants in the group.
Merit Demerit
 Quick and relatively easy to set up.  Susceptible to facilitator bias.
 The group dynamic can provide useful  The discussion can be dominated or
information that individual data sidetracked by a few individuals.
collection does not provide.  Data analysis is time consuming and
 Is useful in gaining insight into a topic needs to be well planned in advance.
that may be more difficult to gather  Does not provide valid information at
through other data collection methods. the individual level.
 The information is not representative of
other groups.

CHAPTER FIVE
Collection, Processing and Analysis of Data
 Data collection is the next step after the process of proposal development.
 The data should be collected using the sampled population
 The data collected may be quantitative or qualitative, depending on the research method
employed.
 Data processing refers to certain operations such as editing, coding, computing of the
scores, preparation of master charts, etc. A researcher has to make his plan for each
and every stage of the research process.
Qualitative Data Processing
Editing
• The editing of data can be done at two stages: field and post-field editing.
1. The field editing is a review of reporting by the investigator for completing what has
been written in an abbreviated form during interviewing the respondent.
2. The post-field editing is carried out when field survey is completed and all the forms of
schedule have been collected together. This type of editing requires review of all forms
thoroughly.

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Coding
• Coding of data involves assigning of numbers or alphabets to each response of the
question.
• The purpose of giving numbers is to translate raw data into numerical data, which may be
counted and tabulated.
• Particularly coding of open end questions involves operations such as classification of
major responses and developing a response category of ‘others’ for responses which
were not given frequently.
• The classification of responses is primarily based on similarities or differences among the
responses.
• Usually, in the case of open-end questions, to classify responses researcher looks for
major characteristics of the responses and puts it accordingly.
• In case of attitude scales, researcher has to keep in mind, the direction of responses. For
example, a response ‘strongly agree’ is coded as ‘five’ the subsequent codes would be
in order.

Memo
• Memos are write-ups or mini-analyses about what you think you are learning during the
course of your evaluation.
• They are typically written both during and after data collection.
• They can be a couple of sentences or a few pages in length; whatever is needed to flesh
out concepts and patterns that may be emerging in the data.
• Memos can be summaries of your major findings or they can be comments and
reflections on particular aspects of your evaluation.
Concept Mapping
• A concept map is a way of representing relationships between ideas, images, or words
• In a concept map, each word or phrase connects to another, and links back to the original
idea, word, or phrase.
• Concept mapping is general method that can be used to help any individual or group to
describe ideas about some topic in a pictorial form.

30
 • Concept maps are created with the broader, more inclusive concepts at the top of the
hierarchy, connecting through linking words with other concepts than can be subsumed.
• Concept maps are an important strategy in qualitative inquiry because they help the
researcher focus on meaning.
• The maps allow the researcher to see participants’ meaning as well as, the connections
that participants discuss across concepts or bodies of knowledge.
Example

Purposes to use concept Map in social science research

1. Framing Research Projects Concept maps can be used to frame or plan research
projects.
2. Reducing Data concept maps allows the researcher to reduce the data in a meaningful
way. By using maps it is possible to display an average 20 page interview transcript on a
single page. Using concept maps in the data reduction process, allows for the visual
identification of themes and patterns.
3. Analyzing Themes Concept maps can also be used to help create a category or coding
system in qualitative research. After the maps are created from each interview or
observation, the researcher can go through these maps looking for levels of hierarchy,
interconnections and repeated concepts.
4. Presenting Findings concept maps can be used to present the findings of a qualitative
research study. As a graphical display the maps can help readers understand the findings

31
 by providing a vehicle whereby the actual data quotes can be connected to larger parts of
the study.
Data analysis
• Following data collection, the data is analyzed and interpreted for the purpose of drawing
conclusions regarding the research questions of interest.
Qualitative Data Analysis
• The mass of words generated by interviews or observational data needs to be described,
explained and summarized.
• The researchers needs to seek relationships between various theme that have been
identified, or
• To relate behavior or ideas to biographical characteristics of respondents such as age or
gender.
Stages in qualitative data analysis
• Transcription
• Familiarization with the data through review, reading, listening etc
• Organization and indexing of data for easy retrieval and identification
• Coding (may be called indexing)
• Identification of themes
• Re-coding
• Development of provisional categories
• Exploration of relationships between categories
• Refinement of themes and categories
• Development of theory and incorporation of pre-existing knowledge
• Testing of theory against the data
Quantitative /Statistical data analysis
• Statistics is the science and practice of developing human knowledge through the use of
empirical data expressed in quantitative form.
• Statistics is the branch of scientific method which deals with the data obtained by
counting or measuring the properties of phenomena.
• There are two types of statistical applications:

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Descriptive Analysis: Descriptive statistical analysis limits generalization to the particular group
of individuals observed. No conclusions are extended beyond this group, and any similarity to
those outside the group cannot be assumed. The data describe one group and that group only.
Much simple action research involves descriptive analysis and provides valuable information
about the nature of a particular group of individuals.
Inferential Analysis: Inferential statistical analysis always involves the process of sampling and
the selection of a small group assumed to be related to the population from which it is drawn.
The small group is known as the sample, and the large group is the population.
Drawing conclusions about populations based on observations of samples is the purpose of
inferential analysis.
Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, Mode and Range
• A measure of central tendency is a single value that attempts to describe a set of data by
identifying the central position within that set of data. As such, measures of central
tendency are sometimes called measures of central location. They are also classed as
summary statistics.
• The mean, median and mode are three different ways of describing the central tendency
of a certain score or set of data.
• To find the mean, add up all the numbers and divide by the number of digits.
• To find the median, place all the numbers in order and select the middle number.
• The mode is the number which appears most often.
Example
• Find
• (a) the mean
• (b) the median
• (c) the mode
• (d) The range of this set of data.
5, 6, 2, 4, 7, 8, 3, 5, 6, 6
Solution
(a) The mean is
5+6 +2 +4 +7 +8 +3+ 5+ 6+ 6
10

33
 52/10= 5.2
(b) To find the median, place all the numbers in order.
• 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 8
• As there are two middle numbers in this example, 5 and 6,
• median =5 + 6
2
= 5. 5
C) From the list above it is easy to see that 6 appears more than any other number, so
mode = 6

CHAPTER SIX
Interpretation and Report Writing
Interpretation in qualitative research means that the researcher steps back and forms some
larger meaning about the phenomenon based on the data the data analyzed, personal views,
comparisons with past studies, etc. You will find this interpretation in a final section of a study
under headings such as “Discussion,” “Conclusions,”“Interpretations,” or “Implications.” This
section includes:
o A review of the major findings and how the research questions were answered
o Personal reflections of the researcher about the meaning of the data
o Personal views compared or contrasted with the literature
o Limitations of the study
o Suggestions for future research
Reporting Findings
The primary form for reporting findings in qualitative research is a narrative discussion. A
narrative discussion is a written passage in a qualitative study in which authors summarize,
in detail, the findings from their data analysis.
Elements of narrative discussion
• Dialogue that provides support for themes
• Stating the dialogue in the participants’ native language or in the regional or ethnic
dialect.
• Use metaphors and analogies

34
 • Reporting quotes from interview data or from observations of individuals
• Reporting multiple perspectives and contrary evidence.
• Specifying tensions and contradictions in individual experiences
Documentation
• It is about documenting the entire research process and its findings in the form of a
research paper, senior essay, thesis dissertation, or monograph etc
• The document should outline in detail all the choices made during the research process
(e.g., theory used, constructs selected, measures used, research methods, sampling,
etc.) and why, as well as the outcomes of each phase of the research process.
• The research process must be described in sufficient detail so as to allow other
researchers to replicate your study, test the findings, or assess whether the inferences
derived are scientifically acceptable.
Research Ethics
• The word ethics comes from a Greek word ‘ethos’ (character). Ethics is a systematic
study of value concepts, ‘good’, ‘bad’, ‘right’, ‘wrong’ and the general principles that
justify applying these concepts.
The need for ethics in research
• Promoting the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error.
• Promote the values that are essential to collaborative work
• Ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public.
• Help build public support for research.
• promote a variety of other important moral and social values,
Ethical Principles in Scientific Research
 Anonymity and confidentiality.
 Respect for persons/autonomy which incorporates at least two fundamental ethical
considerations, namely:
a) Respect for autonomy, which requires that those who are capable of deliberation about
their personal choices should be treated with respect for their capacity for self-determination; and
b) Protection of persons with impaired or diminished autonomy, which requires that those
who are dependent or vulnerable be afforded security against harm or abuse
 Voluntary participation and harmlessness

35
 Beneficence refers to the ethical obligation to maximize benefits and to minimize harms.
 Justice refers to the ethical obligation to treat each person in accordance with what is
morally right and proper, to give each person what is due to him or her.
 Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency
of thought and action.
 Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your
own work and the work of your peers.
 Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new
ideas.
 Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of
intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without
permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for
all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
 Responsible Publication: Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to
advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
 Respect for colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
 Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social
harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
 Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis
of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence
and integrity.
 Competence: Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise
through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a
whole.
 Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

 Reference
 Belay Tefera and Abdinasir Ahemed (2015). Research methods. Addis Ababa: Mega
Printing
 Press
 Leedy, Paul D. (1974). Practical Research: Planning and Design. New York: Macmillan.

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 Neway, Julie M. (1985). Information Specialists as Team Players in the Research
Process. London: Greenwood Press.

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