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LAHORE GARRISON UNIVERSITY

COURSE PACK: BSSE

Technical and Business Writing
Prepared by: Tahseen Muhammad

Senior Lecturer

Department Of English Language and Literature

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COURSE OUTLINE: TBW

Technical and Business Writing

Aims & Objectives:
Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs): At the end of the course the students will be able to:
a. Create effective technical documents according to their needs.
b. Create business documents according their professional requirements
c. Prepare technical and research reports and proposals independently

Contents:
1. Overview of technical reporting, use of library and information gathering, administering
questionnaires, reviewing the gathered information;
2. Technical exposition; topical arrangement, exemplification, definition, classification and
division, casual analysis, effective exposition,
3. Technical narration, description and argumentation, persuasive strategy,
4. Organizing information and generation solution: brainstorming, organizing material,
construction of the formal outline, outlining conventions, electronic communication,
generation solutions.
5. Polishing style: paragraphs, listening sentence structure, clarity, length and order,
pomposity, empty words, pompous vocabulary,
6. Designing of Technical Report Writing: document design: document structure, preamble,
summaries, abstracts, table of contents, footnotes, glossaries, cross-referencing,
plagiarism, citation and bibliography, glossaries, index, appendices, typesetting systems,
creating the professional report; elements, mechanical elements and graphical elements.
7. Reports: Proposals, progress reports, Leaflets, brochures, handbooks, magazines articles,
research papers, feasibility reports, project reports, technical research reports, manuals
and documentation, thesis. Electronic documents, Linear verses hierarchical structure
documents.

Teaching Methodology: Lecturing, Case Studies, Discussion Method, Written Assignments,

Presentation, Report Writing, Final Exam
Course Assessment: Sessional Exam, Home Assignments, Quizzes, Report Writing,
Presentation, Final Exam.
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Recommended Materials:
1. Technical Report Writing, by Pauley and Riordan, Houghton Mifflin Company, 8th Edition.
2. Effective Technical Communication by Ashraf Rizvi, Tata McGraw-Hill.

BSSE Semester V
Technical and Business Writing
Weekly Training Schedule / Scheme of Study
W/No. Theory Activities Signature
1. Stages of Writing / Writing Skills Class discussions and
Activity
2. Intro to Technical Writing, Class discussion and
Organizing information and Activity
generation solution.
3. Polishing style: clarity, length Activity and Assignment
and order, pomposity, empty
words, pompous vocabulary,
7 Cs
4. Sentence Structure of technical Quiz
writing
5. Leaflets, brochures, handbooks, Projects
magazines articles, Circulars For
Business Writing
6. Different types of Strategies for Discussion and
Technical Writing: Descriptive, Assignment
Narrative
7. Argumentative, Persuasive Discussion and
Assignment
Mid-Term
8. Business letters, memos, emails Discussion and
Assignment
9. Intro to Report Writing and Discussion
Organizational Plans
10. Short Report Material search / Activity
11. Long Report and its Types Quiz
12. Report Design and Format, APA Class Discussion
13. Proposal Writing Assignment
14. Progress Reports Material Search
15. Thesis Writing / Research Report Material search
Discussion+Presentation
16. Revision Class discussion before
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exams

Stages of Writing
Learning Outcomes
After learning this topic the students will be able to,
 Follow stages of writing for making their writing more organized and effective
 Get ready to learn Essay writing
ARE YOU READY?
Have you read any essay or column written by a professional writer?
What difference you have found in your own writing and the writing of any professional?

Topic: Writing Skills

Stages of Writing
Writing is a complex, non-linear, exploratory and creative process. This process includes
the following five steps
Getting started/Prewriting/Brainstorming

Drafting

Revising

Editing

Proof-Reading

Writing is a process that involves at least five distinct steps: prewriting, drafting, revising,
editing and proof-reading. It is known as recursive process. While you are revising, you might
have to return to the prewriting step to develop and expand your ideas.

According to this approach, writing is not a linear process. We go back often to the
planning if we get some new ideas during writing. So it is a process, moving back and forth. The
writer is free to follow what he likes.

 Step I: Brainstorming / Prewriting / Planning

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Prewriting is anything you do before you write a draft of your document. It includes thinking,
taking notes, talking to others, brainstorming, outlining, and gathering information. (e.g.
interviewing people, researching in the library, reading, listening to talk shows, TV programs on
current issues for the purpose of assessing data).
 Although prewriting is the first activity you engage in, generating ideas is an
activity that occurs throughout the writing process.

For ideas jot down points or ideas and their details as they come to your mind. Just write them
down without putting them in any special order. Try to accumulate as many details as you can
think of. This is one strategy of beginning an essay.

The other strategy is clustering. Here you begin by writing your subject or topic in the center of
a blank sheet of paper. Then as ideas come into your mind you put them down in boxes or circles
around the subject or topic. You will now see a sample of clustering.

Free writing, this is also a very useful technique. Here you just write down whatever comes into
your mind about the topic. Continue writing for some time without stopping to worry about
grammar or spellings etc.

Example of Clustering:

children hide & seek daughter shouts Baba ji noisy neighbors

loud music stereo TV something needs to be done

dogs bark loudly

Prepare a rough outline. This is going to be the backbone or skeleton on which the rest of the
writing will be built. It shows at a glance the point of the paragraph and the support for that
point. It will help you to see if you need to do more writing to clarify your main point or its
support. You will learn how to write an outline in your next lesson. Here I will just show an
example of an outline.

Example of an outline:
Biography of a celebrated man
a) Friends and enemies
b) School fellows-pranks, conversations
c) Offices held, distinguished figures
d) Relatives-accounts of his acts of humanity and virtues
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Second Stage: Writing the 1st draft: The purpose here is to develop the context of your
document. So be ready to put in additional thoughts and details that did not come to your mind
earlier. Drafting occurs when you put your ideas into sentences and paragraphs. Here you
concentrate upon explaining and supporting your ideas fully. Here you also begin to connect
your ideas. Regardless of how much thinking and planning you do, the process of putting your
ideas in words changes them; often the very words you select evoke additional ideas or
implications.
2. Do not pay attention and time to such things as spelling, punctuation or grammatical mistakes
at this stage; you may decide to remove later on.
3. This draft tends to be writer-centered: it is you telling yourself what you know and think about
the topic.

Third Stage:Revising
This is the most important part of writing-a practice our students are not encouraged to develop.
Revising means that you rewrite, build upon what has been written to make it better. It is at this
stage that you get rid of unnecessary material, improve on what you are going to retain. A typical
revision means writing on two or more drafts. Here you insert details left out, put in transition
words which would make smoother reading. If you are working on a word processor, take out a
hard copy so that you can see your entire document at one time.

Revision is the key to effective documents. Here you think more deeply about your
readers’ needs and expectations. The document becomes reader-centred. How much support will
each idea need to convince your readers? Which terms should be defined for these particular
readers? Is your organization effective? Do readers need to know X before they can understand
Y?
At this stage you also refine your prose, making each sentence as concise and accurate as
possible. Make connections between ideas explicit and clear.

Fourth Stage: Editing / Polishing (Make it Correct)

Check for such things as grammar, mechanics, and spelling.
Check for the required font size, space and margins etc.

 Don’t edit your writing until the other steps in the writing process are complete.

Step Five:Proof reading:

The last thing you should do before printing your document is Proof-Reading. It means
checking carefully for spelling, grammar, punctuation and other errors. Use your dictionary for
this purpose. Proof reading is often hard work and students want to avoid proofing. Take a day
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or two off,re-read your paper with a fresh mind and a sharp pencil. Have a friend read it and
respond to your writing. Could they appreciate it? Revise if necessary

Ask yourself:
 Does this make sense? Am I convinced?
 Will this capture a reader’s interest?
 Will they understand my values, and agree with my facts?

If proofing is done carefully, it will ensure that your written work looks as good as possible.

There is no single correct way of writing English. Good writing depends on a set of specific
writing skills. Three skills are involved in writing.

(i) Skill of communication i.e. putting your ideas across to the reader.
(ii) Skill of organizing your idea in the shape of sentences and paragraphs.
(iii) Stylistic - achieving the right level of formality i.e. appropriate tone.

Interactive session

What did you learn?

(1) What new did you learn about writing skills

(2) Have you been following these stages before

Challenging Exercise:
Demonstrate how to proceed from brain-storming to drafting, revising, editing and proof-
reading by developing any piece of document assigned by the teacher in the class.

Home Assignment
Write a little paragraph on any of topic of your interest while following all the stages that you
have learnt today
Next Lesson Preview
Technical Writing
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Technical Writing
Preamble:
We discussed in the previous lesson:
 Stages of Writing

Learning Outcomes:
 Understanding and utilization of the technical writing and its characteristics.
Are you ready?
 What makes a document technical in your view?
 Does technical writing implies that it will be difficult than simple writing skills?

Topic of the day:

Technical Writing

Technical writing is intended to communicate with the specified audience for a specific
purpose. Technical writing is a type of writing where the author is writing about a
particular subject that requires direction, instruction, or explanation. This style
of writing has a very different purpose and different characteristics than other writing styles
such as creative writingor essay wrditing.
Technical writing is used in a large variety of fields such as engineering, computer
hardware and software, chemistry, and biotechnology. You can also find everyday examples
of technical writing everywhere.The following list provides with just a few examples of
documents that are considered forms of technical writing.

 Press releases
 Employee handbooks
 Articles on the web
 Manuals for instructions and procedures
 Circulars
 Memos
 Reports
 Business Proposals
 Journals
 Datasheets
 Product descriptionsand specifications
 Résumés
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 Job Applications
 Meeting Agendas and Meeting Minutes
Characteristics of technical writing

The aim of technical writing is to translate scientific and technical information in a way that is
clear and easy to understand. The specific information conveyed should be helpful to the reader.
Technical writing is a form of writing that is extensively used to prepare manuals, description of
new electronic products, instructions on how to operate a particular machine, etc. A technical
writer is often asked to create documentation for a technology. The documentation must clearly
explain how to install and use that technology.

Technical writing is different from usual essay writing. People often confuse technical writing
with essay and creative writing. However, these are totally different styles of writing. Use of
flowery words, double meaning innuendos and explaining the same thing in a different way is
often found in essays. On the other hand, technical write ups are precise and essentially focus on
the subject, which is explained in the most convincing manner. Yet the data is concise and the
language used is straightforward.

This profession, as many think, is not about writing a bunch of technical words. Nowadays,
technical writing is used in diverse fields including robotics, chemistry, software and others. An
educational textbook on subjects like physics or biology is also a form of technical writing. In
order to become a successful technical writer, one must know the characteristics of technical
writing. They are as follows:

1. Accuracy / Correctness

One of the most important characteristics of any technical document is accuracy. A slight
mistake can have grave consequences. For instance, if you forget to mention some important
features of a new mobile phone, the customers may think that there is nothing special in that
phone and will not prefer to buy it. Effective communication requires quality content and
language that is accurate and readable.

Similarly the grammatical structure of your technical document should be correct and free from
any kind of ambiguities. The intended meaning will not be communicated to the reader if the
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document has ambiguous sentences. The reader is sure to get annoyed, if your document is
replete with misspellings and incorrect construction of sentences. Hence, apart from providing
correct technical information, ensure that the data is grammatically correct.

Technical writing must be CORRECT and TRUE, period. If tech writing is not correct,
you can throw it directly into the trash basket since nothing else matters as much.

2. Appropriate for Intended Audience

Tech writing must be appropriate for its intended audience. This audience can be a
general audience, business people, or a specialized group of engineers and scientists.  

If the writing style and vocabulary does not fit the audience, tech writing will either be
met with criticism (because it is too easy for the audience), or will fly off over the
heads of a puzzled audience (because it is too hard to understand).

Use language the reader will understand. The writer must consider who will be reading and
using the material before they start composing it.

3. Concise

Technical writing must be as brief as possible. If the writer can express something in 2
words, he should not use 3 words instead. Moreover a ll kinds of editorial asides or
anthropomorphic similes and metaphors should be avoided.

4. Logical and Sequential

Technical writing information cannot contradict itself. All information, all steps need to
make sense with respect to one another. 

If you need to open a lid in order to reach a button, you need to tell the reader to open
the lid first and then to press the button. In the above case, do not instruct the user to
press the button and then open the lid.

5. Clarity
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Using a lot of technical jargon or buzzwords the reader will find hard to follow is not the best
way to write a technical piece. If a technical writer decides to use this type of language, he or she
should explain the term in the text so that the reader can follow the instructions or understand the
idea the writer is trying to get across.

6. Action Oriented

You are writing a document to help users take action. Therefore, use action verbs
whenever possible, especially in the beginning of procedural steps. ORIGINAL: "Cable
A and Cable Z need to be connected now." BETTER: "Connect Cable A to Cable Z."

7. Organized

Technical documents are organized in the ideal "tree view" fashion. The material is
organized in layers, from general to the specific. The document starts with the general
aspects of a system and drills down to more specific details later on.  

If you are writing instructions for how to do something, they need to follow a logical order.
Otherwise, the reader won't be able to get the result they are looking for. Instead of skipping
over something because the reader should already be aware of that particular fact, the technical
writer needs to include it in the text anyway. Being able to think logically and present the
information in a step-by-step manner is one of the important characteristics of technical writing.

The individual chapters and sections should have a logical parent-child-sibling

relationship to one another. For example, if you are explaining how to start an engine
in Chapter 1, you should also explain how to shut it off within the same chapter since
they are conceptually related procedures.

8. Format

The way you present your technical data is also very important from the user's point of view. For
instance, suppose you have explained complex technical data in the simplest manner, yet it won't
hold the attention of the user if it is presented as one big paragraph. The point is, you need to be
creative when it comes to formatting your technical data. Your technical data must be divided
into sub heads. If it is an instruction manual, then instead of sub heading go for bulleted format.
However, if the sequence of instructions holds priority, one should go for numbered list. Key
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points pertaining to precautions or warnings may be emphasized using bullets. A document

presented in a well-organized manner is very easy to read and the important data that the user is
looking for is available at a glance. To make data easily accessible, one can give technical
specification of any product in a tabular form. You also need to complement your descriptive
technical data with a graphic image of the product in focus. This is visually appealing and will
definitely arrest the attention of the most casual viewer.

9. Don't Forget the Details

The technical writer who is working on a piece has an advantage over the reader. He or she
knows the idea they want to convey or the steps involved in the process they are trying to
describe. Including lots of details in the text is important. This step helps the reader to follow
along with the instructions being given. The technical writer must keep in mind that the person
reading the finished piece must be given all the information they need in written form. They
aren't in the room or on the phone where they can ask questions if they get stuck. The technical
writer needs to take care to give the person they are writing enough details, such as a description
of a particular part or where to find a key or command when trying to use a software product.

Interactive Session:
 What are your personal views how to become a good technical writer?
 How do you plan to bring technical qualities to a document?

Challenging Exercise:
Work in groups of three people and construct today’s class report keeping in view all the
technical qualities in mind.

What did you learn?

 What do you understand by technical writing?
 Where it will be needed?
 What is the significance of the qualities for an effective technical document?
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Home assignment:
Write a circular for upcoming trip for your classfellows while keeping in mind all the technical
formalities.

Next lesson preview:

Steps of Technical Writing
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Planning Steps of Technical Writing:

Preamble:
We discussed in the previous Lesson:
 Qualities of a technical document
 Significance of technical writing

Learning Outcomes:
After the completion of this lesson the students will be able to:
 Understand and utilize five planning steps of technical writing
 Understand and practice while writing & post writing techniques.

Are you ready?
 What are the general five planning steps for constructing any message?
 What can be the ways to collect the data required?
 How do you organize your material?
 How do you correct the mistakes?

Topic of the day:

Planning Steps of Technical Writing:
Five Planning Steps:
1. Determine the goal/purpose
2. Analysis of audience
3. Choose your Ideas
4. Collection of data
5. Organize your message
While writing Stage:

 Organization according to:

1. Chronological sequence
2. Space
3. Importance
4. Comparison/contrast
5. Problem solution
Post writing Stage:

 Proof reading tips:

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1. Addition
2. Simplification
3. Movement
4. Reformatting
5. Correction

Interactive session:
 How can we analyze the audience’s likes and dislikes?
 How much it’s important to be internally motivated for the planning of message?
 Identify the sources through which you can collect information.
 How can we arrange the information according to its significance and emphasis?
 How do you keep check on the grammar and spellings of the text?
 How do you get your document proofread?

Class exercises:
Collect data on any topic of your choice. Choose any one technique out of mind-
mapping, gather data and organize it.

What did you learn?

 What are the ways to analyze your audience?
 Which type of organizational approach will be suitable for the bad news message while
organizing?
 Which type of organizational approach will be suitable for good news message while
organizing?
 What organizational plan would you choose if you need to write a persuasive message?

Home assignment:
Use any one data collection technique and make a case of an accident.
Next lesson preview:
 7 Cs of Communication
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Seven C’s of Effective Business Communication

 Correctness
 Clarity
 Conciseness
 Completeness
 Consideration
 Concreteness
 Courtesy
1. Correctness

At the time of encoding, if the encoder has comprehensive knowledge about the decoder of
message, it makes the communication an ease. The encoder should know the status, knowledge
and educational background of the decoder. Correctness means:

 Use the right level of language

 Correct use of grammar, spelling and punctuation

 Accuracy in stating facts and figures

Correctness in message helps in building confidence.

2. Clarity

Clarity demands the use of simple language and easy sentence structure in composing the
message. When there is clarity in presenting ideas, it’s easy for the receiver/decoder to grasp the
meaning being conveyed by the sender/encoder.

Clarity  makes comprehension easier.

3. Conciseness

A concise message saves time of both the sender and the receiver. Conciseness, in a business
message, can be achieved by avoiding wordy expressions and repetition. Using brief and to the
point sentences, including relevant material makes the message concise. Achieving conciseness
does not mean to loose completeness of message.

Conciseness saves time.

4. Completeness

By completeness means the message must bear all the necessary information to bring the
response you desire. The sender should answer all the questions and with facts and figures and
when desirable, go for extra details.
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Completeness brings the desired response.

5. Consideration

Consideration demands to put oneself in the place of receiver while composing a message. It

refers to the use of ‘You’ attitude, emphases positive pleasant facts, visualizing reader’s
problems, desires, emotions and his response.

Consideration  means understanding of human nature.

6. Concreteness

Being definite, vivid and specific rather than vague, obscure and general leads to concreteness of
the message. Facts and figures being presented in the message should be specif.

Concreteness  reinforces confidence.

7. Courtesy

In business, almost everything starts and ends in courtesy. Courtesy means not only thinking
about receiver but also valuing his feelings. Much can be achieved by using polite words and
gestures, being appreciative, thoughtful, tactful, and showing respect to the receiver. Courtesy
builds goodwill.

Courtesy  strengthen relations.

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Exercise on The Seven Cs of Effective Communication

A. Add Completeness to the following statements:

1. Fax 1: Please fax me in return the departure from Singapore to Hong Kong on the 8th

.2. Fax 2: How come my request for an interview letter did not receivea response?

B. Add Conciseness to the following statements:

1. Such refreshing comments are far and few between.

2. Please be advised that your admission statement was received.

3. Please find attached the list you requested.

4. The receipt that is enclosed documents your purchase.

5. We hereby wish to let you know that our company is pleased with the confidence you
have reposed in us.

C. Add Consideration to the following statements:

1. You failed to enclose your check in the envelope.

2. I am delighted to announce that we will be extending our hours to make shopping
more convenient.

3. You are completely off base in your proposal.

4. It is impossible to open an account for you today.5. We don’t refund if the returned

item is soiled and unsalable.

D. Add Concreteness to the following sentences:

1. Eastern Europe is making progress in obtaining investments.

2. Grades of students will be sent to you by the school.

3. The function of this office is the collection of payment and the compilation of
statements.

4. Students held the meeting in the office.

Next Lesson:

Sentence Structure in Technical Writing / Different Strategies of Writing

Descriptive, Narrative, Argumentative and Discursive

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Writing Strategies:
Descriptive Strategy for Writing
Preamble

What have you learnt in previous lessons about stages of writing?

Where can you utilize that knowledge?
General introduction to different types of writing

Learning Outcomes
After learning this topic the students will
 Be familiar with the particular techniques of a descriptive writing
 Be able to create a descriptive document.

ARE YOU READY?

Have you ever described some experience to someone, some person, some place etc.
What strategies do you use to make your audience experience your account the way you
experienced?
Topic: Different Writing Strategies
Distinguishing between types of strategies of writing is simply a matter of determining the
writer’s goal. Does the writer want to tell about a personal experience, describe something,
explain an issue, or convince the reader to accept a certain viewpoint? The four major types of
writing address these purposes:

Descriptive Writing: Painting a Picture

Descriptive writing paints a picture with words. A writer might describe a person, place, object,
or even memory of special significance. In a descriptive writing, the writer should show, not tell,
through the use of colorful words and sensory details. The best descriptive piece of writing
appeal to the reader’s emotions, with a result that is highly evocative.
Whatever is being described will be thoroughly examined. For example, if you were describing
roses, you would explain:

 Where they come from

 What they look like
 What colors they are
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 How they grow and smell

In descriptive writing writers often seek to describe places, people, objects, sounds, tastes, smells
-- or anything, really--which they feel can be captured in words. The descriptive writers are
painters. The way a painter plays with numerous colors to disperse details on his canvas, exactly
the same way a descriptive writer plays with his words especially with the colorful adjective and
adverbs to render description so precisely that the reader sees (or hears or smells or tastes or
touches) the object of the description in exactly the way that the writer intends or he
experienced.
The writer does not tell the reader that the flower is beautiful; he shows them the flower is
beautiful. The reader feels like he/she is a part of the writer's experience of the subject.

If you were going to describe biting into an apple, you would not simply say: "He bit into the
apple and it tasted good".  Descriptive writing would convey the same sentence as follows: "He
slowly closed his teeth on the ripe, succulent, ruby colour apple.  The crunch of his teeth
piercing the apple's skin was deafening and the sweet juices of the apple ran down his chin.  The
taste of the meat was as sweet as candy and he felt euphoric." 

Descriptive writing is used in all modes of writing (Expository, Narrative, and Persuasive) to
create a vivid and lasting impression of the person, place or thing. For example stories, poems,
essays, technical documents and reports.A good example of descriptive writing in modern
literature is the Hobbit series by J. R. R. Tolkien.

Characteristics of Good Descriptive Writing

1. Good descriptive writing includes many vivid sensory details that paint a picture and
appeals to all of the reader's senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste when
appropriate.

2. Good descriptive writing often makes use of figurative language, such as analogies,
similes and metaphors to help paint the picture in the reader's mind.
3. General adjectives, nouns, and passive verbs do not have a place in good descriptive
writing.  Use specific adjectives and nouns to give life to the picture you are painting in
the reader's mind.

4. Good descriptive writing is organized.  Some ways to organize descriptive writing

include: chronological (time), spatial (location), and order of importance.  When
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describing a person, you might begin with a physical description, followed by how that
person thinks, feels and acts.

5. A key element of descriptive writing is the point of view of the writer. The dominant
impression can be thought of as the way the writer feels about the object of the
description; for instance, a writer may regard a place as hospitable and inviting, or as
cold and forbidding. Likewise, a writer may regard a person as warm and friendly, or
aloof and reserved. All good descriptions are crafted with steady attention to the
dominant impression.

6. "Show, Don’t Tell" is truly the fundamental principle of descriptive writing. When it
comes to describing something, ‘telling’ the reader about it comes off as flat, vague, and
not particularly memorable; ‘showing’ the reader the object renders the object far more
vivid, visible, and active.
Telling is another way of saying ‘summarizing.’ Here’s a writer ‘telling’ readers about
a room:
"It was a nice room, a warm room. It was a happy place to be."

Here’s a brief passage which attempts to ‘show’ that the room is ‘warm’:
“Sunlight pours through the window, pooling on the down comforter which lies
across the bed. A block of light also angles across the wall opposite the bed,
highlighting the pale orange color of the room. A thick red carpet sprawls over the
floor, a corner of it lit too by a sunbeam; the room’s windows admit the sun along
two walls, and tiny dust motes hover in the bright streaks which glaze the room.”

Here the writer never says "warm," but attempts to present a series of details
which demonstrate this quality of the room.

7. The writer seeks not only the general details which comprise the basic profile of an
object (the apple is red, roundish, and large for an apple), but the specific details and
precise description which make the object unique:

“The apple has two leaves still attached to the stem; it doesn’t stand straight when
resting on a tabletop, on its left side a streak of yellow shines underneath the red, a
small bruise hangs just below the apple’s crown on its back side.”

In the case of the above apple, the writer seeks the details which make this apple not just another
red apple; the writer seeks to write such a precise description that the reader could pick this
apple out of a bowl of six other apples
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8. The best descriptive writing evokes objects through the use of all five sensesthan just
sight for more vivid and unique description. If, in describing the apple above, the writer
includes the aroma of the apple (if it had one), or a sense of what the apple’s skin might
feel like, the description of the apple becomes even more specific and memorable.

9. Good descriptive writing also employs the use of strong, specific verbs. Central in
choosing verbs is -- as always -- the avoidance of the verb ‘to be.’ To say a thing ‘is,’ or
‘was,’ is not nearly as active -- and therefore specific -- as choosing a sharper verb.

Consider these different versions of the same sentences:

a. The sunlight was on the propane tank.
b. The sunlight stretched over the propane tank.

a. We had a really nice dinner

b. We enjoyed a tasty meal"

a. The children had a great time at the circus

b. The children shared a thrilling night at the circus.

10. Good descriptions of people aim not only to portray the basic essential features of a
person, but also to offer some presentation of the character’s personality. Again, this is
done through the details the writer chooses to focus on, rather than through the telling.

Examples
The following passage describes a pivotal scene from George Orwell's famous essay “Shooting
an Elephant” which focuses on the use and abuse of power. Notice how Orwell draws on the
sense of touch and hearing as well as sight:

“When I pulled the trigger I did not hear the bang or feel the kick—one never
does when a shot goes home—but I heard the devilish roar of glee that went
up from the crowd. In that instant, in too short a time, one would have
thought, even for the bullet to get there, a mysterious, terrible change had
come over the elephant. He neither stirred nor fell, but every line of his body
had altered. He looked suddenly stricken, shrunken, immensely old, as though
the frightful impact of the bullet had paralyzed him without knocking him
down. At last, after what seemed a long time—it might have been five
 P a g e | 22

seconds, I dare say—he sagged flabbily to his knees. His mouth slobbered
….”
Following is another excerpt from a descriptive essay:
"Like his twisted feathers, his many scars, the reliable old owl chose the gnarled, weather-
beaten, but solid branch often—it being a companion to the wise alone with the night and the
last branch to creak in the heaviest wind. He often came to survey the fields and the clouds
before his hunt, to listen to the steady sound of the stream passing through reeds under the
bridge, while combing his feathers for the unwanted—whatever they might be."

Here is a descriptive essay about a first visit to a favorite diner written by a student at Roane
State Community College:
"When entering the door at Lou’s, two things are immediately noticeable: the place is rarely
empty and seems to consist of a maze of rooms. The first room, through the door, is the main part
of the restaurant. There is another, rarely used, dining room off to the right. It was added during
the oil well boom of the seventies. Through the main dining room is yet another room; it guards
the door leading into the kitchen. This room contains the most coveted table in the place. The
highest tribute Lou can bestow on anyone is to allow them access to seats at this table. This
table is the family table; it is reserved for Lou’s, and her daughter Karen’s, immediate family
and treasured friends."

Read more at http://examples.yourdictionary.com/essay-examples.html#Xy0DD6p5bkPhlbr7.99

Solved Examples
Model Descriptive Paragraph

My Son Ben
My oldest son, Ben, is one cute kid. I am English by birth and his mother is Taiwanese, so his
looks are a mixture of European and Chinese. He has slanting (inclined) eyelids. His nose is long and
narrow, like mine, but flat like his mother’s. He has a full pink mouth and a clear round chin. His skin is a
light copper colour. His limbs are straight and neither too plump nor too bony. Getting genes from two
very different races certainly has not hurt his looks.

My Apartment
My apartment is very comfortable for a young family of five. It has a large living room and a large
open kitchen, which are right next to each other like one big room, so when you walk in the door you feel
like there is a lot of space. There is also a lot of light, because there are windows at both ends of the
living room-kitchen. In front of the door there is a long hallway. On the left as you go down the hallway
is my office, which is also big and has windows on two sides, so it also gets a lot of light. Right across
from the office on the right is my youngest son’s bedroom, which is small, but has a large window. Next
to it is my oldest and middle sons’ bedroom, which is also small but has a larger window. Further down
 P a g e | 23

the hall on the left is the family bathroom. Just after it, at the end of the hall is the master bedroom, which
is large and well lit and has a separate bathroom in the left corner as you come in the door. The apartment
is cheerful because of all the light through the windows and roomy enough for everyone to have space to
play together or be alone and quiet.

My Nasty Brother
My brother is a slob (a lazy person). His clothes are always dirty. His shirt is always partly tucked
in and partly hanging out. His hair looks like a bird’s nest that the birds had a fight in. He never brushes
his teeth. He leaves his dinnerware wherever he finishes eating. His room looks like a garbage dump after
a bomb. I love my brother, but I wish he would learn to be clean and tidy.

My Grandmother
Have you ever had a moment that was set in your memory like a snapshot? I have one, and it is of
my Grandma. Her hair was brown and wavy resting just below her shoulders. Her face, fair and smooth,
was adorned with brown tinted glasses through which her beautiful brown eyes sparkled brightly when
the light caught them just right. You could have mistaken her smile for a movie star's. It could have
brightened a whole city! Her laugh could encourage anyone to laugh along with her. She had a light
inside her that anyone could see. She was wise beyond her years. She taught me new things in the years
she was here. This is why I hold this "snapshot" close to my heart.

The Spook House (narrative + descriptive)

Ghosts are real. I know this because of what happened at our house last year. We had just moved
in. The house was old but beautiful. It was evening. The sun had just gone down. We heard strange noises
coming from everywhere. It sounded like people laughing, talking, crying, screaming, running, walking
and cooking. Then the lights went out and we saw thin white faces looking in through all the windows.
The doorbell rang. I opened it and an old woman dressed all in white flew right through me into the living
room. She looked at all of us and said, “This is my house. You can live here, but you must die here, too,
just like all of these.” She pointed at the faces in the windows. Then she flew up the stairs and we heard a
door slam. I do not know if there is a God, but I do know there are ghosts.

Interactive Session
How can you describe things?
How can you paint a picture with words?

Challenging exercises

1. Choose a topic from following (favorite hobby, childhood memory, embarrassing story, family
tradition).
2. Write for a designated amount of time (2-5 minutes) without stopping.
3. Read your essays aloud, or in pairs, so to enjoy one another’s work.

What did you learn?

(3) What have you learnt about Descriptive writing?
(4) In which mode of writing a descriptive writing is used?
Home Work
Write a descriptive essay on your apartment.
 P a g e | 24

Next Lesson Preview

Next lesson is the continuation of types of Writing Strategies (Narrative Writing).
 P a g e | 25

Narrative Writing
Preamble
What have you learnt in previous lessons about the Types of writing?
What do you know story writing?
General preview to different types of writing

Learning Outcomes
After learning this topic the students will
 Be familiar with the particular techniques of a Narrative Writing
 Be able to use Narrative strategy for creating a document.
ARE YOU READY?
Have you ever narrate some experience to someone?
What strategies do you use to narrate that experience to your interlocutor?

Topic of the Day: Types of Writing Strategies

Narrative Writing: Telling a Story

Narrative writing is all about telling a story. When writing fiction, short stories, biographies,
autobiographies, historical accounts, essays, poems, and plays, you have to know that it must be
interesting and compelling. If you want your work to be noticed, narrative and descriptive
writing is how to get you there.

How to Write a Narrative Essay

Narratives are stories. Narratives are plots. They are essays that tell a story — hopefully in an
interesting way – that also convey themes. Often, if you are asked to write a narrative essay, you
will not be asked to research a theory or topic. Rather, you will be asked to use your imagination
instead of a bibliography. You may need to research for this narrative essay; nonetheless, the
writing of it may come more easily to you for you do not need to quote specific words from
primary sources.

1. Types of Narrative writing

The three main types of narrative writings are personal, imaginative and narrative essay.

 Personal Narrative
The narrative writing is known as personal narrative when a person writes about himself or
about his experiences. In this style of narrative writing, the writer already has a plot. However he
has to narrate the experiences in such a way that it will capture the interest of the reader. A
personal narrative writer has to pay attention to the flow of story; the dialogue (if any) and he
should also include the description wherever necessary. On reading, the reader should experience
the same feeling that the writer experienced in reality.
 P a g e | 26

 Imaginative Narrative Writing

When a narrative writer writes a fiction or creates a story it is known as imaginative narrative
writing. For an imaginative narrative writer, creativity is essential. Here the narrative writer can
go beyond the reality. He can create unusual situations and events that could never happen in
real life. Here the writer has to create a plot and make it sound convincing to the reader.

 Narrative Essay
Narrative essays are always written from a defined point of view. The point of view would be
none other than that of the author's. The narrative essay should have a central theme and points
to support and elaborate the theme. The narrative essay includes vivid verbs and is very precise
in description of the characters. The narrative essays may or may not use dialogues. However, it
can use conflicts and sequences like any story.

2. The General Characteristics of Narrative Writing Include

 Plot - a literary term for the events a story comprises, particularly as they relate to one
another in some type of pattern, a progression or a sequence, through cause and effect, or
by coincidence. The structure of the plot includes the introduction, some type of rising
action, a climax, and then a falling action, followed by the resolution.

 Crisis/Conflict – is an opposition of people, forces or other entities. Then thinking about

conflict, important to be clear about how the character deals with conflicts, by focusing
on the contradictory emotions within a person that make them behave the way they do.

 Characterization - is the process of passing on information about characters in narrative

or dramatic works of art. Characters may be presented by means of description through
their actions, speech, or thoughts.

 Setting – is where the story takes place and is an important part of telling a story. The
setting gives the story distinctiveness and is as important as the characters.

 Theme - is the unifying subject or idea of a story. It is the unifying subject or idea of a
story. It is the main idea, moral, or message, whether it be about one's life or society in
general. Themes usually explore timeless and universal ideas and are almost always
implied rather than stated explicitly. Along with plot, character, setting, and style, theme
is considered one of the fundamental components of fiction.

 Point of View – focuses on who is telling the story. There are the views of the first
person, second person and third person as well as the alternating person view. While the
general rule for novels is to adopt a single approach to point of view throughout the story,
 P a g e | 27

there are exceptions. Many stories, especially in literature, alternate between the first and
third person.' In this case, an author will move back and forth between a more "all
knowing" third-person narrator to a more personal first-person narrator. Omniscient

 Sequence – known as a sequence or time line on how things and events unfold in a story.
On occasion, novels will have flashbacks or flash forwards that disrupt the normal,
sequencing of a storyline.

 Transitions - or period in which the story undergoes a change and passes from one stage,
action or activity to another.

3. Conventions of Narrative Essays

In writing your narrative essay, keep the following conventions in mind.
 Narratives are generally written in the first person, that is using I. However, third person
(he, she or it) can also be used.
Example1: (first person).
I walked home from school today with my friends. We stopped for ice cream. I had vanilla.
It's my favourite. When I got up this morning I brushed my teeth. Then I got dressed and ate my
breakfast.
Example2: (third person) Ted plays on a baseball team. He loves to play with his team. He
has a game next week. His coach thinks he is a good baseball player.

 Narratives rely on concrete, sensory details to convey their point

 Narratives, as stories, should include these story conventions: a plot, including setting
and characters; a climax; and an ending.

4. Ingredients for an effective (good) narration

 Supply all significant details or events. They are important in building up and supporting
your main idea or story.
 Flush out insignificant details. Don't start talking about how expensive your cousin's
lipstick is if you're narrating her job interview disaster.
 Narrate in a logical and organized way. Don't go from one detail to the next without
providing any obvious transitions to aid comprehension.
 Pace your narration. Don't let it drag. Otherwise, you'll risk boring your readers.
 Make a point or lead to a conclusion

5. Your Readers Influence Your Narrative

The details you include in your narration are largely determined by your target readers.
Ask yourself:
 P a g e | 28

 Who would be likely to read my story?

 Who could benefit and/or learn from my story?
 Who are the people I'd like to share my story with?

Planning your narrative

Brainstorming your ideas. This does not need to take long...

Theme Plot
Characters Coping an emergency Dams break
Me, Tim, the Smiths, Bunny, John, Smith Farm
Civil DefencePolice Floods

The Flood
Solution
Time Crisis Safe in
School Holidays, Rain warehouse
Winter, Water everywhere
Night Setting
High-court and Bridge gone
Country Road Civil Defence accident
Lines down
Getting to warehouse

Model NARRATIVE PARAGRAPH

Informational Paragraph V/S Narrative Paragraph

INFORMING about the Apollo 11 space mission    

On July 16, 1969, the Apollo 11 spacecraft launched from the Kennedy Space Centre in Florida. Its
mission was to go where no human being had gone before—the moon! The crew consisted of Neil
Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin. The spacecraft landed on the moon in the Sea of
Tranquillity, a basaltic (hard Rock) flood plain, on July 20, 1969. The moonwalk took place the following
day. On July 21, 1969, at precisely 10:56 EDT, Commander Neil Armstrong emerged from the Lunar
Module and took his famous first step onto the moon’s surface. He declared, “That’s one small step for
man, one giant leap for mankind.” It was a monumental (proud) moment in human history!

NARRATEING a story about the Apollo 11 space mission

 P a g e | 29

It was July 21, 1969, and Neil Armstrong awoke with a start. It was the day he would become the
first human being to ever walk on the moon. The journey had begun several days earlier, when on July
16th, the Apollo 11 launched from Earth headed into outer space. On board with Neil Armstrong were
Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin. The crew landed on the moon in the Sea of Tranquillity a day before
the actual walk. Upon Neil’s first step onto the moon’s surface, he declared, “That’s one small step for
man, one giant leap for mankind.” It sure was!

Personal Narrative
It was the night before Valentine's Day. My boyfriend and I had just spent the whole day in Pueblo.
We were both really tired and it was becoming a long drive home. On the radio, we were listening to 94.3
KILO, which was playing nothing but commercials. Then the D.J. announced the chance to win
Collective Soul tickets. All I had to do was be caller number nine. I called the radio station from my cell
phone three times and only got a busy signal. I was about to give up when I decided to call one more
time. To my surprise it was ringing. The D.J. answered the phone saying, "You're caller number nine you
just won Collective Soul tickets!" The next night, my boyfriend and I got to see the kickoff of Collective
Soul's world tour. It was the best Valentine's Day I've ever had.

The Lost Camera

I will never leave my camera on a bus seat again. Last week I went with my family to the zoo. I
took my camera. We rode the bus there. It was a beautiful day. The sun was bright but not too hot. There
was a cool breeze. The trees were green. The flowers smelled wonderful. The lions, tigers, zebras,
giraffes and elephants looked comfortable and content as they fed and played. I took around a hundred
pictures. We stayed at the zoo until it closed. After two hours of walking around, we were pretty tired.
When we got on the bus, I felt sleepy, so I put my camera down on the seat beside me and took a nap.
Suddenly, my dad was calling my name and telling me to get off the bus. I jumped up and ran out of the
door. When we got home, I went to download all my pictures, but couldn’t find my camera. Then I
remembered where I had left it—on the bus. We called the bus company, but they could not find it
anywhere. Somebody must have stolen it. Next time I ride the bus, I will hold onto everything, because I
do not want to lose another camera.

Read more at http://examples.yourdictionary.com/essay-examples.html#Xy0DD6p5bkPhlbr7.99

Interactive Session

1. Narrative is...
A. A detailed chronological story B.Comparing and contrasting stories C. A detailed biography

2. What is the first step you should take when writing a narrative?
A. Write your conclusion B. Choose an interesting topic C. Think of a thesis statement

3. What sums up the story?

A. Conclusion B. Introduction C. Body

Challenging Exercise:
 P a g e | 30

Choose any experience from your past and write it down.

Read yourstories aloud, or in pairs, to enjoy one another’s work.

What did you learn?

(5) Differentiate between narrative and Descriptive writing.
(6) In which mode of writing a Narrative writing is used?

Home Work

i. Write an essay in which you tell the story of a book you have read or a movie you have
seen.
Next Lesson Preview
Next lesson is the continuation of types of Writing Strategies (Persuasive Writing).
 P a g e | 31

Argumentative/Persuasive Writing
Preamble

What have you learnt in previous lessons about stages of writing?

Where can you utilize that knowledge?
General introduction to different types of writing
Descriptive and Narrative Writing

Learning Outcomes
After learning this topic the students will
 Be familiar with the particular techniques of Persuasive writing
 Be able to write a Persuasive Document

ARE YOU READY?

Have you ever tried to persuade others to accept your point of view?
What strategies do you use argue for or against anything in your daily dealings?
Do you find yourself successful in convincing others?
Topic: Argumentative Writing

In persuasive or argumentative writing, we try to convince others to agree with our facts,
share our values, accept our argument and conclusions, and adopt our way of thinking. In this
kind of essay, we not only give information but also present an argument with the PROS
(supporting ideas) and CONS (opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue. We should clearly
take our stand and write as if we are trying to persuade an opposing audience to adopt new
belief or behaviour. The primary objective is to persuade people to change beliefs that many of
them do not want to change.

Here are some strategies to complete a persuasive writing assignment:

 Write out the questions in your own words.Think of the questions posed in the
assignment while you are reading and researching.

 List out facts; consider their importance: Ask yourself "What's missing?"

 What are the "hot buttons" of the issue? List possible emotions/emotional reactions
and recognize them for later use

 Start writing a draft! Do not concern yourself with grammar or spelling

 P a g e | 32

 Write your first paragraph. Introduce the topic. Inform the reader of your point of
view! Entice the reader to continue with the rest of the paper!

 Focus on three main points to develop

1. Establish flow from paragraph to paragraph
2. Keep your voice active
3. Quote sourcesto establish authority

 Stay focusedon your point of view throughout the essay. Focus on logical arguments.
Don't lapse into summary.

 Conclusion
Summarize, then conclude, your argument, refer to the first paragraph/opening
statement as well as the main points. Does the conclusion restate the main ideas? Reflect
the succession and importance of the arguments.

 Edit/rewrite the first paragraph to better telegraph your development and conclusion.

 Re-read your paper with a fresh mind and a sharp pencil. Take a day or two off!
Ask yourself:
 Does this make sense? Am I convinced?
 Will this convince a reader?
 Will they understand my values, and agree with my facts?

Edit, correct, and re-write as necessary. Check spelling and grammar!Have a friend read
it and respond to your argument. Were they convinced? Revise if necessary

Do… Don’t…
…use passionate language …use weak qualifiers like “I believe,” “I feel,” or “I
think”—just tell us!
…cite experts who agree with you …claim to be an expert if you’re not one
…provide facts, evidence, and statistics to …use strictly moral or religious claims as support for
support your position your argument
…provide reasons to support your claim …assume the audience will agree with you about any
aspect of your argument
…address the opposing side’s argument …attempt to make others look bad (i.e. Mr. Smith is
and refute their claims ignorant—don’t listen to him!)
 P a g e | 33

Model Persuasive Paragraph/Argumentative Paragraph

PERSUADEING neighbours to buy tickets to the school fair.

The school fair is right around the corner, and tickets have just gone on sale. We are selling a
limited number of tickets at a discount, so move fast and get yours while they are still available. This is
going to be an event you will not want to miss! First off, the school fair is a great value when compared
with other forms of entertainment. Also, your ticket purchase will help our school, and when you help the
school, it helps the entire community. But that’s not all! Every ticket you purchase enters you in a
drawing to win fabulous prizes. And don’t forget, you will have mountains of fun because there are acres
and acres of great rides, fun games, and entertaining attractions! Spend time with your family and friends
at our school fair. Buy your tickets now!

The paragraph below was written  to show the opposite position to a persuasive paragraph on fast
food. The original paragraph, outlining the dangers of fast food, follows the new paragraph, outlining
the positive points!

 Fast Food! Enjoy Your Dinner!

     Fast food gets bad press these days, especially since it often contains too much fat, sodium and
calories, but it brings much needed convenience to our stressful busy world. Fast food is easily found and
varied. At any mall, for example, customers have many choices at the food court. To avoid too much fat
or salt, they can choose healthier options: salads, turkey sandwiches and so on. On a busy Saturday, with
two hungry kids, a mother out shopping is happy to find exactly the right food to eat. Not only that, but
the food will be ready quickly, thus reducing the stress on her from demanding children. Fast food is also
inexpensive; most menu items offer a full meal for fewer than ten dollars. It is easy to see why fast food
is so popular these days—it is convenient and reduces our stress.

Fast Food! Be Careful What You Eat!

     Fast food is convenient when in a rush, but it is a bad idea to eat it too much or too often.
Recently, McDonald’s featured a two dollar deal: Big Mac and small fries. Very tempting, I and my son
(who doesn’t normally eat at McDonald’s) bought this meal last week. What is the nutritional content of
a Big Mac and fries? The hamburger contains 570 calories; almost half (280 calories) come from fat. Ten
grams is saturated, the most dangerous and harmful to our heart. The Canadian Food Guide recommends
that we "choose lower-fat foods more often." My son also ate a small fries! Unfortunately, they contain
210 calories, with 10 more grams of fat (1.5 grams saturated). He bought a drink as well, which adds
another 150 calories (small size). Imagine he eats this dinner more than once a week! A two dollar meal
contains a lot of fat. So, although fast food is very convenient (and cheap) to buy, it includes lots of fat—I
think I’ll go and eat an apple, instead!
(Written as an example of persuasive writing, using facts to support opinions)

This short persuasive paragraph is based on a model that a third-grader student submitted. She
begins her writing in a way that makes the reader want to keep reading. The reader wants to find out
what decision she is talking about.
 P a g e | 34

Plastic, Paper, or Cloth?

We have a big decision to make. We can use cloth, paper, or plastic bags. I choose cloth because
paper uses trees, and plastic uses petroleum; so we should use cloth. Cloth bags are easy to take with you
and use again and again. We need to keep our earth clean, so let’s use cloth. Remember, recycle and
reuse.

Persuasive Essay Sample

Adopting a Pet from the Pound

Owning a pet from the pound or Animal Rescue League has many advantages. First of all, a child
feels good about rescuing an abandoned or abused animal and giving it a whole new life. Besides, if the
animals from the pound aren’t adopted right away, they might be put to sleep. Having a pet also means
lots of responsibilities. A child has to feed, clean up after, brush, and exercise the pet.
Another great advantage of having a pet from the pound is the price of these cute and cuddly
animals. Pets from the pound cost only a few dollars while pets at a fancy pet store can cost hundreds of
dollars.
Once you adopt a pet from the Animal Rescue League, it will quickly become a part of your
family. If you are thinking of adopting a pet, you might consider choosing a dog or a cat. Dogs and cats
can bring lots of happy times to a family, and they can be excellent companions for a person who lives
alone or someone who has lost a loved one. Dogs are also a wonderful source of protection. Cats are
funny, and they may help to calm people down when they are sad or mad.
Please consider adopting an animal. If you remember all of the advantages of adopting a pet from
the pound, you might find the bird, mouse, hamster, dog, or cat of your choice.

Read more at http://examples.yourdictionary.com/essay-examples.html#Xy0DD6p5bkPhlbr7.99

Challenging Exercise

Write an argumentative essay on any controversial topic. For example

 Mobile phones in Colleges
 Wearing Jeans in University

Get it reviewed from your peer to see if he is convinced by your arguments.

What are the strong points of your essay?
What are the weaknesses of your writing?

What did you learn?

(1) Describe different techniques of an argumentative essay?
Home Assignment
Write a persuasive circular for any business purpose.
Next Lesson Preview
Discursive Writing
 P a g e | 35

Discursive Writing

Preamble

What have you learnt in previous lessons about stages of writing?

Where can you utilize that knowledge?
General introduction to different types of writing

Learning Outcomes
After learning this topic the students will
 Be familiar with the particular techniques of a Discursive
 Be able to use Discursive strategies for documents

ARE YOU READY?

Have you ever made analysis of any topic in a balanced way?
What strategies do you use to be objective and neutral in your written expression?

Topic: Discursive Writing

The goal of a discursive writing is to present a balanced and objective examination of a

subject. Like an argumentative essay, the topic may be controversial, but the discursive essay
attempts to present a much more balanced discussion of the issue. The writer should present both
sides of the discussion, supported by facts and research. The author may draw tentative
conclusions about the subject and suggest them to the reader.

Discursive Style
 The discursive style is written in a more formal and impersonal style than other
writing styles. It begins with an introduction to the topic.
 Each issue should be discussed in a separate paragraph and each paragraph should
begin with a strong topic sentence.
 A discursive writing will typically alternate apoint followed by its counterpoint.
 Discursive writings often have transitional words leading into the next paragraph.
 The writer may choose to either express a low-key opinion in the final paragraph or
leave readers to draw their own conclusions.
 P a g e | 36

Techniques for Discursive Writing

 Argue For
Once you have chosen the topic you plan to write on, one technique is to strongly argue for
one particular stance. The topic should ideally be something somewhat controversial so that you
can fully embrace your position. For example, you could choose a topic such as abortion and
provide a different argument or piece of evidence supporting your position in each paragraph.
One argument could state that it is the woman's fundamental right to make decisions regarding
her own body.
 Argue Against
Choose a controversial topic and take a stance that strongly disagrees with it. Arguing for
abortion would mean you have the same viewpoint as someone arguing against "pro-life"
politics, but the technique of the essay would be different. Arguing against a viewpoint should
focus more on why that stance is wrong versus why the opposing stance is right. Arguing against
"pro-life" views might use the misguidance of religious groups dabbling in politics to support
that this stance is wrong.
 Balanced Argument
Another technique is to show both sides of the argument from a balanced perspective.
Since you must state your stance at the beginning, make sure to clarify what aspects keep you
tied in the middle. For example, you may state that you believe in both the mother's right to
choose as well as the fetus's right to live, and therefore recognize that the situation is
fundamentally unjust. You can then take turns alternating between stances from one paragraph to
the next throughout the essay.
 Accept Both Sides, Support One More
This technique is perhaps the most effective in winning another person over to your
position, because it shows that you have the capacity for understanding both sides, yet your
judgment has led you to favour one over the other. In your introduction, state why you are able
to understand one side of the argument, yet why you must ultimately support the other. For
example, you might state that you believe abortion is unfair to the unborn child, but that the lives
of those living should be given more importance. You could then argue about the importance of
the mother's choice, the burden on society from unwanted children and the overpopulation
problem in the world at large.
 P a g e | 37

Model Discursive Writing

Using Telephone or Letter for Communication

It’s certainly quicker to telephone than to write a letter but it may not always be the best way to
communicate. The use depends, like so many other things in life, on the circumstances.
Telephoning is ideal if you want immediate action. You wouldn’t want to write to the plumber if
you had water pouring through your ceiling, for example. It’s also the obvious choice if you need a quick
answer to a question like ‘What time is the next train to Oxford?’ or ‘Did I leave my wallet in your
shop?’ Many problems can be solved more easily and decisions taken more quickly if you can discuss
them with someone on the phone rather than wait for a reply to a letter. Finally, few people would
disagree that telephoning is a pleasant way to keep in touch with friends and family.
On the other hand, there can be a number of disadvantages to telephoning. In the first place, some
problems are too complicated to explain on the phone, especially if they involve facts and figures, and it
may be clearer if you set them out in a letter. Secondly, it might be important to have a record of what
you say, especially if it’s a booking or a complaint. Last but not least, telephoning, especially long-
distance, can be terribly expensive. The nice thing about receiving letters is that you can keep them and
re-read them. Who wouldn’t want to have a six-page letter full of news from a friend abroad than a two-
minute telephone call on a bad line?
To sum up, letter writing is far from dead, in my view. Each form of communication has its
advantages and disadvantages: the important thing to recognise is which is more appropriate for what you
want to say, and to whom.

Marrying Non-Natives

Marrying someone from a different country will always be more problematic than marrying
someone from your own country.
With the advent of globalization, international marriages have been more popular these days.
However, there are multiple downsides of this trend than marrying native of one’s own country, which will
now be explained.
The strongest argument against such marriage could be language barrier. To illustrate, a SriLankan
man might find it difficult to communicate effectively with his Chinese wife if he has limited language
skill. If such couple has limited language proficiency, they would have difficulty expressing their feelings,
instead may end up their conversation with dissatisfaction and misunderstandings.
The other disadvantage of getting married with overseas foreigner could be a cultural shock. It is
well known that the tradition and customs of different countries vary from one another. As from the
example above, that Chinese lady is likely to face many difficulties getting used to her SriLankan in-laws’
lifestyle. This can lead to extreme discomfort and more family issues.
Admittedly, some maintain that tying knot with someone from foreign country could be more
exciting as it is fun to explore each other’s undiscovered traditions and also it provides opportunities for
international travel. However, this could be true for some couples but not always the case. Learning new
etiquettes everyday could be more demanding. Likewise, there are growing issues of dual citizenships and
visa problems.
 P a g e | 38

To summarize, the drawbacks of an international wedding, such as language problem and difficulty
in adjusting to foreign culture and tradition eventually outweigh its benefits. Therefore, I firmly believe that
one should marry a citizen of one’s own nationality if he or she wants to avoid all those/these difficulties.

Read more at http://examples.yourdictionary.com/essay-examples.html#Xy0DD6p5bkPhlbr7.99

Interactive Session

What is your understanding of the material presented in this lesson?

Which techniques you would use to make a balanced analysis of any topic?

What did you learn?

What is a sensitive topic for writing?
What is a discursive writing?

Practice Discursive Writing

Vegetarianism
Write an essay describing the benefits and drawbacks of becoming a vegetarian, a diet that
consists of no meat. In the paper, introduce the pros of having a meat-free diet, such as lower
cholesterol, and the cons, such as protein deficiency. Argue your opinion through a moral
lens, also; some believe eating meat is cruelty to animals. Carnivores, on the other hand,
believe that certain animals are meant to be used as protein sources. Taking a look at
vegetarian practices in some religions and cultures will help make convincing research.
Any Other Topic of your Choice

Home Assignment
Write an essay on any one of the given topics.
ii. Mobile phones in for college students
iii. Being a Morning Person

Next Lesson Preview

Letter Writing
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Business Letters
Preamble

What have you learnt in previous lessons about writing technical documents?
Where can you utilize that knowledge?
General introduction to letter writing

Learning Outcomes
After learning this topic the students will
 Be familiar with the particular techniques for writing a business letter.
 Be able to write a professional letter independently

ARE YOU READY?

Have you ever written a letter before?
What strategies do you use while writing a letter?

Topic of the Day: Writing a Business Letter

Parts of a Business Letter

This resource is organized in the order in which you should write a business letter, starting with
the sender's address if the letter is not written on letterhead.

 Sender's Address
The sender's address usually is included in letterhead. If you are not using letterhead, include the
sender's address at the top of the letter one line above the date. Do not write the sender's name or
title, as it is included in the letter's closing. Include only the street address, city, and zip code.

 Date
The date line is used to indicate the date the letter was written. However, if your letter is
completed over a number of days, use the date it was finished in the date line. When writing to
companies within the United States, use the American date format. (The United States-based
convention for formatting a date places the month before the day. For example: June 11, 2001. )
Write out the month, day and year two inches from the top of the page. Depending which format
you are using for your letter, either left justify the date or tab to the center point and type the
date.

 Inside Address
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The inside address is the recipient's address. It is always best to write to a specific individual at
the firm to which you are writing. If you do not have the person's name, do some research by
calling the company or speaking with employees from the company. Include a personal title such
as Ms., Mrs., Mr., or Dr. Follow a woman's preference in being addressed as Miss, Mrs., or Ms.
If you are unsure of a woman's preference in being addressed, use Ms. If there is a possibility
that the person to whom you are writing is a Dr. or has some other title, use that title. Usually,
people will not mind being addressed by a higher title than they actually possess. To write the
address, use the U.S. Post Office Format. For international addresses, type the name of the
country in all-capital letters on the last line. The inside address begins one line below the
sender's address or one inch below the date. It should be left justified, no matter which format
you are using.

 Salutation
Use the same name as the inside address, including the personal title. If you know the person and
typically address them by their first name, it is acceptable to use only the first name in the
salutation (for example: Dear Lucy:). In all other cases, however, use the personal title and
last/family name followed by a colon. Leave one line blank after the salutation.

If you don't know a reader's gender, use a non-sexist salutation, such as their job title followed
by the receiver's name. It is also acceptable to use the full name in a salutation if you cannot
determine gender. For example, you might write Dear Chris Harmon: if you were unsure of
Chris's gender.

 Body
For block and modified block formats, single space and left justify each paragraph within the
body of the letter. Leave a blank line between each paragraph. When writing a business letter, be
careful to remember that conciseness is very important. In the first paragraph, consider a friendly
opening and then a statement of the main point. The next paragraph should begin justifying the
importance of the main point. In the next few paragraphs, continue justification with background
information and supporting details. The closing paragraph should restate the purpose of the letter
and, in some cases, request some type of action.

 Closing
The closing begins at the same vertical point as your date and one line after the last body
paragraph. Capitalize the first word only (for example: Thank you) and leave four lines between
the closing and the sender's name for a signature. If a colon follows the salutation, a comma
should follow the closing; otherwise, there is no punctuation after the closing.

 Enclosures
If you have enclosed any documents along with the letter, such as a resume, you indicate this
simply by typing Enclosures one line below the closing. As an option, you may list the name of
 P a g e | 41

each document you are including in the envelope. For instance, if you have included many
documents and need to ensure that the recipient is aware of each document, it may be a good
idea to list the names.

 Typist initials
Typist initials are used to indicate the person who typed the letter. If you typed the letter
yourself, omit the typist initials.

 A Note About Format and Font

Block Format
When writing business letters, you must pay special attention to the format and font used. The
most common layout of a business letter is known as block format. Using this format, the entire
letter is left justified and single spaced except for a double space between paragraphs.

Modified Block
Another widely utilized format is known as modified block format. In this type, the body of the
letter and the sender's and recipient's addresses are left justified and single-spaced. However, for
the date and closing, tab to the centre point and begin to type.

Semi-Block
The final, and least used, style is semi-block. It is much like the modified block style except that
each paragraph is indented instead of left justified and date and closing are centre aligned.

Keep in mind that different organizations have different format requirements for their
professional communication. The format of your business letter may need to be flexible to
reflect variables like letterheads and templates.

Font
Another important factor in the readability of a letter is the font. The generally accepted font is
Times New Roman, size 12, although other fonts such as Arial may be used. When choosing a
font, always consider your audience. If you are writing to a conservative company, you may
want to use Times New Roman. However, if you are writing to a more liberal company, you
have a little more freedom when choosing fonts.

Punctuation
Punctuation after the salutation and closing - use a colon (:) after the salutation (never a comma)
and a comma (,) after the closing. In some circumstances, you may also use a less common
format, known as open punctuation. For this style, punctuation is excluded after the salutation
and the closing.
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Sample Letters

If you are using letterhead, do not include the sender's address at the top of the letter; instead,
begin with the date.

Block Format

123 Winner's Road

New Employee Town, PA 12345

March 16, 2001

Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345

Dear Mr. English:

The first paragraph of a typical business letter is used to state the main point of the letter. Begin
with a friendly opening; then quickly transition into the purpose of your letter. Use a couple of
sentences to explain the purpose, but do not go in to detail until the next paragraph.

Beginning with the second paragraph, state the supporting details to justify your purpose. These
may take the form of background information, statistics or first-hand accounts. A few short
paragraphs within the body of the letter should be enough to support your reasoning.

Finally, in the closing paragraph, briefly restate your purpose and why it is important. If the
purpose of your letter is employment related, consider ending your letter with your contact
information. However, if the purpose is informational, think about closing with gratitude for the
reader's time.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter
 P a g e | 43

Modified Block Format

123 Winner's Road

                         New Employee Town, PA 12345

                                                      March 16, 2001

Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345

Dear Mr. English:

The first paragraph of a typical business letter is used to state the main point of the letter. Begin with a friendly opening; then quickly transition
into the purpose of your letter. Use a couple of sentences to explain the purpose, but do not go in to detail until the next paragraph.

Beginning with the second paragraph, state the supporting details to justify your purpose. These may take the form of background information,
statistics or first-hand accounts. A few short paragraphs within the body of the letter should be enough to support your reasoning.

Finally, in the closing paragraph, briefly restate your purpose and why it is important. If the purpose of your letter is employment related,
consider ending your letter with your contact information. However, if the purpose is informational, think about closing with gratitude for the
reader's time.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter

Semi-Block Format

123 Winner's Road

New Employee Town, PA 12345

March 16, 2001

Ernie English
1234 Writing Lab Lane
Write City, IN 12345

Dear Mr. English:

(Indent) The first paragraph of a typical business letter is used to state the main point of the letter. Begin with a friendly opening; then quickly
transition into the purpose of your letter. Use a couple of sentences to explain the purpose, but do not go in to detail until the next paragraph.

(Indent) Beginning with the second paragraph, state the supporting details to justify your purpose. These may take the form of background
information, statistics or first-hand accounts. A few short paragraphs within the body of the letter should be enough to support your reasoning.

(Indent) Finally, in the closing paragraph, briefly restate your purpose and why it is important. If the purpose of your letter is employment
related, consider ending your letter with your contact information. However, if the purpose is informational, think about closing with gratitude
for the reader's time.

Sincerely,

Lucy Letter
 P a g e | 44

MEMORANDUM
Preamble

What have you learnt in previous lessons about writing technical documents?
Where can you utilize that knowledge?
What is internal communication within an organization?

Learning Outcomes
After learning this topic the students will
 Be familiar with the particular techniques for writing a memorandum.
 Be able to write a memorandum independently

ARE YOU READY?

Have you ever come across a memorandum before?
What strategies do you use for internal written communication?

Topic of the Day: Writing a memorandum

What is a memo or a Memorandum:

Memo is a written proposal or reminder used for business communication. It is a document that
is generally short, focuses on a single topic, reports information, makes a request, or recommends
action. It is an internal method of communication within one company. Memos can also be an external
method if the correspondence is between two companies. Memos are used to communicate
information, such as upcoming tasks within a department or general news that needs to reach a wide
audience. Pre-defined memo templates and email have made communication easier, but it is helpful to
know how to write a business memo from scratch.

Purpose:

Memos have a twofold purpose: they bring attention to problems and they solve problems. They
accomplish their goals by informing the reader about new information like policy changes, price
increases, or by persuading the reader to take an action, such as attend a meeting, or change a current
 P a g e | 45

production procedure. Memos are most effective when they connect the purpose of the writer with the
interests and needs of the reader.

Audience:
Choose the audience of the memo wisely. Ensure that all of the people that the memo is
addressed to need to read the memo. If it is an issue involving one person, do not send the memo to
entire office. Also, be certain that material is not too sensitive to put in memo; sometimes the best
forms of communication are face-to-face interaction or a phone call. Memos are most effectively used
when sent to a small to moderate number of people to communicate company or job adjectives.

Format:
The format of a memo follows the general guidelines of business writing. A memo is usually a
page or two long, should be single spaced and left justified. Instead of using indentations to show new
paragraphs, skip a line between sentences. Business materials should be concise and easy to read.
Therefore it is beneficial to use headings and lists to help the reader pinpoint certain information.

For easy reading, put important points or details into lists rather than paragraphs when possible.
This will draw the readers' attention to the section and help the audience remember the information
better. Using lists will help you be concise when writing a memo.

The segments of the memo should be allocated in the following manner:

 Header: 1/8 of the memo

 Opening, Context and Task: 1/4 of the memo
 Summary, Discussion Segment: 1/2 of the memo
 Closing Segment, Necessary Attachments: 1/8 of the memo

Standard memos are divided into segments to organize the information and to help achieve the writer's
purpose.

Heading Segment
The heading segment follows this general format:

TO: (readers' names and job titles)

FROM: (your name and job title)

DATE: (complete and current date)

SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)

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Make sure you address the reader by his or her correct name and job title. You might call the
company president "Maxi" on the golf course or in an informal note, but "Miss Rita Maxwell,
President" would be more appropriate for a formal memo.

Opening Segment
The purpose of a memo is usually found in the opening paragraph and includes: the purpose of
the memo, the context and problem, and the specific assignment or task. Before indulging the reader
with details and the context, give the reader a brief overview of what the memo will be about.
Choosing how specific your introduction will be depends on your memo plan style. The more direct
the memo plan, the more explicit the introduction should be. Including the purpose of the memo will
help clarify the reason the audience should read this document. The introduction should be brief, and
should be approximately the length of a short paragraph.

Context

The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the problem you are solving. You may
use a paragraph or a few sentences to establish the background and state the problem. Oftentimes it is
sufficient to use the opening of a sentence to completely explain the context, such as,

"Through market research and analysis..."

Include only what your reader needs, but be sure it is clear.

Task Segment

One essential portion of a memo is the task statement where you should describe what you are
doing to help solve the problem. If the action was requested, your task may be indicated by a sentence
opening like,
"You asked that I look at...."
If you want to explain your intentions, you might say,
"To determine the best method of promoting the new device, I will...."

Include only as much information as is needed by the decision-makers in the context, but be
convincing that a real problem exists. Do not ramble on with insignificant details. You may need to do
more planning before you're ready to write your memo. Make sure your purpose-statement forecast
divides your subject into the most important topics that the decision-maker needs.

Summary Segment
If your memo is longer than a page, you may want to include a separate summary segment.
However, this section not necessary for short memos and should not take up a significant amount of
 P a g e | 47

space. This segment provides a brief statement of the key recommendations you have reached. These
will help your reader understand the key points of the memo immediately. This segment may also
include references to methods and sources you have used in your research.

Discussion Segments

The discussion segment is the longest portions of the memo and includes the supporting ideas,
facts, and research that back up your arguments in the memo. Include strong points and evidence to
persuade the reader to follow your recommended actions. If this section is inadequate, the memo will
not be as effective as it could be.

Closing Segment
After the reader has absorbed all of your information, you want to close with a courteous ending
that states what action you want your reader to take. Make sure you consider how the reader will
benefit from the desired actions and how you can make those actions easier. For example, you might
say,
"I will be glad to discuss this recommendation with you during our Tuesday trip to the spa and
follow through on any decisions you make."

Necessary Attachments

Make sure you document your findings or provide detailed information whenever necessary. You
can do this by attaching lists, graphs, tables, etc. at the end of your memo. Be sure to refer to your
attachments in your memo and add a notation about what is attached below your closing, like this.

Sample Memo to Co-workers

To: All Staff and Interns

From: Ana Lucily, Executive Assistant to the President

Date: July 15, 2012

Subject: Dishes in the Sink

It has come to our attention that there has been a pile of unwashed dishes that accumulates in the sink by the end
of each week. It has gotten so bad that washing one’s hands in the kitchen sink becomes an uncomfortable
undertaking. Therefore, we are introducing a new policy that mandates that employees wash their dishes as soon
as they are done with them, keeping the sink clear for other uses.

If you do not have the time to wash your lunch container or coffee mug, leave it by your desk until you are ready
to wash it. Even two or three dirty plates will encourage every person thereafter to leave their unwashed, food-
stained dishes and silverware in the sink. Conversely, studies have shown that when a sink is empty, people are
more likely to wash their dishes immediately.
 P a g e | 48

Thank you for your cooperation!

Best,

Ana Lucily
 P a g e | 49

Sample Internal Memo

CHOCOLATE HEAVEN EMPORIUM MEMORANDUM

TO: All Staff

FROM: Management T.C.

DATE: November 9th, 20—

SUBJECT: STAFF CHRISTMAS PARTY

It's that time of year again. As you all know, Christmas is our busiest season of the year. Every year it
is a struggle for management and supervisors to find the time and energy to organize a staff Christmas
party. This year, we have decided to postpone the Christmas party until after our busy season.

Party Details

 Date: Second or third Saturday in January (T.B.A)

 Theme: Beach
 Food: Caribbean
 Special events: Karaoke and belly dancing

We apologize that the celebration will have to wait until the new year, but we guarantee that it will be
worth the wait. Anyone interested in volunteering to help out with the event is encouraged to call Lucy,
our events coordinator. Lucy's cell phone number is 222-3098. Please contact Lucy outside of business
hours regarding this matter.

Thank you.

T.C
 P a g e | 50

Report Writing
Preamble:

We discussed in the previous Lessons:

 Letter and Memorandum Writing

 What is technical writing?
 Where you will need to produce a technical document?
 What is the importance of different organizational message plans?

Learning Outcomes:

 Understanding and application of the content and producing the technical report accordingly.

Are you ready?

 How do you report things generally?

 What do you know about the structure of formal writing?

Topic of the day:

Introduction to report writing:

The word ‘report’ comes from the Latin word reportare meaning “to bring back”. Normally, by
‘reporting’ we mean letting someone know who was absent from the place, about the happenings at
that place. However, in business or technical writing, we are primarily concerned with written reports.
A report is a technical document which is the result of a thorough investigation, written for specific
audience in a well-defined format and language which interprets an analysis of data and derives
conclusion and recommendations, if asked.

Report Format / Style

A report has a language of its own known either as the report format or as report style writing.

In professional requirements it is preferred to use report style writing for your assignments instead of
the more familiar "essay style" of writing that you have become so accustomed to over the past ten
years. Report style is

 concise and clearly presented

 easy and quick to interpret
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For example: The sentence below contains the same words but there is a slight difference in
presentation. The first sentence is written in report style writing and the second sentence is written in
standard essay style.

(Sentence one, written in report style writing)

The good news is that report style writing is:

 easy to learn
 easy to organise and
 likely to help earn you higher marks in studies.

(Sentence two, written in essay style writing)

The good news is that report style writing is easy to learn, easy to organise and likely to earn you
higher marks in studies.

Scenarios for writing the report

Not all research topics are appropriate for technical report writing. Topics that are based on values and
beliefs do not fall into the category of technical writing. Historical and literary topics do not qualify.

Organizational Approaches for Report

Two basic approaches for a report are:

 Direct Approach
 Indirect Approach

Direct Approach

When you use the direct approach, the main idea (such as a recommendation, conclusion, or request)
comes in the "top" of the document, followed by the evidence. This is a deductive argument. This
approach is used when your audience will be neutral or positive about your message. In the formal
report, the direct approach usually mandates that you lead off with a summary of your key findings,
conclusions, and recommendations. This "up-front" arrangement is by far the most popular and
convenient for business reports. It saves time and makes the rest of the report easier to follow. For
those who have questions or want more information, later parts of the report provide complete findings
and supporting details. The direct approach also produces a more forceful report. You sound sure of
yourself when you state your conclusions confidently at the outset.
 P a g e | 52

Indirect Approach

In the indirect approach, the evidence is presented first, leading therefore to the main idea. This is
an inductive argument. This approach is best if your audience may be displeased about or may resist
what you have to say.

At times, especially if you are a junior member of an organization or if you are an outsider, writing
with an extremely confident stance may be regarded as arrogant. In such cases, or if your audience will
be skeptical or hostile, you may want to use the indirect approach: Introduce your complete findings
and discuss all supporting details before presenting your conclusions and recommendations. The
indirect approach gives you a chance to prove your points and gradually overcome your audience’s
reservations. By deferring the conclusions and recommendations, you imply that you’ve weighed the
evidence objectively without prejudging the facts. You also imply that you’re subordinating your
judgment to the audience, whose members are capable of drawing their own conclusions when they
have access to all the facts.

Although the indirect approach has its advantages, some readers will always be in a hurry to get to "the
answer" and will flip to the recommendations immediately, thus defeating your purpose. Therefore,
consider length before choosing the direct or indirect approach. In general, the longer the message, the
less effective an indirect approach is likely to be.

Because both direct and indirect approaches have merit, businesspeople often combine them. They
reveal their conclusions and recommendations as they go along, rather than putting them first or last.
As a result, the approach strategy of reports can sometimes be hard to classify.

Two Sample Approaches for Reports

Direct Approach Sample (assumes audience will favor or be neutral to your recommendations)

Since the company’s founding 25 years ago, we have provided regular repair service for all our
electric appliances. This service has been an important selling point as well as a source of pride for
our employees. However, we are paying a high price for our image. Last year, we lost $500,000 on
our repair business.
 P a g e | 53

Because of your concern over these losses, you asked me to study the pros and cons of discontinuing
our repair service. With the help of John Hudson and Susan Lefkowitz, I have studied the issue for the
last two weeks and have come to the conclusion that we have been embracing an expensive,
impractical tradition.

By withdrawing from the electric appliance repair business, we can substantially improve our
financial performance without damaging our reputation with customers. This conclusion is based on
three main points that are covered in the following pages:

o It is highly unlikely that we will ever be able to make a profit in the repair business.

o Service is no longer an important selling point with customers.

o Closing down the service operation will create few internal problems.

Indirect Approach Sample (assumes audience will be hostile to or resistant to your recommendations,
or that you are much lower in the organizational power structure than the primary reader)

Since the company’s founding 25 years ago, we have provided regular repair service for all our
electric appliances. This service has been an important selling point as well as a source of pride for
our employees. However, the repair business itself has consistently lost money.

Because of your concern over these losses, you asked me to study the pros and cons of discontinuing
our repair service. With the help of John Hudson and Susan Lefkowitz, I have studied the issue for the
last two weeks. The following pages present my findings for your review. Three basic questions are
addressed:

 What is the extent of our losses, and what can we do to turn the business
around?
 Would withdrawal of this service hurt our sales of electric appliances?
 What would be the internal repercussions of closing down the repair
business?

Technical tips
1) Create a Persona

The crux of good technical writing is writing for your audience. The audience needs to be defined in
the document planning process and then considered at each step of the writing process. Technical
writers know that a tech-savvy boss needs different information about a product than a 73-year-old
grandmother.
 P a g e | 54

After identifying your audience, refine it further by creating a persona. Imagine the exact person who
will be reading your document.

The persona will be obvious if you are writing for a known person, such as your department
supervisor. For other documents, the persona can be fictional. Assign your reader a specific age,
gender, educational background, career, a story for why they are reading the document, even a hobby.
Instead of writing for a theoretical audience, write for a specific person.

The more accurately you can imagine your reader, the more accessible your writing will be for them.
Instead of wondering if the wording is right for the audience, write and review the wording with this
persona in mind. It will be obvious whether or not the text is right for your reader.

2) Beware of Scope Creep

Good technical writers keep in mind the document’s goal at each writing stage. The goal and scope
should be clearly outlined in the initial document planning.

During the planning and even the writing process, document content can grow. Technical details are
not isolated. They are built on previous developments, and you may want to include supplemental
information or additional user instructions. Colleagues may suggest valuable background information
or data.

Some extra details are useful. Too many details will cause the scope to creep.

As technical writing strives to be succinct, scope creep creates unnecessary work that ultimately
produces a less valuable document for the reader. If you feel the scope needs to broaden, return to the
goal. Evaluate if that content is really necessary. Cut it or if necessary, consider separation through
appendices and even an additional document.

3) Writing Should Be Easy

If you’re thinking ‘writing is always difficult for me,’ writing is probably not your real problem.

Writing should be easy because the planning process was thorough. The planning process should take
up to 50% of overall document preparation time. All key materials, relevant details, and the audience
will be captured and organized. The result is your complete document in a condensed format.

Any writing question can be answered by a complete planning process.

 
 P a g e | 55

4) Be Timeless

A technical document is your contribution to posterity. That’s right, you are passing on technical
knowledge for readers now and in the future.

Most technical writers focus on today’s audience. While very important, these documents often serve
future readers, too. A site assessment may not be read again for 30 years until the property comes up
for sale. Software instructions act as the basis for the future manual of an updated version.

To write timelessly, always include dates and timelines where relevant. Avoid including time-
dependent or temporary information. If you must, explain its current context for future readers. For
example, a health and safety report references current legislation. Your document should be clear and
comprehensible now and 20 years from now.

5) Use Global English

English is an international language. Writing technical documents in English allows them to be broadly
read and shared. However, many readers will be non-native speakers.

In order to accommodate all readers, use Global English. This style of English is logical and literal
which makes it more easily understood. In addition, writing globally means being aware of content that
can difficult to understand or simply misunderstood. For example, avoiding idioms and the
subjunctive, as well as being careful with words that can be both a noun and verb (e.g. display or
guide).

7) Forget the Word Count

Some writers race to a word count, seeing it as the goal marker. In technical writing, word count is a
poor judge of completion.

Technical writing should be concise. The same instructions can be conveyed in 500 words or 5000
words. The better instructions are the ones that are most effective for the reader, regardless of the word
count.

Use word count as a general guide, not a rule. If you can write the same idea in fewer words, it’s better
for the reader.

8) Be Humble

Writing is an iterative process. Through good planning, thoughtful writing, and constructive feedback,
you will grow and improve your technical writing skills. Each review offers its own lessons.

Be welcoming of feedback from supervisors, peers, and experts. Learn from mistakes, confusions, and
comments. Each review session offers an opportunity to grow as a writer. Be humble and accept these
educational opportunities.
 P a g e | 56

9) Use Graphics to Illustrate

Graphics can help illustrate your message. In technical writing, the goal of graphics is to help convey
information not act as decoration. Graphics should be focused on the reader. Poorly designed graphics
can confuse readers and do more harm than good.

Conclusion

Technical Report Writing is centered on good planning and audience focus. The above tips provide
different perspectives and practical methods to accomplish these goals.

Class exercises:

Assume different kind of situations and prepare organizational plan for them. Direct or Indirect

What did you learn?

What is your understanding of the concept?

Home assignment:

Nill

Next lesson preview:

Types of Technical Report

 Short Informal Report

 Long Formal Report

 P a g e | 57

The Short Reports / Informal Reports

Preamble:
We discussed in the previous Lessons:
 What is technical writing?
 Where you will need to produce a technical document?
 What is the importance of different organizational message plans?
Learning Outcomes:
 Understanding and application of the content and producing the technical report
accordingly.
Are you ready?
 How do you report things generally?
 What do you know about the structure of formal writing?
Topic of the day:
Types of report

 Short informal report

 Long formal report

 The Short Reports / Informal Reports

Such kinds of reports may range from a single page to several pages. These reports are usually
written in letter format in which the writer addresses a person at whose instruction the report is written. In
these reports, an informal style is adopted and a number of sections of a long report like cover, table of
contents, bibliography, etc. are not added in these reports.

 The Long Reports / Formal Reports

These reports are written in detail. The writer tries to discuss each and every aspect of the problem in
these reports. The style of these reports is always very formal. These reports are always written in third
person. These reports contain all the essential parts of a long formal report.

Short informal Report formats:

1. Memo format
2. Letter format
3. Manuscript format

Sections of A Short Report

Usually a short informal report has the following sections;
1. Terms of reference
2. Procedure
3. Findings
 P a g e | 58

4. Conclusion
5. Recommendation
Terms of Reference:
This section should state exactly why the report is being written? What was requested? Who
requested it? When were you asked to do it?

Procedure:
Give a brief description of the methods used to collect the information, perhaps interviews were
held, visits were made, questionnaires were issued etc.

Findings:
This will be the longest section of the report. Go through the procedure point by point and numbers
and sub-headings for this section under each heading state what information was gathered at each stage.

Conclusions:
No new facts must be introduced here. On the basis of information presented in findings and
conclusions, make some suggestions for action. Remember that the writer of the report cannot make
decisions – he or she can only suggest what action should be taken.

Features of a Technical Report

 It is factual and not imaginative
 Concrete words are used
 It is objective without an personal bias
 It is orderly and properly structured
 It is comprehensive
 It answers to the Research question
 It is logical, coherent and clear

Interactive session:
What are different types of report and what are formatting tips of short informal report?
Class exercises:
Make a memo report on any of the topic of your choice.
Home assignment:
Make a report in letter format on any topic of their choice.
Next lesson preview:
 P a g e | 59

 Long formal report

 Structure of long formal report

Long Formal Report Types

Preamble:

We discussed in the previous Lesson:

 What is a short informal report

 How to write it? And in which format?
Learning Outcomes:

 Understanding and application of the content and producing the types of technical report
accordingly.
Are you ready?

 How do you report things generally?

 What do you know about the structure of long formal report?
Topic of the day:

Long Formal Report

Types of Long Formal Report

 Routine/Periodic/Progress Reports
These are the most common types of reports and are written at regular intervals – daily,
weekly, monthly, quarterly or annually. The Customer Service/Personnel Reports, Sales Reports
and Financial Reports come under this category.

 Informational Reports
When you need to provide information without opinion or suggestions, an informational
report is typically the best format. For example, if you need information about how many
employees work in each department and their job function, you would create an informational
report. You might include employee names, years of service and salary, as well as an
organizational chart.

 Analytical Reports
These include investigation of an issue or problem. When a company is trying to solve a
problem or make a decision, an analytical report might be necessary. These reports offer both a
narration of facts as well as data, explanations and conclusions. For example, a quarterly sales
analysis might detail corporate initiatives, sales, expenditures and profit and loss.

 Justification Reports with Recommendations

 P a g e | 60

Often, the managerial people have to justify their decisions. The facts gathered,
interpreted, offered, and the recommendations given go into this report.

 Situational Reports
After attending conferences, seminars and undertaking official trips, managers have to give
feedback on their experiences and about the knowledge they have gained.

 Feasibility Reports
A feasibility report is written so that the decision makers can decide or choose between
viable options. Based on the analysis of a business proposition, these reports are submitted so
that the higher authorities can decide whether to proceed with the project or not.

 Research Reports
When executives make decisions about new products and services, expanding personnel or
layoffs, they might use research reports. Research specialists or teams are given an issue or topic
and asked to create a report that provides all details about the topic, including relevant facts and
statistics and offers the conclusions.
 Business Plan/Proposal
These are persuasive reports which try to answer all the basic questions that investors may
want to know.
 Technical Reports
There could be prescribed routine check-up reports of the Annual Maintenance by the
AMC personnel.

Steps in Report Writing

 First determine the report goal, i.e. what is the reason for writing the report?
 Evaluate the readership – who will read the report? Accordingly determine the input
and style
 Conduct research – identify the methods you will use to collect, and present the data.
 Get down to write the actual report; develop the main ideas and substantiate with facts.
 Revise the report and correct all the flaws. Revise the entire report to see that it is
logical, clear and has all the relevant details.

Interactive session:
What are the types of reports and formatting tips of long formal report?
Class exercises:
Search samples of different types of reports available on internet
Home assignment:
No assignment
Next lesson preview:
 P a g e | 61

 Structure of long formal report

 P a g e | 62

Structure of a Long Formal Report

Preamble:
We discussed in the previous Lesson:
 What is technical report writing?
 What is short informal report?
 How to write it? And in which format?
Learning Outcomes:
 Understanding and application of the content and producing formal report accordingly.

Topic of the day:Long formal report

Structure of long formal report
1. Preliminary Parts
2. Main Body
3. Supplementary Parts

Detailed preliminary parts

1. Preliminary parts
 Title page
 Acknowledgement
 Content page
 Letter of Authorization
 Letter/memo of transmittal
 Table of Contents
 Executive summary
 Abstract
 Introduction

Title Page
The title page being the first in report captures the attention of the reader. It includes
 The title of the report.
 The name, title and address of the person, group, etc, that authorized the report –
prepared for, submitted to.
 The name, title and address of the person, group, etc, that prepared the report – prepared
by, submitted by.
 The date on which the report was submitted.
 P a g e | 63

The title page signal the readers by giving the report title, author’s name, name of person
or organization to whom the report is submitted.
Acknowledgement
If certain people have helped in the shaping of the report, due credit should be given to
them on the page entitled “acknowledgement”.

Letter of Authorization
If the report writer has been authorized to prepare a report by the letter, the same letter or
memo of authorization is affixed to the report.

Letter of Transmittal
This letter would be directly addressed to the person who has authorized the individual to
write the report. It would be personal and would follow certain personal pronouns such as you, I
and we, and would use conversation language.

Table of Contents
This section would effectively contain all major or relevant sections and sub-sections
within a text.

Executive Summary / Synopsis

A summary is a gist or a brief overview of the most important points of the report. The
matter presented in this report is in brief stated at the start of the report. This familiarizes the
reader with the contents of the report and facilitates in taking a decision by pursuing the entire
text. A summary can be written in either paragraph format or in a point format. It is usually 5%
to 10% of the original size of the report.

Abstract
It talks about the main aim and objectives of writing the report. It also discusses the
methodology adopted to achieve the objective. It is only 2% to 4% of the total size of the report

Introduction
It prepares the reader for absorbing greater details. It includes
 Background / History
 Purpose / Problem Statement
 Scope
 Limitations
Interactive session:
What did you learn?
Asking short questions from the students to assess their level of understanding of the concept
and revise the entire lecture quickly if needed.
Home assignment: Nil
 P a g e | 64

Next lesson preview:Main Body of long formal report, Supplementary parts

Sections of Long formal report

Preamble:

We discussed in the previous Lesson:

 The initial parts of a Long formal.
 How to write them? And in which format?
Learning Outcomes:
 Understanding and application of the content and producing the technical report
accordingly.
Are you ready?
 What is the main body of any piece of writing?
 What do you know about the structure of long formal report?
Topic of the day:
Sections of Long formal report

Main Body (Text)

 Methodology
 Findings
 Discussion/Analysis
 Solutions/recommendations/Conclusion

Supplementary Parts:
 Bibliography/ References
 Appendix
 Index
 Glossary

Text (Body):
 Methodology
 Findings
 Discussion / Analysis
 Solutions/recommendations/Conclusion
Text or body of the report is the actual report which contains an objective and analytical
discussion of the problems. The writer presents all his findings in this part of a report.
 P a g e | 65

1. Bibliography / References
This part of the report contains a list of books, journals, magazines and other published
material which the writer used while completing the report.
2. Appendix
Appendix is the collection of supplementary material given at the end of the report. That
includes the lengthy materials which are not directly relevant, such as Maps, Photographs, Long
quotations etc.

3. Indexes
An index is an alphabetical list of names, places and subjects mentioned in the report,
along with the page on which they occur. They are rarely included in unpublished reports.

4. Glossary
A glossary, also known as a vocabulary or clavis, is an alphabetical list of terms in a
particular domain of knowledge with the definitions for those terms. In reports
a glossary appears at the end and includes terms within that report that are either newly
introduced, uncommon, or specialized.

Interactive session:
What is long formal report and its different parts?
Class exercises:
Give task to students to find a sample report from internet and discuss in pairs the parts which
they have just learnt.
What did you learn?
Asking short questions from the students to assess their level of understanding of the concept
and revise the entire lecture quickly if needed.
Home assignment:
Nil
Next lesson preview:
 APA formatting
 P a g e | 66

Formatting of Long formal report

APA formatting
Preamble:
We discussed in the previous Lesson:
 Long formal report
 Supplementary parts of long report
Learning Outcomes:
 Understanding and application of the content and producing the technical report
accordingly.
Topic of the day:

Formatting of Long formal report: APA formatting

APA Key Elements

This checklist is designed as a guide to the key elements of APA 6th ed. style required for
academic student papers.
General Items Requirements

 The entire document is double-spaced, from title page through references.

 Margins are 1" on all sides and 12 pt Times New Roman font is required.
 There are no bold, oversized, or decorative fonts used in the document.
 "I", "we", "our" should only be used rarely in a research document. The writing needs to
be objective and impersonal and in the third person unless otherwise stated in the
assignment guidelines. It is also preferred that students not refer to themselves in the
third person.
Numbers:

 Always spell out a number in words if it begins a sentence.

 Generally spell out the numbers one through ten in words. Use figures for numbers above
ten unless they begin a sentence.
Title Page

The title page should be in the following order:

 Title
 Your name
 Course
 P a g e | 67

 Instructor/Prepared For/Submitted To
 Date Submitted
Please note that usually University Assignments and Term Papers guidelines require title pages
to include the course instructor's name and date. This requirement is not included in the APA
publication guidelines as outlined in the APA Publication Manual (6th edition).

Running Head

 All papers must include a Running head. It needs to be left justified, and on the same line
as the page number throughout the document.
 The term "Running head: YOUR TITLE" appears on first page (Title Page) in the
header.
 The shortened title always appears in all capital letters in the header throughout the rest
of the paper.

Introduction

 It is on page two of the document (the first page after the Title Page) and starts a new
page.
 The title appears at the beginning of the page and is centered.
 The word "Introduction" is not used as a heading.
 The introduction is written in a "funnel fashion," moving from broad to specific as it
relates to your topic and study.
 The last sentence or paragraph is a clear statement of the research paper's purpose and
what was found.
Citation in Text

 The symbol "&" is used inside parentheses; the word "and" is used in text.
 The author's last name and the year of publication should appear in any in text citation.
 Be aware of how to cite a work with multiple authors, and how this format will change
after the first citation.
 Only the source you actually read should appear in the References.

References Requirements

 Start a new page.

 The title of the page (References) should be centered and not underlined
 The page should be double-spaced; bring each new reference to the margin and indent
the remainder of the reference.
 Only use last names and first initials, not full first names.
 P a g e | 68

 Only references cited in your paper appear in the References. Likewise, anything cited in
your paper must appear in the References.
Note: If you did not actually read an article but read about it (secondary sources), you must cite
the article of interest and the source you read utilized within the text of your paper. Only the
source you actually read appears in the References

Challenging exercises:
Search a sample report in APA format in pairs.
Home assignment:ap
Make a formal technical report on any topic of your choice formatting it in accordance with
APA requirements.
References:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/?_ga=2.193625834.631506831.1565064484-
1383240414.1565064484
Next lesson preview:
 Progress Report Writing
 P a g e | 69

Progress Report Writing

Preamble:
We discussed in the previous Lesson:
 Long formal report
 APA Formatting
Learning Outcomes:
 Understanding and application of the content and producing a progress report
accordingly.

Topic of the day:

 Progress Report Writing
Introduction
Functions
Steps in wring a Progress Report

Introduction,
You write a progress report to inform a supervisor, associate, or customer about progress you've
made on a project over a certain period of time. The project can be the design, construction, or
repair of something, the study or research of a problem or question, or the gathering of
information on a technical subject. You write progress reports when it takes well over three or
four months to complete a project. In the progress report, you explain any or all of the following:

 How much of the work is complete

 What part of the work is currently in progress
 What work remains to be done
 What problems or unexpected things, if any, have arisen
 How the project is going in general

Progress reports have several important functions:

 Reassure recipients that you are making progress, that the project is going smoothly, and
that it will be complete by the expected date.
 Provide their recipients with a brief look at some of the findings or some of the work of
the project.
 Give their recipients a chance to evaluate your work on the project and to request
changes.
 P a g e | 70

 Give you a chance to discuss problems in the project and thus to forewarn recipients.
 Force you to establish a work schedule so that you'll complete the project on time.

Timing and Format of Progress Reports

In a year-long project, there are customarily three progress reports, one after three, six, and nine
months. Depending on the size of the progress report, the length and importance of the project,
and the recipient, the progress report can take the following forms:

 Memo--A short, informal report to someone within your organization

 Letter--A short, informal report sent to someone outside your
organization
 Formal report--A long, formal report sent to someone outside your
organization

You can use the same format on progress reports as you can on proposals: memo, letter,
separated report; or cover memo or letter with separate report.

Steps in writing a progress report

The same stages will be followed in preparing a progress report that are used in any formal
report writing.

 Selecting a topic
 Identifying the audience of the report
 Narrowing the topic
 Developing a rough outline
 Gathering information
 Writing one or more rough drafts
 Documenting the report
 Revising and editing the report draft
 Typing and proofreading the report
 Putting the report in its final package
Challenging exercises:
A progress report can be defined as:

 A document that reports on the research progress made over the past year in a particular
field such as cancer research.
 A document that reports on the status of a project, for example, the work that has been
completed, the work that is in progress, and the work that is planned.
 A document that explains how to operate a high-tech mechanism.
 P a g e | 71

 A document that reports research findings--most importantly, the data gathered and the
conclusions from that data.

Which of the following is an example of a progress report?

 Bid to write training manuals for a health care corporation

 Presentation of the policies and procedures required by a health care corporation
 Report on research done to ascertain whether online multimedia training for health care
professionals is a viable option
 Summary of the end-of-year-one status of a two-year project to develop multimedia-
based training modules for healthcare professionals
Progress reports also help the people who write them; check the following that describe how a
progress report is advantageous to its writers:

 Enables them to know how the project is going.

 Enables them to go on record as to any problems in the project.
 Enables them to document any changes required by the client.
 Enables them to know whether the project is on time and within budget.

Home assignment:
Nill
Further Readings:
https://www.examples.com/business/write-a-progress-report.html

https://www.tuchemnitz.de/phil/english/sections/linguist/independent/kursmaterialien/TechComm/ac
chtml/progrep.html

Next lesson preview:

 Organizational Patterns for Progress Reports

 P a g e | 72

Progress Report Writing

Organizational Patterns for Progress Reports
Preamble:

We discussed in the previous Lesson:

 Introduction of a Progress Report

 Functions
 Timing and Format
 Steps in wring a Progress Report
Learning Outcomes:

 Understanding and application of the content and producing a progress report

accordingly.
Topic of the day:

 Progress Report Writing

 Organizational Patterns for Progress Reports

Organizational Patterns for Progress Reports

The recipient of a progress report wants to see what you've accomplished on the project, what
you are working on now, what you plan to work on next, and how the project is going in general.
To report this information, you combine two of these organizational strategies: time periods,
project tasks, or report topics.

Time periods: A progress report usually summarizes work within each of the following:

 Work accomplished in the preceding period(s)

 Work currently being performed
 Work planned for the next period(s)

Project tasks: Practically every project breaks down into individual tasks.

Example:

Project Individual tasks

Building municipal Measuring community interest

ball parks on city- Locating suitable property
owned land Clearing the property
Designing the bleachers, fences, etc.
 P a g e | 73

Report topics: You can also organize your progress report according to the work done on the
sections of the final report. In a report project on combustion Municipal Solid Waste, you would
need information on these topics:

Topics to be covered in the final report

1. The total amount of MSW produced

--locally
--nationally
2. The energy potential of MSW, factors affecting its potential
energy
3. Costs to modify city utilities in order to change to
Combustion

For each of these topics, you'd explain the work you have done, the work you are currently
doing, and the work you have planned.

A progress report is a combination of two of these organizational strategies. The following

outline excerpts give you an idea of how they combine:

Progress Report A
Task 1
 Work Completed
 Current Work
 Planned Work
Task 2
 Work Completed
 Current Work
 Planned Work
Task 3
 Work Completed
 Current Work
 Planned Work

Progress Report B
Work Completed
 Task 1
 Task 2
 Task 3
Current Work
 Task 1
 Task 2
 Task 3
Planned work
 Task 1
 Task 2
 P a g e | 74

 Task 3

Progress Report C
Topic 1
 Work Completed
 Current Work
 Planned Work
Topic 2
 Work Completed
 Current Work
 Planned Work
Topic 3
 Work Completed
 Current Work
 Planned Work

Figure 3-6 shows an example of the project-tasks approach with subheadings for time periods;
Figure 3-7 shows the time-period approach with subheadings for report topics.

Brine Drainage Tube Modifications

During this period, we have continued to work on problems

associated with the brine drainage tubes.

Previous period. After minor adjustments during a month of

operation, the drainage tubes and the counter washer have
performed better but still not completely satisfactorily. The
screen sections of these tubes, as you know, are located at
variable distances along the height of the washer.

Current period. The screen portion of the brine drainage tubes

have been moved to within 5 feet of the top of the pack. So far,
no change in counter washer performance has been observed.
Production statistics at
the end of this month (February) should give us a clearer idea of
the effect of this modification.

Next period. Depending on the continued performance of the

screen in its current position in relation to the top of the pack,
we may move the screen to within 3 feet of the top of the pack
in the next period of testing. Although the wash ratio was
greater with greater screen height, the washing efficiency seems
to remain relatively constant as the production vs. compressor
KW data for all screen locations so far has seemed to follow the
same linear curve.
 P a g e | 75

Figure 3-6. Progress report organized by project tasks and time periods

WORK COMPLETED

As of this time, I have completed almost all of the research work

and am putting the sections of the final report together. Here is a
breakdown of the work that I have done so far.

Development of the Bottle

In the development section of my report, I have written a

technical description of a typical PET soft-drink bottle. It is very
complete and gives the reader a good idea of what the product
should look like and able to accomplish.

Favorable Properties

The section of the report describing the properties of PET is

finished. I have chosen four physical properties that many raw
materials containers are tested for, and I have shown how PET
withstands these tests.

Manufacturing Processes

For the section on manufacturing processes, I have done

research to help me recommend one particular production
method for PET bottles. Here, I have described this chosen
method and have explained exactly how a plastic bottle is
produced on an assembly line.

Economics

I have finished work on half the economics section of this

report. So far, I have written an economic comparison of the use
of plastic and glass bottles.

PRESENT WORK

Right now I am mainly involved in determining just which areas

of my report are lacking information. Also, I am continuing my
work in locating financial information on PET bottles.

Manufacturing Processes

In the manufacturing section, I am currently . . .

 P a g e | 76

Figure 3-7. Progress report organized by time periods and report topics

Challenging exercises:
If a progress report described work completed in the preceding quarter of the year, work currently in
progress this quarter, and work planned for the next quarter, it would be using which organizational
approach?
 Time periods
 Project tasks
 Report topics
If the main headings in a progress report focused on the main parts of the project and then within each of
those sections discussed work completed, work in progress, and work planned for that particular part, it
would be using which organizational approach?
 Time periods
 Project tasks
 Report topics
How many progress reports should be appropriate in a year-long project?
 One
 Two
 Three
 Four
 Five
If you were writing a brief progress report to a client (for example, you are an independent consultant
doing a project for another firm), which of the following formats would you use?
 Business letter
 Memorandum
 Cover memorandum with the progress report as a separate, attached document
If you were doing a year-long project for your work supervisor (the project involving a feasibility study
of some new technology your organization is considering), which of the following formats would you
use?

 Business letter
 Memorandum
 Cover business letter with the progress report as a separate, attached document

Further Readings:

https://www.examples.com/business/write-a-progress-report.html

https://www.tuchemnitz.de/phil/english/sections/linguist/independent/kursmaterialien/TechCom
m/acchtml/progrep.html

Next lesson preview:

 Other Parts of Progress Reports

 P a g e | 77

 Revision Checklist for Progress Report

Progress Report Writing

Preamble:
We discussed in the previous Lesson:
 Organizational Patterns for Progress Reports

Learning Outcomes:
 Understanding and application of the content and producing a progress report
accordingly.
Topic of the day:

 Progress Report Writing

Other Parts of Progress Reports
Revision Checklist for Progress Reports

Other Parts of Progress Reports

In your progress report, you also need (a) an introduction that reviews the history of the project's
beginnings as well as the purpose and scope of the work, (b) a detailed description of your
project, and (c) an overall appraisal of the project to date, which usually acts as the conclusion.

1. Introduction: Review the details of your project's purpose, scope, and activities. This will aid
recipients who are unfamiliar with the project, who do not remember certain details, or who
want to double-check your approach to the project. The introduction can contain the
following:

 Purpose of the project

 Specific objectives of the project
 Scope, or limits, of the project
 Date the project began; date the project is scheduled to be completed
 People or organization working on the project
 People or organization for whom the project is being done
 Overview of the contents of the progress report

I am now submitting to you a report on the progress that I have

made on my research for your company, Ginseng Cola.
Immediately following the January 15 acceptance of my firm's
bid to study the advantages of bottling your soft-drink product in
plastic bottles, I began investigating all areas of the project.
In the following sections of this progress report, you will be
informed on the work that I have already accomplished, the
work I am now involved in, the work left to do, and finally an
 P a g e | 78

overall appraisal of the how the project is going.

Figure 3-8. Example introduction to a progress report

2. Project description: In most progress reports, include a project description to review the
details of your project for the recipients:
PROJECT DESCRIPTION

Here is a review of the purpose and scope of this project.

Purpose. The original investment plan of this corporation included

only long-term, low-risk investment in corporate bonds and U.S.
securities. This project was designed to answer questions about the
potential of short-term, high-dollar investments, particularly those
suited to the future expansion of this company's investment plan.

Scope. The report will cover basic definitions of stocks and options as
well as reasons for and against these two investment strategies. The
report will be broken down into four areas:

 Mechanics of stocks and options

 Comparisons of stocks and options
 Example investment scenarios
 Recommendations for an investment plan

Figure 3-9. Example project description from a report

3. Conclusion: The final paragraph or section usually reassures audiences that all is going well
and on schedule. It can also alert recipients to unexpected changes or problems in the project.
OVERALL APPRAISAL

The project to recommend PET production is coming along well. I

have not run into any major problems and have found plenty of
material on this subject. However, I have not heard from Mr. Simon
Juarez of PET Mfg., who is sending information on PET production
methods used in several plants in the Southwest.

I can foresee no major problems that will keep me from submitting

my report to you on the contract date. In fact, I may be able to get it to
you a few days earlier than planned. In general, I am finding that the
PET bottle is an even more attractive packaging idea than had seemed
in our earlier discussions. Full details on this, however, will appear in
the final report.

Sincerely,
 P a g e | 79

Steven C. Crosswell
Process Engineer
C & S Engineering

Figure 3-10. Overall appraisal used as conclusion to a progress report

Revision Checklist for Progress Reports

As you reread and revise your progress report, watch out for problems such as the following:

 Make sure you use the right format. Remember, the memo format is for internal
progress reports; the business-letter format is for progress reports written from one
external organization to another. (Whether you use a cover memo or cover letter is
your choice.)
 Write a good introduction-in it, state that this is a progress report, and provide an
overview of the contents of the progress report.
 Make sure to include a description of the final report project.
 Use one or a combination of the organizational patterns in the discussion of your
work on the final report.
 Use headings to mark off the different parts of your progress report, particularly the
different parts of your summary of work done on the project.
 Use lists as appropriate.
 Provide specifics-avoid relying on vague, overly general statements about the work
you've done on the final report project.
 Be sure and address the progress report to the real or realistic audience-not your
instructor.
 Assume there will non-specialist reading your progress report. But don't avoid
discussion of technical aspects of the project-just bring them down to a level that
non-specialists can understand.

Challenging exercises:

Progress reports also help the people who write them; check the following that describe how a
progress report is advantageous to its writers:

 Enables them to know how the project is going.

 Enables them to go on record as to any problems in the project.
 Enables them to document any changes required by the client.
 Enables them to know whether the project is on time and within budget.
A progress report can be defined as:

 A document that reports on the research progress made over the past year in a particular
field such as cancer research.
 A document that reports on the status of a project, for example, the work that has been
completed, the work that is in progress, and the work that is planned.
 P a g e | 80

 A document that explains how to operate a high-tech mechanism.

 A document that reports research findings--most importantly, the data gathered and the
conclusions from that data.
Check the other sections that should be included in a progress report are:

 References
 Introduction
 Project description
 Explanation of methodology
 Conclusion
 Background on the problem
Check each of the following that you should consider including in the introduction to a progress
report:

 Project purpose and objectives

 Source of information about the project
 Limitations and key dates for the project
 Expenditures to date for the project
 Organizations: who's doing the work; for whom it's being done
 Overview of the contents of the progress report
 Listing of equipment and supplies required by the project
Home assignment:

Make a Progress report on any topic of your choice.

Further Readings:

https://www.examples.com/business/write-a-progress-report.html

https://www.tuchemnitz.de/phil/english/sections/linguist/independent/kursmaterialien/TechCom
m/acchtml/progrep.html

Next lesson preview:

Research Proposal Writing

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Writing a Proposal for Research / Term Paper

Preamble:
We discussed in the previous Lesson:
 Progress Report Writing
Learning Outcomes:
 Understanding and application of the content regarding research proposal and
writing it accordingly.
Topic of the day:
Writing a Proposal for Research / Term Paper
 Purpose of a Research Proposal
 Common Mistakes to Avoid
 Structure and Writing Style

What is a research proposal?

A research proposal is a concise and coherent summary of your proposed research. It sets out the
central issues or questions that you intend to address. It outlines the general area of study within
which your research falls. It also demonstrates the originality of your proposed research. It is the
most important document that you submit as part of the application process. It gives you an
opportunity to demonstrate that you have the aptitude for graduate level research. The proposal
also helps us to match your research interest with an appropriate supervisor
Research proposals contain extensive literature reviews and must provide persuasive evidence
that there is a need for the research study being proposed. In addition to providing rationale for
the proposed research, a proposal describes detailed methodology for conducting the research
consistent with requirements of the professional or academic field and a statement on anticipated
outcomes and/or benefits derived from the study.
You may be assigned the task of writing a research proposal in order to:
 Develop your skills in thinking about and designing a comprehensive research study.
 Help learn how to conduct a comprehensive review of the literature to ensure a research
problem has not already been answered [or you may determine the problem has been
answered ineffectively] and, in so doing, become familiar with scholarship related to
your topic.
 Improve your general research and writing skills.
 Practice identifying what logical steps must be taken to accomplish one's research goals.
 Nurture a sense of inquisitiveness within yourself and to help see yourself as an active
participant in the process of doing scholarly research.
 P a g e | 82

A proposal should contain all the key elements involved in designing a complete research study,
with sufficient information that allows readers to assess the validity and usefulness of your
proposed study. The only elements missing from a research proposal are the results of the study
and your analysis of those results. Finally, an effective proposal is judged on the quality of your
writing. It is, therefore, important that your writing is coherent, clear, and compelling.

Regardless of the research problem you are investigating and the methodology you choose,
allresearch proposals must address the following questions:
1. What do you plan to accomplish? Be clear and precise in defining the research problem
and what it is you are proposing to research.
2. Why do you want to do it? In addition to detailing your research design, you also must
conduct a thorough review of the literature and provide convincing evidence that it is a
topic worthy of study. Be sure to answer the "So what? question.
3. How are you going to do it? Be sure that what you propose is doable.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

 Failure to be concise; being "all over the map" without a clear sense of purpose.
 Failure to cite landmark works in your literature review.
 Failure to delimit the contextual boundaries of your research [e.g., time, place, people,
etc.].
 Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
 Failure to stay focused on the research question; going off on unrelated tangents.
 Sloppy or imprecise writing. Poor grammar.
 Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.
Structure and Writing Style
As with writing traditional research papers, research proposals are also organized the same way
throughout the social sciences. Most proposals are between ten and fifteen pages in length.
A good place to begin is to ask yourself a series of questions:
 What do I want to study, and why?
 How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
 What problems will it help solve?
 P a g e | 83

 How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on my
topic?
 What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?
In the end, your research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and highlight
enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your readers
feeling like--"Wow, that's an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out!"
Challenging exercises:
Select an appropriate topic for a research proposal in the area of your interest while trying to
answer the questions discussed above
Home assignment:
None
References:
https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/law/courses/research/research-proposal.aspx

https://owlcation.com/academia/How-To-Write-A-Proposal-Essay

https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185956

Next lesson preview:

 Elements of a Proposal
 P a g e | 84

Sections of a Research Proposal

Preamble:
We discussed in the previous Lesson:
Writing a Proposal for Research / Term Paper
 Purpose of a Research Proposal
 Common Mistakes to Avoid
 Structure and Writing Style

Learning Outcomes:
 Understanding and application of the content regarding research proposal and writing it
accordingly.
Topic of the day:
Writing a Proposal for Research / Term Paper
 Sections of a Research Proposal

In general your proposal should include the following sections:

I. Title
This is just a tentative title for your intended research. You will be able to revise your title
during the course of your research if you are accepted for admission.
II. Abstract
The proposal should include a concise statement of your intended research of no more than 100
words. This may be a couple of sentences setting out the problem that you want to examine or
the central question that you wish to address.
III. Introduction
In the real world of higher education, a research proposal is most often written by scholars
seeking grant funding for a research project or it's the first step in getting approval to write your
doctoral dissertation. Even if this is just a course assignment, treat your introduction as the initial
pitch of an idea. After reading the introduction, your readers should not only have an
understanding of what you want to do, but they should also be able to sense your passion for the
topic and be excited about its possible outcomes.
Think about your introduction as a narrative written in one to three paragraphs that
succinctly answers the following four questions:
1. What is the central research problem?
2. What is the topic of study related to that problem?
3. What methods should be used to analyze the research problem?
 P a g e | 85

4. Why is this research important and why should someone reading the proposal care about
the outcomes from the study?
IV.   Background and Significance
This section can be melded into your introduction or you can create a separate section to help
with the organization and flow of your proposal. This is where you explain the context of your
project and outline why it's important. Approach writing this section with the thought that you
can’t assume your readers will know as much about the research problem as you do. Note that
this section is not an essay going over everything you have learned about the research problem;
instead, you must choose what is relevant to help explain your goals for the study.
You should therefore explain why your research is important (for example, by explaining how
your research builds on and adds to the current state of knowledge in the field or by setting out
reasons why it is timely to research your proposed topic).

To that end, while there are no hard and fast rules, you should attempt to deal with some
or all of the following:
 State the research problem and give a more detailed explanation about the purpose of the
study than what you stated in the introduction.
 Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing.
Answer the "So what? question [i.e., why should anyone care].
 Describe the major issues or problems to be addressed by your research.
 Explain how you plan to go about conducting your research. Clearly identify the key
sources you intend to use and explain how they will contribute to the analysis of your
topic.
 Set the boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus.
 Provide definitions of key concepts or terms, if necessary.

V. Research Questions
The proposal should set out the central aims and questions that will guide your research. Before
writing your proposal, you should take time to reflect on the key questions that you are seeking
to answer. Many research proposals are too broad, so reflecting on your key research questions
is a good way to make sure that your project is sufficiently narrow and feasible (i.e. one that is
likely to be completed with the normal period for a MJur, MPhil or PhD degree).
You might find it helpful to prioritize one or two main questions, from which you can then
derive a number of secondary research questions. The proposal should also explain your
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intended approach to answering the questions: will your approach be empirical, doctrinal or
theoretical etc?

VI.   Literature Review

Connected to the background and significance of your study is a more deliberate review and
synthesis of prior studies related to the research problem under investigation. The purpose here
is to place your project within the larger whole of what is currently being explored, while
demonstrating to your readers that your work is original and innovative. Think about what
questions other researchers have asked, what methods they've used, and what is your
understanding of their findings. Assess what you believe is still missing, and state how previous
research has failed to examine the issue that your study addresses.
Since a literature review is information dense, it is crucial that this section is intelligently
structured to enable a reader to grasp the key arguments underpinning your study in relation to
that of other researchers. A good strategy is to break the literature into "conceptual categories"
[themes] rather than systematically describing materials one at a time.
To help frame your proposal's literature review, here are the "five C’s" of writing a
literature review:
1. Cite: keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem.
2. Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in the
literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the
research problem?
3. Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches and controversies
expressed in the literature: what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or
debate?
4. Critique the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which
approaches, findings, methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why?
Pay attention to the verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts,
demonstrates, etc.].
5. Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your
own work draw upon, depart from, or synthesize what has been said in the literature?

VII. Research Design and Methods

5. Research Methods
 P a g e | 87

The proposal should outline your research methods, explaining how you are going to conduct
your research. Your methods may include visiting particular libraries or archives, field work or
interviews.
Most research is library-based. If your proposed research is library-based, you should explain
where your key resources (e.g. law reports, journal articles) are located (in the Law School’s
library, Westlaw etc). If you plan to conduct field work or collect empirical data, you should
provide details about this (e.g. if you plan interviews, who will you interview? How many
interviews will you conduct? Will there be problems of access?). This section should also
explain how you are going to analyse your research findings.
This section must be well-written and logically organized because you are not actually
doing the research. As a consequence, the reader will never have a study outcome from which
to evaluate whether your methodological choices were the correct ones. The objective here is to
ensure that the reader is convinced that your overall research design and methods of analysis will
correctly address the research problem. Your design and methods should be absolutely and
unmistakably tied to the specific aims of your study.
Describe the overall research design by building upon and drawing examples from your review
of the literature. Be specific about the methodological approaches you plan to undertake to
collect information, about the techniques you will use to analyze it, and about tests of external
validity to which you commit yourself [i.e., the trustworthiness by which you can generalize
from your study to other people, places or times].
When describing the methods you will use, be sure to cover these issues:
 Specify the research operations you will undertake and the way you will interpret the
results of these operations in relation to your research problem. Don't just describe what
you intend to achieve from applying the methods you choose, but state how you will
spend your time while doing it.
 Keep in mind that a methodology is not just a list of research tasks; it is an argument as
to why these tasks add up to the best way to investigate the research problem. This is an
important point because the mere listing of tasks to perform does not demonstrate that
they add up to the best feasible approach.
 Be sure to anticipate and acknowledge any potential barriers and pitfalls in carrying out
your research design and explain how you plan to get around them.

VIII.   Preliminary Suppositions and Implications

Just because you don't have to actually conduct the study and analyze the results, it doesn't
mean that you can skip talking about the process and potential implications. The purpose of
 P a g e | 88

this section is to argue how and in what ways you believe your research will refine, revise, or
extend existing knowledge in the subject area under investigation. Depending on the aims and
objectives of your study, describe how the anticipated results of your study will impact future
scholarly research, theory, practice, forms of interventions, or policy. Note that such discussions
may have either substantive [a potential new policy], theoretical [a potential new understanding],
or methodological [a potential new way of analyzing] significance.
 
When thinking about the potential implications of your study, ask the following questions:
 What might the results mean in regards to the theoretical framework that frames the
study?
 What suggestions for subsequent research could arise from the potential outcomes of the
study?
 What will the results mean to practitioners in the "real world"?
 Will the results influence programs, methods, and/or forms of intervention?
 How might the results contribute to the solution of social, economic, or other types of
problems?
 Will the results influence policy decisions?
 What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?
 How will the results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will come
about?

IX. Conclusion
The conclusion reiterates the importance or significance of your proposal and provides a
brief recap of the entire study. This section should be only one or two paragraphs long,
emphasizing why your research study is unique, why it advances knowledge, and why the
research problem is worth investigating.
Someone reading this section should come away with an understanding of:
 Why the study was done,
 The specific purpose of the study and the research questions it attempted to answer,
 The research design and methods used,
 The potential implications emerging from your proposed study of the research problem,
and
 A sense of how your study fits within the broader scholarship about the research
problem.

X. Citations
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As with any scholarly research paper, you must cite the sources you used in composing your
proposal. In a standard research proposal, this section can take two forms, so speak with your
professor about which one is preferred.
1. References -- lists only the literature that you actually used or cited in your proposal.
2. Bibliography -- lists everything you used or cited in your proposal with additional
citations of any key sources relevant to understanding the research problem.
In either case, this section should testify to the fact that you did enough preparatory work to
make sure the project will complement and not duplicate the efforts of other researchers. Start a
new page and use the heading "References" or "Bibliography" at the top of the page. Cited
works should always use a standard format that follows the writing style advised by the
discipline of your course [i.e., education=APA; history=Chicago, etc]. This section normally
does not count towards the total length of your proposal.

Challenging exercises:
Choose an appropriate topic for a research and explain how they plan to prepare a proposal on
that topic.
Home assignment:
Write a research proposal in the area of their interest for their end term research paper
References:
https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/law/courses/research/research-proposal.aspx

https://owlcation.com/academia/How-To-Write-A-Proposal-Essay

https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185956

Next lesson preview:

 Writing a Research Paper
 P a g e | 90

Writing a Research Paper

Preamble:
We discussed in the previous Lesson:
Writing a Proposal for Research / Term Paper
 Purpose of a Research Proposal
 Sections of a Research Proposal
 Structure and Writing Style

Learning Outcomes:
 Understanding and application of the content regarding research paper and producing a
research paper accordingly.
Are you ready?
 What is a research paper?
 What is the purpose of writing a research proposal
Topic of the day:
Writing a Research Paper
 Qualities/ Characteristics
 Steps Involved in Writing a Research Paper
Definition:
Research is the methodical investigation into a subject in order to discover facts, to establish or
revise a theory, or to develop a plan of action based on the facts discovered. The findings and
conclusions of such an investigation appear in the research paper.
A research paper is a piece of academic writing based on its author's original research on a
particular topic, and the analysis and interpretation of the research findings. It can be either be a
term paper, a master's thesis or a doctoral dissertation. A research paper involves surveying a
field of knowledge in order to find the best possible information in that field. Such information
is then utilized to present a competent argument on a topic. Hence a research paper requires a
presentation of one’s own thinking backed up by others’ ideas and information.
A research paper is different from a research proposal, although the writing process is similar.
Research papers are intended to demonstrate a student’s academic knowledge of a subject. A
proposal is a persuasive piece meant to convince its audience of the value of a research project.
Think of the proposal as the pitch and the paper as the finished product.
Qualities of a Good Research Paper:
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Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they
all meet on the common ground of systematic method employed by them. One expects
systematic research to satisfy certain criteria.
Usually a research is considered good when it is:
1. Systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a
specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out (discard, prevent) creative thinking but it
certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition arriving at conclusions.
2. Logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the
logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the
process of reasoning from the premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more
meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Empirical/Tangible: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects
of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity
to research results.
4. Replicable: Replicability is one of the most important yardsticks for judging the quality
of a research. The researcher’s presentation and explanation of the system, logic, and
data collection should be designed in such a way that the reader is able to replicate the
study.
5. Reductive: A good research can reduce the confusion of facts that language and
language teaching frequently present.
6. Comprehensive: A research can be considered good if it has the ability encompass all
important parts of the topic into a complete picture. But it should not present excessive
detail which may hamper the development of the thought.
7. Prolific: It suggests that a good research builds on, but also offers something new to,
previous research.  It should have the potential to suggest directions for future research.
8. Relevant: A good researcher will be able to extract relevant information from large
amounts of info. Complete research will have the core information, or sets of core
information, which together answers the question directly, and the contextual
information, which determines whether or not the core research is applicable to given
circumstances. That is, the research must be relevant.
9. Well-executed: The researcher should also be able to convey the research in an
accessible format that is, the research must be easy to make use of.
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Writing a Research Paper

Following are the stages involved in writing a research paper.
Although this list suggests that there is a simple, linear process to writing such a paper, the
actual process of writing a research paper is often a messy and recursive one, so please use this
outline as a flexible guide.
1. Discovering, Narrowing and Focusing a Researchable Topic
 Try to find a topic that truly interests you
 Try writing your way to a topic
 Talk with your course instructor and classmates about your topic
 Pose your topic as a question to be answered or a problem to be solved

2. Finding, Selecting and Reading Sources

You will need to look at the following types of sources:

 library catalog, periodical indexes, bibliographies, suggestions from your instructor

 primary vs. secondary sources
 journals, books, other documents
 Brainstorm all possible sources. Think globally. Don’t limit yourself to books,
magazines, and the Internet.

3. Grouping, Sequencing and Documenting Information

The following systems will help keep you organized:

 a system for noting sources on bibliography cards
 a system for organizing material according to its relative importance
 a system for taking notes

4. Writing an Outline and Prospectus for Yourself

Consider the following questions:

 What is the topic?

 Why is it significant?
 What background material is relevant?
 What is my thesis or purpose statement?
 What organizational plan will best support my purpose?

5. Writing the Introduction

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In the introduction you will need to do the following things:

 present relevant background or contextual material
 define terms or concepts when necessary
 explain the focus of the paper and your specific purpose
 reveal your plan of organization
6. Writing the Body
 Use your outline and prospectus as flexible guides
 Build your essay around points you want to make (i.e., don’t let your sources
organize your paper)
 Integrate your sources into your discussion
 Summarize, analyze, explain, and evaluate published work rather than merely
reporting it
 Move up and down the “ladder of abstraction” from generalization to varying
levels of detail back to generalization

7. Writing the Conclusion

 If the argument or point of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the
argument for your reader.
 If prior to your conclusion you have not yet explained the significance of your
findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to add your
points up, to explain their significance.
 Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the
context provided by the introduction.
 Perhaps suggest what about this topic needs further research.

8. Revising the Final Draft

 Check overall organization: logical flow of introduction, coherence and depth of
discussion in body, effectiveness of conclusion.
 Paragraph level concerns: topic sentences, sequence of ideas within paragraphs,
use of details to support generalizations, summary sentences where necessary, use
of transitions within and between paragraphs.
 Sentence level concerns: sentence structure, word choices, punctuation, spelling.
 Documentation: consistent use of one system, citation of all material not
considered common knowledge, appropriate use of endnotes or footnotes,
accuracy of list of works cited.

Challenging exercises:What are the qualities of a good research paper?

What are the steps involved into the writing process of a research paper?
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References:https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
https://owl.purdue.edu/writinglab/the_writing_lab_at_purdue.html

Next lesson preview:

 Structure of a Research Paper, Formatting a Research Paper

Writing a Research Paper

Preamble:

We discussed in the previous Lesson:

Writing a Research Paper

 Steps involved in writing a Research Paper
 Characteristics of a good research Paper
Learning Outcomes:

 Understanding and application of the content regarding research paper and producing a
research paper accordingly.
Topic of the day:

Writing a Research Paper

 Structure of a Research Paper
 Formatting Research Paper (Style/language/form)

Structure of a Research Paper:

1. Title

In fact, this is the most vital part of research paper. It is to grab the reader’s attention basically as
it determines whether the person is going to read your entire research or not. While deciding on
the title for your research, you must keep in mind that it should indicate the main focus of your
research. It must also contain the most important and relevant keywords (the search terms) from
your paper. It let the user find your paper in the search results when searching for the related
database.

There are two ways of writing titles for your paper. The first one is the descriptive way, which
basically states the main focus of your research. The second way is the conclusive way, which
portrays the conclusion from paper. The first listed way of writing the title i.e. the descriptive
way is preferred for the reason that it speaks for itself.

Descriptive title: ‘The effects of social media on youngsters’.

Conclusive title: ‘Social media has badly destroyed our youngsters’

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The last but not the least thing to mention here is the length of the title. It shouldn’t be either too
long or too short. Approximately your title must comprise of 5 to 10 words. Don’t go for the
least limit of words as it must contain all the keywords so that the people may find your paper in
the search results when searching for the relevant database, as mentioned previously.

2. Abstract

This is the section of the research paper that comes after the title. The purpose of this section is
to provide the user with the brief summary of your paper. This section has equal importance as
the title of the research paper. Often, after reading the research paper title, the reader may switch
to its abstract to recognize if this paper is of his interest or not. Basically, abstract determine the
findings of the author and this is the main plot where the reader decides if he needs to continue
reading this paper or not.

Keeping all these things in mind, the best recommendation for you is to write the abstract in such
a way it looks like a mini-research paper. The reason is that it could provide the reader with all
the information about his interest to continue reading.

Basic Introduction – Write a few introductory lines in the abstract to let the reader know a few
background details and the investigated problem as well.

Methods used – Don’t forget to mention the methods used in the abstract.

Major results – Try to mention all the major results of your paper in this section. If possible, try
your level best to proffer reader the results in form of quantitative information.

Discussion – Choose to write a few lines discussing your own (author) interpretation of the
presented results.

Final summary – The last but not the least thing to mention is a brief and a final summary in this
abstract portion. This is considered the most crucial abstract part and researchers are going to
read this portion to realize if it is important enough for them to read it further or not.

One more thing to keep in mind while writing the abstract is that abbreviations aren’t allowed
here to state. The reason is that, at this point, you haven’t yet stated your abbreviations so the
reader may lose interest as he is unable to understand it. The length of the abstract is usually kept
between 150 to 300 words.

3. Introduction: The “why did you do the study”; setting the scene or laying the foundation
or background for the paper.

This portion primarily consists of the following three sections.

1st section of the introduction portion must state the background knowledge i.e. why this study
was undertaken.
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2nd portion of the introduction must state the nature of work being performed in your whole
research. It must include the investigated variables as well as the methods utilized.

3rd portion of introduction, which is usually the last portion, must state the problem’s condition
at the end of the research.

There are a different point of views of the people regarding introduction writing. Lots of people
consider writing first two points in this section and consider the third one unnecessary. But, it is
highly recommended for you to include the third portion as well. It let the reader evaluate your
paper more accurately.

The author’s findings must be stated in the past tense and everything else in the present tense in
this section. When it comes to its length, it is not fixed but is kept around 500 to 700 words.

4. Literature Review

It is the critical as well as the detailed section of the research paper that includes the in-depth
evaluation of previous researches. It allows the reader to understand the reason why you took
this particular research project and a good research paper must entail all the details behind why
you took this question for research.

5. Methods: The “how did you do the study”.

There are basically two functions this methods section;

The first one is that the reader must be able to evaluate your performed work i.e. you must
describe all the aspects of methodology you utilized in your study.

The second function is that you must allow the reader to replicate the study if they desire to do
so. In this regard, all of your methodologies must be described clearly so that someone could
replicate your work, if desired, without referring to any other publication. This is the reason
people also refer this section as ‘Method and Materials’.

These are definitely written in past tense. If there are different procedures to describe, you can
make separate heading for each to make it readable.

In this section researchers usually describe the --

 Context and setting of the study

 Specify the study design
 Population (patients, etc. if applicable)
 Sampling strategy
 Intervention (if applicable)
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 Identify the main study variables

 Data collection instruments and procedures
 Outline analysis methods
6. Results: The “what did you find” --

This is usually the most valuable section of your research paper and it entirely depends on your
results as well as your goals.

Most of the time, in short research papers, the results and discussion sections are mixed up by
the authors. You must try your level best only to state the observations of your findings. You
may choose to reserve the interpretations for the next section i.e. discussion section.

As you are going to state your own results so it must be written in the past tense, as you are
already done with everything. All other general statements must be in present tense. If more than
one result from different experiments has to be stated here, you can divide this section, as per
your requirements. There is no fixed length for this section too but it is usually the short one.

How to write this section:

 Report on data collection and/or recruitment

 Participants (demographic, clinical condition, etc.)
 Present key findings with respect to the central research question
 Secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc. 

7. Discussion: Place for interpreting the results

 A plausible interpretation of the reported data must be presented here and you have to relate
these findings to the other investigator’s findings.

There are a few things which are considered important to include in this section, which are the
following:

 Main findings of the study

 Discuss the main results with reference to previous research
 Policy and practice implications of the results
 Strengths and limitations of the study

8. Conclusions: [occasionally optional or not required].

Do not reiterate the data or discussion. It can state hunches, inferences or speculations or it may
offer perspectives for future work.

9. Acknowledgements: 
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There are people who contributed to the work, but did not contribute sufficiently to earn
authorship. In this section, you need to thank all those people or institutes/organizations who
added their contributions to your work in a successful manner. It isn’t supposed to be extensive
enough but all of them must be acknowledged. But make sure all of the contributors have
allowed you to add their name in this regard.
Its length may vary depending upon a number of contributions and isn’t fixed at all.

10. References: 

It includes complete citations, in a specific format, for any articles or other materials referenced
in the text of the article. A complete reference must state the name of the author, article title, the
name of the journal, volume number, year of publications as well as the page numbers.

A list of the references is written at the end of the paper and its number is limited to the cited
references in the paper. Alphabetical order is followed while writing references. When it comes
to the exact number of references, these can’t be defined.

11. Formatting Research Paper

Each specialization and college has its own view on formatting. There are several common
formatting styles with their own guides and requirements. Here are some examples:

APA style - Usually used in psychological, social, natural, and life sciences;

MLA style - used in literature, as well as language study;

Harvard style - there is no particular preference for it, but usually, you may find it is required in
social sciences/humanities;

Chicago - one can encounter it in Business and History.

There are several other formatting and referencing styles used. Mentioned above ones are the
most common. Each style has its own comprehensive guide. The guides describe many aspects
of writing: the required outlines, punctuation, referencing, etc. The best papers have to follow
these requirements without fail. Formatting styles also help your piece look good and impressive
and influence its overall design

Challenging exercises:

What are the different sections of a research paper?

What is the importance of a title for your research paper?
What format is usually required for your research paper?
Home assignment:

Write a Research Paper according to your submitted proposal in the previous lessons.

References:
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https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper

https://owl.purdue.edu/writinglab/the_writing_lab_at_purdue.html

https://hsl.lib.umn.edu/biomed/help/structure-a-research-paper