Topic  Linear and

Quadratic
2 Functions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify linear and quadratic functions;
2. Find the slope of a line;
3. Determine whether two lines are parallel or perpendicular;
4. Sketch the graphs for linear and quadratic functions; and
5. Find the intersection point between two functions.

 INTRODUCTION
At the beginning of the 17th century, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz introduced the
term “function” to the mathematical vocabulary. The concept turned out to be one
of the most fundamental mathematical concepts. In general, a function is a special
type of input-output relation that expresses how the amount of one quantity (the
output) depends on another quantity (the input). A function is a rule that assigns
each value of x (input) to only one value of y (output) which is denoted by the
symbol f (other symbols such as g and h are also used). Usually, the symbol x is
used to represent an independent variable as it is free to take on any value while the
symbol y is used to denote a dependent variable as its value depends on the value
taken by x.

y = f  x 

or  read as “y is a function of x”
y = g  x  

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28  TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

2.1 LINEAR EQUATIONS AND GRAPH

SKETCHING
A linear function graph is a straight line.

SELF-CHECK 2.1

Is linear equation a function? Explain.

2.1.1 Linear Equations

A linear equation is an equation where the highest power of x is equal to 1.

General form: y = mx + c, where m is the slope and c is the y-intercept.

Example 2.1
Obtain the slope and the y-intercept for each of the following linear equations:

(a) y = 6 – 3x (b) 2y + 6x = 9

Solution
Express the following equations in the general form, i.e. y = mx + c. Then, calculate
the value for m (scalar for x) and the y-intercept, i.e. the value of c.

(a) y  6  3x
(General form)
y  3x  6
Therefore, m = –3 and c = 6.

(b) 2 y  6x  9
2 y  6 x  9
(General form)
9
y   3x 
2
9
Therefore, m = –3 and c  .
2

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 TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS  29

2.1.2 Slope
If two points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) are given, a slope can be derived by using the
following formula:

y2  y1
m
x2  x1

Example 2.2
Find the slope for each line that connects the two given points:
(a) A (1, 4) and B (–2, 5)
(b) C (0, –3) and D (7, –1)
(c) E (–6, 6) and F (1, 6)

Solution

54
(a) m
2  1
1

3

1   3
(b) m
70
1  3

7
2

7

66
(c) m
1   6 
0

7
0

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30  TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

ACTIVITY 2.1

What is the significance of a linear equation? Discuss your findings with

your coursemates in the myINSPIRE forum.

2.1.3 Types of Straight Lines

There are various types of straight lines as illustrated in Figures 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 and
2.4. Let us look at each type of straight line.

(a) Horizontal Line

 y=a
 Parallel to the x-axis
 Its slope is zero

Figure 2.1: Horizontal line

(b) Vertical Line

 x=b
 Parallel to the y-axis
 Its slope is undefined

Figure 2.2: Vertical line

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 TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS  31

(c) Ascending-slant Line

 y = mx + c
 Ascending line from left to right
 Its slope is positive

Figure 2.3: Ascending-slant line

(d) Descending-slant Line

 y = mx + c
 Descending line from left to right
 Its slope is negative

Figure 2.4: Descending-slant line

2.1.4 Graph Sketching

The following are the steps for sketching a linear function graph:

(a) Find two different points that are on the line and plot them.

(In general, these are the y-intercept and x-intercept.)

The y-intercept can be obtained by substituting x = 0 into the equation and

calculating the corresponding value for y. The x-intercept can be obtained by
substituting y = 0 into the equation and calculating the corresponding value
for x.

(b) Connect the two points to form a straight line.

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32  TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

Example 2.3
Sketch the graph for each of the following linear functions:
(a) y = 2x 1
(b) y = 4x

Solution

(a) y = 2x  1

(i) The first point: Find the y-intercept

Let x = 0, y  2(0)  1
y  1

Hence, the first point is (0, 1).

(ii) The second point: Find the x-intercept

Let y = 0, 2 x  1  0
2x  1
1

2

1 
Hence, the second point is  ,0  .
2 

Figure 2.5 illustrates the graph of y = 2x – 1.

Figure 2.5: The graph of y = 2x – 1

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 TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS  33

(b) y = 4x

(i) The first point: Find the y-intercept

Let x = 0, y  4(0)
y0

Hence, the first point is (0, 0).

(ii) The second point: Find any other point besides the x-intercept (as it is
the same as the y-intercept)

Let x = 2, y  4(2)
y  8

Hence, the second point is (2, 8).

Figure 2.6 shows us the graph of y = –4x.

Figure 2.6: The graph of y = –4x

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34  TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

2.2 PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

Parallel lines are two lines that are always the same distance apart, lying on the
same plane, having the same slope and never intersecting each other. Figure 2.7
shows two lines, L1 and L2, are parallel.

Two lines are said to be parallel if and only if they have the same slope.

Figure 2.7: Parallel lines

Example 2.4
Is line 2y – 3x + 6 = 0 parallel to line 4y = 6x + 3?

Solution
Find the slope for each line:

2 y  3x  6  0 4 y  6x  3
2 y  3x  6 6 3
y x
3x 4 4
y 3
2 3 3
y x
3 2 4
 m1 
2 3
 m2 
2

Since they have the same slope, these two lines are parallel.

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 TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS  35

Example 2.5
Find an equation of a straight line that passes through point (–2, 10) and parallel to
another straight line 5x – y = 0.

Solution
Determine the slope for line 5x – y = 0

5x  y  0
 y  5 x
y  5x
 m5

The equation of a straight line is y = mx + c (The slope for this equation is also 5
since the slope of the two lines is the same).

Now, substitute m = 5 into equation y = mx + c, i.e. y = 5x + c

Since this line passes through point (–2, 10), substitute x = –2 and y = 10 into
y = 5x + c and you will get:

10  10  c
10  10  c
 c  20

The equation of a straight line that we are looking for is y = 5x + 20

Now we know when two lines are said to be parallel. But how about perpendicular
lines? Let us find out.

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36  TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

Perpendicular lines are two or more lines that intersect at a 90-degree angle, like
the two lines, L1and L2, shown in Figure 2.8.

Two lines are said to be perpendicular if and only if the product of the two slopes
is –1.

Figure 2.8: Perpendicular lines

Example 2.6
Determine whether the straight line y – 2x = 1 is perpendicular to 2y + x = 2.

Solution
Calculate the slope for each line and multiply them.

y  2x  1 2y  x  2
y  2x 1 2 y  x  2
 m1  2 x
y 1
2
1
 m2 
2

Since the multiplication of the two slopes is equal to –1, therefore, the two lines are
perpendicular to each other.

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 TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS  37

Example 2.7
Find an equation of a straight line that passes through point (1, 2) and perpendicular
to a straight line x + 5y = 2.

Solution
Determine the slope for line x + 5y = 2

x  5y  2
5y  x  2
x 2
y 
5 5
1
 m1 
5

Find the slope of the required line, which is m2 .

 1
    m2   1 (The multiplication of the two slopes is –1 since the two lines
 5
are perpendicular.)
m2  5

Now, substitute m = 5 into equation y = mx + c, i.e. y = 5x + c

This line passes through point (1, 2). So, we substitute x = 1 and y = 2 into y = 5x + c

2  5(1)  c
2  5c
25  c
3  c

Therefore, the equation of the straight line that we are looking for is y = 5x – 3.

ACTIVITY 2.2

If the product of two slopes is equal to 1, are the lines perpendicular?

Explain.

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38  TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

EXERCISE 2.1

1. For each of the following equations, determine the slope and the
y-intercept:
x
(a) y 1 (b) y = –5 – 5x
2

(c) y = –3x (d) 3y = 5 – 2x

2. Find the equation of a straight line with slope –1 that passes through
point (3, 2).

3. Given two points A (2, 4) and B (5, 12), determine the equation of a
straight line that passes through them.

4. Find an equation of a straight line that passes through point

(2, 1) and is parallel to line 2y + x = 5.

5. Obtain the equation for a straight line that passes through point
(3, –2) and is perpendicular to line 3x – y + 3 = 0.

EXERCISE 2.2

Sketch a graph for each of the linear functions below:

x
(a) y = 3x + 2 (b) y
2
(c) 3y + 2x = 2

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 TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS  39

2.3 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND GRAPH

SKETCHING
The general form of a quadratic equation is y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b and c are
real numbers and a  0. The highest degree for x in a quadratic equation is 2.

The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola. The direction in which the parabola
opens depends on the value of a. If a is positive, the parabola opens upward and the
function has a minimum value. Take a look at Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Positive quadratic function graph

On the other hand, if a is negative, the parabola opens downward and the function
has a maximum value as shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10: Negative quadratic function graph

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40  TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

The following are steps for sketching the graph for the quadratic function
f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c:

(a) Determine the direction in which the parabola opens by observing the value
of a.
(b) Find the vertex (x, y) using this formula:

b 4 ac  b 2
x , y
2a 4a
(c) Find the y-intercept at which x = 0.
Substitute x = 0 into the quadratic function.

f ( x)  ax 2  bx  c

f (0)  a(0) 2  b(0)  c

c
Hence, (0, c) is the y-intercept.
(d) Find the x-intercept (if it exists).
The graph crosses the x-axis when y = 0, i.e. when ax2 + bx + c = 0.
This equation can be solved by factoring or using the following quadratic
formula:

b  b 2  4ac
Quadratic Formula: x 
2a

Whether the graph crosses the x-axis or not depends on the value of b 2  4ac.

(i) When b 2  4ac > 0, the graph crosses the x-axis at two points;

(ii) When b 2  4ac = 0, the graph crosses the x-axis at only one point; and

(iii) When b 2  4ac < 0, the graph does not cross the x-axis.

(e) Plot all the predetermined points from steps (a) to (d). Draw a smooth curve
as it passes through the various points.

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 TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS  41

Example 2.8
Sketch the graph for each of the following quadratic functions:

(a) f ( x) = x 2 ă 4 x

(b) f ( x) = 3 – 2 x – x 2

(c) f ( x) = 2 x 2 + 2 x + 1

Solution

(a) Determine the values of a, b and c from the function f ( x ) = x 2 – 4 x,

where a = 1, b = 4, c = 0

(i) The value of a is positive, hence the parabola opens upward.

(ii) The vertex (x, y)

b 4ac  b 2
x , y
2a 4a
2
  4  4 1 0    4 
 , 
2 1 4 1
4 0  16
 , 
2 4
2 ,  4

Therefore, the vertex is (2, 4).

(iii) The y-intercept is the value of c.

c=0

Therefore, the y-intercept is (0, 0).

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42  TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

(iv) The x-intercept is when f (x) = 0

x (x – 4) = 0

Based on the factored method,

x (x – 4) = 0

x = 0, x=4

or based on the quadratic formula:

b  b2  4ac
x
2a

b 2  4ac   4    4 1 0 
2

 16  0
 16

  4   16
x
2 1
44
x
2
44 44
x , x
2 2
x  4, x  0

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 TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS  43

(v) Thus, there are two x-intercepts, i.e. (0, 0) and (4, 0).

Therefore, Figure 2.11 is the graph of f (x) = x2 − 4:

Figure 2.11: The graph of f (x) = x2 − 4

(b) f (x) = 3  2x  x2, where a = –1, b = –2, c = 3

(i) The value of a is negative, thus the parabola opens downward.

(ii) The vertex (x, y)

b 4ac  b 2
x , y
2a 4a
  2  4  1 3   2 
2

x , y
2  1 4  1
2 12  4
x , y
2 4
16
x  1 , y
4
y4

Hence, the vertex is (–1, 4).

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44  TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

(iii) The y-intercept is the value of c.

c=3

(iv) The x-intercept is when f (x) = 0.

3 – 2x – x2 = 0

Based on the factored method,

(3 + x)(1 – x) = 0
3 + x = 0, 1 – x = 4
x = –3, x = 1

(v) Therefore, Figure 2.12 show us the graph of f (x) = 3 – 2x – x2

Figure 2.12: The graph of f (x) = 3 – 2x – x2

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 TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS  45

(c) f (x) = 2x 2 + 2x + 1, where a = 2, b = 2, c = 1

(i) The value of a is positive, thus the parabola opens upward.

(ii) The vertex (x, y)

b  b 
x , y f 
2a  2a 
2 1
x , Substitute x   into the function
2  2 2
2  1
x y  f  
4  2
2
1  1  1
x , y  2    2   1
2  2  2
1
y  2   1 1
4
1
y
2

 1 1
Hence, the vertex is   , 
 2 2

The y-intercept is the value of c.

c=1

(iii) Therefore, the y-intercept is (0, 1)

The x-intercept is when f (x) = 0

2 x2 + 2x + 1 = 0

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46  TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

(iv) Use the quadratic formula method,

b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
b 2  4ac  2 2  4  2 1
 48
 4

b2 – 4ac < 0 This means, the graph has no x-intercept.

(v) The graph of f (x) = 2x2 + 2x + 1 is illustrated in Figure 2.13:

Figure 2.13: The graph of f (x) = 2x2 + 2x + 1

ACTIVITY 2.3

Why do you think that the quadratic equation has the shape of a parabola?
Share your answer in the myINSPIRE forum.

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 TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS  47

EXERCISE 2.3

Sketch a graph for each of the following quadratic functions:

(a) f (x) = x2 – 6x + 5
(b) f (x) = x2 + 4
(c) f (x) = – x2 – 2x – 3
(d) f (x) = x2 – 16
(e) f (x) = (x – 1)(3 – x)

2.4 INTERSECTION POINT

The point of intersection between two functions can be obtained by solving the
equations simultaneously.

Example 2.9
Find the intersection point for the lines 2x + y = 4 and x – y = 2.

Solution
Solve the two equations simultaneously. Add the two equations together to
eliminate y.

2x  y  4
() x y 2
3x  6
x2

Now substitute x = 2 into equation x – y = 2

2 y  2
y0

Therefore, the point of intersection is (2, 0).

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48  TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

Example 2.10
Find the intersection point for the lines 2x + 4y = 6 and 6x + 3y = 18.

Solution
Equate the scalar of x in both equations by multiplying each term in equation

2x + 4y = 6 by 3.

Thus, we have 6x + 12y = 18

Then subtract this equation from the other to eliminate the variable x.

6 x  12 y  18
( ) 6 x  3 y  18
9y  0
y0

Substituting y = 0 into equation 2x + 4y = 6

2 x  4(0)  6
2x  6
x3

Hence, the point of intersection is (3, 0).

Example 2.11
Find the intersection point(s) for the curves y = 4 x ă x 2 and y = x 2 ă 6.

Solution
Solve the equations y = 4 x ă x 2 and y = x 2 ă 6.

4x  x2  x2  6

4 x  x2  x2  6  0

4x  2 x2  6  0 (Divide each term by 2)

2 x  x2  3  0

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 TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS  49

a = –1, b = 2, c = 3 (Apply the quadratic formula)

2  4  4  1 3
x
2  1

2  16
x
2
2  4
x
2
2  4 2  4
x , x 
2 2
2 6
x , x 
2 2
x  1 , x 3

Hence, the intersection points are (–1, –5) and (3, 3).

Example 2.12
Find the intersection point(s) for the curve x2 + y – 3 = 0 and the line 2x + y = 0.

Solution
Solve the equations x2 + y – 3 = 0 and 2x + y = 0

Substitute 2x + y = 0 i.e. y = –2x into x2 + y – 3 = 0

x2  y  3  0

x2  2 x  3  0
(Factorise the equation)
( x  3)( x  1)  0
x  3, x  1

Insert x = 3 and x = –1 into y = –2x

When x = 3, y = –2(3)

y = –6

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50  TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

When x = –1, y = –2(–1)

y=2

Thus, the intersection points are (3, –6) and (–1, 2).

ACTIVITY 2.4

1. When two graphs cross each other, what can we say about their
respective values of x and y at the intersection point? Discuss.

2. For further discussions on function, refer to the following website

and share your findings in the myINSPIRE forum:
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Function.html

EXERCISE 2.4

Find the intersection points for each of the following equations:

(a) 2x + y = 10 and 6x + y = 14
(b) 3x + y – 2 = 0 and 3x – 4y + 8 = 0
(c) 2x – 3y = 7 and 3x + 2y = 4
(d) y = 8 – x2 and 4x – y + 11 = 0
(e) y = 2x2 – 3x and y = x2 – 2
(f) y = x2 + 6x + 2 and y = 2x2 + 2x + 5

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 TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS  51

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 2.1

1. Form the linear equation for a line that passes through point 3,  1
and having slope –7.
A. y = –7x + 21 B. y = 7x – 22
C. y = –7x + 20 D. y = 3x + 7

2. Which pair of lines are parallel?

A. L1 : 2 y  3 x  13 , L 2 : 3 y  2 x  3

B. L1 : 2 x  2 y  1 , L2 : y  x  9

C. L1 : y  3x  7 , L2 : y  3x  7

D. L1 : 3x  y  7  0 , L2 : x  y  1  0

3. Determine the graph that represents a line having slope –3.

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52  TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

4. Let y = f (x) be a quadratic function.

Which of the following statements is false?

A. The parabola opens downward when the scalar of x is negative.
B. The y-intercept is obtained by evaluating f (0).
C. The vertex is maximum when the parabola opens downward.
D. The highest power of an independent variable for a quadratic
function is two.

5. Which graph represents f (x) = 6 + 5x + x2?

A. B.

C. D.

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 TOPIC 2 LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS  53

 If y is a function of x and is written as y = f (x), then there exists a unique value

for y for every value of x.

 A linear function is classified as a degree 1 polynomial function. Hence, it is

also known as a polynomial linear.

 A quadratic function is classified as a degree 2 polynomial function.

Function Parabola
Intersection point Quadratic function
Linear function

Aufmann, R. (2005). Algebra: Beginning and intermediate. Boston, MA: Houghton

Mifflin.

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