STEEL STRUCTURES

REFERENCES

1) Structural Steel Design (Fifth Edition), Jack C. McCormac, Stephen F. Csernak

2) Steel Structures: Design and Behavior, Charles G. Salmon, John E. Johnson, Faris A. Malhas
3) Structural Steel Design, Abi Aghayere, Jason Vigil
4) Steel Structures: Behavior and LRFD, Sriramulu Vinnakota
5) Aydın R., Günaydın A., Çelik Yapılar-Tasarım Kuralları ve Uygulama Örnekleri,
Güncelleştirilmiş 3.Baskı, Birsen Yayınevi, 2017.

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2. SPECIFICATIONS, LOADS, AND METHODS OF DESIGN
2.1 BUILDING CODES
• The design of most structures is controlled by building codes. Building codes, which are actually laws or
ordinances, specify minimum design loads, design stresses, construction types, material quality, and other factors.
Turkish Codes:
➢ TS 648 (1980), Building Code for Steel Structures (Çelik Yapıların Hesap ve Yapım Kuralları)

➢ TS 498 (1997), Design Loads for Buildings (Yapı Elemanlarının Boyutlandırılmasında Alınacak
Yüklerin Hesap Değerleri)
➢ Çelik Yapıların Tasarım, Hesap ve Yapım Esaslarına Dair Yönetmelik, ÇYHY (Regulation on
Design, Calculation and Construction Principles of Steel Structures.), 2018.
➢ Türkiye Bina Deprem Yönetmeliği TBDY, 2018.

❖ Standards related with the design of steel structures are given in Part-1.3 of the ÇYHY.

❖ When these codes are not adequate for any special design case, the references written at
appendix-4 in ÇYHY and other references internationally respected can also be utilized.
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 Eurocodes:
• EN 1990, Basis of Structural Design.
• EN 1991, Actions on Structures (Loadings)
• EN 1993, Design of Steel Structures.
American Codes:
• ANSI/AISC 360-16, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (AISC: American Institute for
Steel Construction)
• ASCE-7, Minimum design loads for buildings and Other Structures

2.2 LOADS
• In general, loads are classified according to their character and duration of application. As such,
they are said to be dead loads, live loads, and environmental loads.
2.3 DEAD LOADS

• Dead loads are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position. They consist of the
structural frame’s own weight and other loads that are permanently attached to the frame. For
a steel-frame building, the frame, walls, floors, roof, plumbing, and fixtures are dead loads.
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2.4 LIVE LOADS

• Live loads are loads that may change in position and magnitude. Examples of live loads are human
occupants, furniture, movable equipment, vehicles, and stored goods.

2.5 ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS

• Environmental loads are caused by the environment in which a particular structure is located. For
buildings, environmental loads are caused by rain, snow, wind, temperature change, and earthquakes.
(Strictly speaking, environmental loads are live loads, but they are the result of the environment in
which the structure is located.)

2.6 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD) AND ALLOWABLE STRENGTH
DESIGN (ASD)

• The ÇYHY (and AISC) Specification provides two acceptable methods for designing structural steel
members and their connections. These are Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) and
Allowable Strength Design (ASD). Both procedures are based on limit states design principles,
which provide the boundaries of structural usefulness.
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• The term limit state is used to describe a condition at which a structure or part of a structure ceases to
perform its intended function. There are two categories of limit states: strength and serviceability.

• Strength limit states define load-carrying capacity, including excessive yielding, fracture, buckling,
fatigue, and gross rigid body motion. Serviceability limit states define performance, including deflection,
cracking, slipping, vibration, and deterioration. All limit states must be prevented.

• The margin established between resistance and load in real cases is intended to reduce the probability of
failure, depending on the consequences of failure or unserviceability.

• There are two major differences between LRFD and ASD. The first pertains to the method used for
calculating the design loads. The second difference pertains to the use of resistance factors ( in LRFD)
and safety factors ( in ASD).

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• In LRFD, a resistance factor  , usually less than 1.0, is multiplied by the nominal (characteristic)
strength of a member, or in ASD, the nominal strength is divided by a safety factor  , usually greater
than 1.0, to account for variations in material strength, member dimensions, and workmanship.

• With both the LRFD and the ASD procedures, expected values of the individual loads (dead, live, wind,
snow, etc.) are first estimated. These loads are referred to as service or working loads. Various
combinations of these loads that feasibly may occur at the same time are grouped together.

Nominal Strengths

• With both LRFD and ASD, the term nominal strength is constantly used. The nominal strength of a
member is its calculated theoretical strength, with no safety factors (Ωs) or resistance factors (ϕs)
applied.

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LRFD Load Combinations

• With the LRFD method, possible service load groups are formed, and each service load is multiplied by a
load factor, normally larger than 1.0. The magnitude of the load factor reflects the uncertainty of that
particular load.

• The resulting combination of service loads in a group is called a factored load. The largest values
determined in this manner are used to compute the moments, shears, and other forces in the structure.
These controlling values may not be larger than the nominal strengths of the members multiplied by their
reduction or  factors.

(Reduction factor ϕ) (Nominal strength of a member, Rn) ≥ computed factored force in member, Ru

ϕRn ≥ Ru
𝑁

Then for LRFD ⟹ ϕRn ≥ ෍ λ𝑖 𝑄𝑖

𝑖=1

Rn : design strength

Qi : one of N service loads in a group
λi : load factor associated with loads in LRFD 7
Combined loads with LRFD (ÇYHY-5.3.1, 2018)

(1) 1.4G G: Dead load,

(2a) 1.2G + 1.6(Qr or S or R) Q: Live Load,
(2b) 1.2G + 1.6Q + 0.5(Qr or S or R) Qr: Roof live load,
(3) 1.2G + 1.6(Qr or S or R) + (Q or 0.8W) S: Snow Load,
R: Rain Load,
(4) 1.2G + 1.0Q + 0.5(Qr or S or R) + 1.6W W: Wind Load,
(5) 1.2G + 1.0Q + 0.2S + 1.0E E: Earthquake Load,
(6) 0.9G + 1.6W F: Pressure load of liquid material,
(7) 0.9G + 1.0E T: Effects related to change of temperature or support collapse,
H: Pressure of soil, water in soil and bulk material.

• If the loads of “F, H, T” exist, these loads must be added to the calculations according to the code.

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ASD Load Combinations

• With ASD, the service loads are generally not multiplied by load factors or safety factors. Rather, they
are summed up, as is, for various feasible combinations, and the largest values so obtained are used to
compute the forces in the members. These total forces may not be larger than the nominal strengths of
the members, divided by appropriate safety factors.

𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

≥ 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟, 𝑅𝑎
𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 Ω

𝑅𝑛
≥ 𝑅𝑎
Ω
𝑁
𝑅𝑛
And for ASD ⟹ ≥ ෍ 𝑄𝑖
Ω
𝑖=1

( Qi : one of N service loads in a group )

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Combined loads with ASD (ÇYHY-5.3.2, 2018)
(1) G G: Dead load,
(2) G+Q Q: Live Load,
Qr: Roof live load,
(3) G + (Qr or S or R)
S: Snow Load,
(4) G + 0.75Q + 0.75(Qr or S or R) R: Rain Load,
(5a) G + 1.0W W: Wind Load,
(5b) G + 0.7E E: Earthquake Load,
(6a) G + 0.75Q + 0.75 (Qr or S or R) + 0.75W F: Pressure load of liquid material,
(6a) G + 0.75Q + 0.75S + 0.75(0.7E) T: Effects related to change of temperature or support collapse,
H: Pressure of soil, water in soil and bulk material.
(7) 0.6G + W
(8) 0.6G + 0.7E

• If the loads of “F, H, T” exist, these loads must be added to the calculations according to the code.

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