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22 C H A P T E R 2 Electric Circuits and Components

there is no standard method. Often, the value is printed on the device directly, typi-
cally in H or mH.

2.3 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

Now we are ready to put circuit elements and sources together in circuits and cal-
culate voltages and currents anywhere in the circuit. Kirchhoff’s laws are essential
for the analysis and understanding of circuits, regardless of how simple or complex
the circuit may be. In fact, these laws are the basis for even the most complex circuit
analysis such as that involved with transistor circuits, operational amplifiers, or inte-
grated circuits with hundreds of elements. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states
that the sum of voltages around a closed loop or path is 0 (see Figure 2.13):

(2.11)

Note that the loop must be closed, but the conductors themselves need not be closed
(i.e., the loops can go through open circuits).
To apply KVL to a circuit, as illustrated in Figure 2.13, you first assume a cur-
rent direction on each branch of the circuit. Next assign the appropriate polarity to
the voltage across each passive element assuming that the voltage drops across each
element in the direction of the current. Where assumed current enters a passive ele-
ment, a plus is shown, and where the assumed current leaves the element, a minus is
shown. The polarity of voltage across a voltage source and the direction of current
through a current source must always be maintained as given. Now, starting at any
point in the circuit (such as node A in Figure 2.13) and following either a clock-
wise or counterclockwise loop direction (clockwise in Figure 2.13), form the sum of
the voltages across each element, assigning to each voltage the first algebraic sign
encountered at each element in the loop. For Figure 2.13, the result would be

(2.12a)

I2
V2
– +
+
+ V3 I3

I1 V1 KVL –
loop
...

A
+ –
VN
IN

Figure 2.13 Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

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2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws 23

Alternatively, you can assign the signs based on whether the voltage increases
(from  to , assigning ) or drops (from  to , assigning ) across the ele-
ment. Using this convention, the equation would be:

(2.12b)

Equations 2.12a and 2.12b are equivalent, but the second convention is more
intuitive because it represents what actually occurs in the circuit. However, the first
convention is more common, probably because it involves less thought.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law EXAMPLE 2.3

KVL will be used to find the current IR in the following circuit.

+ +
Vs = 10 V IR VR R = 1 kΩ
− −

The first step is to assume the current direction for IR. The chosen direction is shown in the
figure. With a circuit this simple, the current direction is obvious based on the polarity of the
source; but in more complex circuits, current directions might not be so obvious. Then we
use the current direction through the resistor to assign the voltage-drop polarity. If the cur-
rent were assumed to flow in the opposite direction instead, the voltage polarity across the
resistor would also have to be reversed. The polarity for the voltage source is fixed regard-
less of current direction. Starting at point A and progressing clockwise around the loop, we
assign the first voltage sign we come to on each element yielding
− Vs + VR = 0

Applying Ohm’s law,

− Vs + IR R = 0

Therefore,

I R = V s ⁄ R = 10 ⁄ 1000 A = 10 mA

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the sum of the currents flowing into
a closed surface or node is 0. Referring to Figure 2.14a,
I1 + I2 − I3 = 0 (2.13)
More generally, referring to Figure 2.14b,

(2.14)

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24 C H A P T E R 2 Electric Circuits and Components

I1 I2
I1 I3
node

surface

IN I3
I2
…
(a) Example KCL (b) General KCL

Figure 2.14 Kirchhoff’s current law.

Note that currents entering a node or surface are assigned a positive value, and cur-
rents leaving are assigned a negative value.
It is important to note that, when analyzing a circuit, you arbitrarily assume
current directions and denote the directions with arrows on the schematic. If the
Lab Exercise
calculated result for a current is negative, the current actually flows in the opposite
Lab 1  direction. Also, assumed voltage drops must be consistent with the assumed current
Introduction— directions. If a calculated voltage is negative, its actual polarity is opposite to that
Resistor codes, shown.
breadboard,
Lab Exercise 1 introduces many of the basic concepts presented so far in this
and basic
chapter. The following practical skills are developed:
measurements
■ Assembling basic circuits using a breadboard (see Video Demo 2.4)
■ Making voltage and current measurements (see Video Demo 2.5)
■ Reading resistor and capacitor values
More information and resources dealing with all of these topics can also be found in
Video Demo Section 2.10.
2.4 Breadboard
construction
2.3.1 Series Resistance Circuit
2.5 Instrumentation Applying KVL to the simple series resistor circuit illustrated in Figure 2.15 yields
for powering some useful results. Assuming a current direction I, starting at node A, and following
and making a clockwise direction yields
measurements in
circuits – V s + V R1 + V R2 = 0 (2.15)
From Ohm’s law,
V R1 = IR 1 (2.16)
and
V R2 = IR 2 (2.17)
Substituting these two equations into Equation 2.15 gives
− V s + IR 1 + IR 2 = 0 (2.18)

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2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws 25

I R1

+ –
VR1
+
+
Vs VR2 R2
_
–

Figure 2.15 Series resistance circuit.

and solving for I yields

Vs
I = ---------------------- (2.19)
( R1 + R2 )

Note that, if we had a single resistor of value R1  R2, we would have the same
result. Therefore resistors in series add, and the equivalent resistance of a series
resistance circuit is
R eq = R 1 + R 2 (2.20)

In general, N resistors connected in series can be replaced by a single equivalent

resistance given by

(2.21)

By applying KVL to capacitor and inductor circuits, it can be shown (Questions

2.11 and 2.13) that two capacitors in series combine as

C1 C2
C eq = -----------------
- (2.22)
C1 + C2
and two inductors in series add:
L eq = L 1 + L 2 (2.23)
A circuit containing two resistors in series is referred to as a voltage divider
because the source voltage Vs divides between each resistor. Expressions for the
resistor voltages can be obtained by substituting Equation 2.19 into Equations 2.16
and 2.17 giving
R1 R2
V R1 = ----------------- V, V R2 = ----------------- V (2.24)
R1 + R2 s R1 + R2 s

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26 C H A P T E R 2 Electric Circuits and Components

In general, for N resistors connected in series with a total applied voltage of Vs, the
voltage VRi across any resistor Ri is

(2.25)

Voltage dividers are useful because they allow us to create different reference
voltages in a circuit even if the circuit is energized only by a single output supply.
However, care must be exercised that attached loads do not drain significant current
and affect the voltage references produced with the dividers (see Class Discussion
Item 2.2).

■ CLASS DISCUSSION ITEM 2.2

Improper Application of a Voltage Divider

Your car has a 12 V battery that powers some circuits in the car at lower voltage
levels. Why is it inappropriate to use a simple voltage divider to create a lower volt-
age level for circuits that might draw variable current?

2.3.2 Parallel Resistance Circuit

Applying KCL to the simple parallel resistor circuit illustrated in Figure 2.16 also
yields some useful results. Because each resistor experiences the same voltage Vs, as
they are both in parallel with the source, Ohm’s law gives
V
I 1 = -----s (2.26)
R1
and
V
I 2 = -----s (2.27)
R2
Applying KCL at node A gives
I – I1 – I2 = 0 (2.28)
Substituting the currents from Equations 2.26 and 2.27 yields
V V
I = -----s + -----s = V s ⎛ ----- + -----⎞
1 1
⎝ R 1 R 2⎠ (2.29)
R1 R2
Replacing the resistance values R1 and R2 with their conductance equivalents 1/G1
and 1/G2 gives

I = Vs ( G1 + G2 ) (2.30)

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2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws 27

I
A

I1 I2
+ +
+
Vs R1 R2
– –

Figure 2.16 Parallel resistance circuit.

A single resistor with a conductance of value (G1  G2) would have given the same
result; therefore, conductances in parallel add. We can write Equation 2.30 as
V
I = V s G eq = -------s (2.31)
R eq

where Geq is the equivalent conductance and Req is the equivalent resistance. By
comparing the right-hand side of this equation to Equation 2.29, we get
1 1 1
------- = ----- + ----- (2.32)
R eq R1 R2

or

R1 R2
R eq = ----------------- ( 2.33)
R1 + R2

In general, N resistors connected in parallel can be replaced by a single equivalent

resistance given by

(2.34)

or

(2.35)

By applying KCL to capacitor and inductor circuits, it can be shown (Questions

2.12 and 2.14) that two capacitors in parallel add:
C eq = C 1 + C 2 (2.36)
and two inductors in parallel combine as

L1 L2
L eq = ----------------
- (2.37)
L1 + L2

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28 C H A P T E R 2 Electric Circuits and Components

A circuit containing two resistors connected in parallel is called a current

divider because the source current I divides between each resistor. Expressions for
the divided currents can be obtained by solving Equation 2.29 for Vs and substituting
into Equation 2.26 and 2.27 giving
R2 R1
I 1 = ----------------- I, I 2 = ----------------- I (2.38)
Video Demo
R1 + R2 R1 + R2

2.6 Light bulb Video Demo 2.6 illustrates the differences between parallel and series wiring of
series and parallel lighting. The demonstration illustrates voltage and current division and the effects
circuit comparison on power output.
When drawing circuit schematics, by hand or with software tools, it is
important to be consistent with how you show connections (or the lack thereof)

EXAMPL E 2.4 Circuit Analysis

As an example of how the tools presented in the previous sections apply to a nontrivial
circuit, consider the following network, where the goal is to find Iout and Vout. At any node
in the circuit, such as the one labeled by Vout, the voltage is defined with respect to the
ground reference denoted by the ground symbol . Voltage differences between any two
points can be obtained by taking the difference between the ground-referenced values at
the points.

R 2 = 2 kΩ R4 = 4 kΩ

Iout
Vout
R 3 = 3 kΩ
+
V1 = 10 V
R 1 = 1 kΩ R 5 = 5 kΩ R6 = 6 kΩ
+

V2 = 20 V

The first step is to combine resistor clusters between and around the sources (V1 and V2)
and the branches of interest (those dealing with Iout and Vout) using the series and parallel resis-
tance formulas (Equations 2.20 and 2.33). Resistors R2 and R4 are in series, with an equivalent
resistance of (R2  R4), and this is in parallel with resistor R3. Resistors R5 and R6 are also in
parallel. Therefore, the resultant resistances for the equivalent circuit that follows are

( R 2 + R 4 )R 3
R 234 = ----------------------------------
- = 2.00 kΩ
( R2 + R4 ) + R3
R5 R6
R 56 = ----------------- - = 2.73 kΩ
R5 + R6

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2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws 29

+ V 234 _
Iout V1 R 234
Vout

+ I 234
R1 V1 R56

+
V2

Applying KVL to the left loop gives

V1 = Iout R1

so

Iout = V1 R 1 = 10 V 1 kΩ = 10 mA

Applying KVL to the right loop tells us that the total voltage across R234 and R56 in the
assumed direction of I234 is (V1  V2). Voltage division (Equation 2.24) can then be used to
determine the voltage drop across R234 in the assumed direction of I234:

R 234
V 234 = -----------------------
- ( V – V 2 ) = – 4.23 V
R 234 + R 56 1

Because V1 is referenced to ground, the voltage on the left side of resistor R234 is V1; and
because the voltage drops by V234 across the resistor, the desired output voltage is

Vout = V1 – V234 = 14.2 V

Note that because V234 was found to be negative, the actual flow of current through R234
would be in the opposite direction from that assumed in this solution.
A myriad of methods may be used to solve this problem (e.g., see Question 2.24), and
the one presented here is just an example solution, not necessarily the best method.

at intersecting lines on the drawing. Figure 2.17 illustrates two conventions for
doing this. The first convention (Figure 2.17a) is the most common and is what
was used in Example 2.4. With this convention, a dot implies a connection, and the
absence of a dot (at crossing lines only) implies no connection. Figure 2.17b shows
an alternative convention where a dot is not required to indicate a connection as
long as a crossing arc is used to indicate a nonconnection. Because the circuit dia-
grams in this chapter have been very simple, we really didn’t need a convention—
any crossing lines have been assumed to be connected. Even with the circuit in
Example 2.4, the connection dots are not really required. People will assume there
are connections at all intersecting lines in simple diagrams unless dot or arc fea-
tures appear at one or more intersections. However, with more complicated circuits
(e.g., those in Chapter 7 dealing with complicated microcontroller-based solutions),

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30 C H A P T E R 2 Electric Circuits and Components

or or

connection no connection
(a) dot convention

or or

connection no connection
Lab Exercise (b) arc convention

Lab 2 Instrument
Figure 2.17 Circuit schematic connection conventions.
familiarization and
basic electrical
relations
a clear and consistent convention is very important to present and interpret the
intent of the designer.
Lab Exercise 2 provides experience with using various instruments includ-
ing an oscilloscope, multimeter, power supply, and function generator (see
Video Demo 2.5). The Lab also covers practical application of Ohm’s law, KVL,
Video Demo and KCL, as applied to making voltage and current measurements in circuits.
2.5 Instrumen- Video Demo 2.7 shows the various types of cables and connectors that are used
tation for power- to connect instruments to each other and to circuits. Internet Link 2.5 is an
ing and making excellent resource reviewing many topics related to electricity and DC circuit
measurements analysis.
in circuits
2.7 Connectors
(BNC, banana 2.4 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT SOURCES
plugs, alligator
clips) AND METERS
When we analyze electrical networks on paper, we usually assume that sources and
meters are ideal. However, actual physical devices are not ideal, and it is sometimes
necessary to account for their limitations when circuits contain these devices. The
following ideal behavior is usually assumed:
■ An ideal voltage source has zero output resistance and can supply infinite
Internet Link current.
■ An ideal current source has infinite output resistance and can supply infinite
2.5 All about voltage.
circuits -
Vol. I - DC ■ An ideal voltmeter has infinite input resistance and draws no current.
■ An ideal ammeter has zero input resistance and no voltage drop across it.
Unfortunately, real sources and meters have terminal characteristics that are some-
what different from the ideal cases. However, the terminal characteristics of the real
sources and meters can be modeled using ideal sources and meters with their associ-
ated input and output resistances.

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2.4 Voltage and Current Sources and Meters 31

Rout +

output impedance
+
Vs Vout
ideal voltage source

Figure 2.18 Real voltage source with output impedance.

As shown in Figure 2.18, a “real” voltage source can be modeled as an ideal

voltage source in series with a resistance called the output impedance of the device.
When a load is attached to the source and current flows, the output voltage Vout will
be different from the ideal source voltage Vs due to voltage division. The output
impedance of most commercially available voltage sources (e.g., a power supply)
is very small, usually a fraction of an ohm. For most applications, this impedance
is small enough to be neglected. However, the output impedance can be important
when driving a circuit with small resistance because the impedance adds to the
resistance of the circuit. Figure 2.19 shows examples of two commercially available
voltage sources. The top unit is a triple-output power supply that can provide three
different voltages relative to ground, adjustable from 0 V to 9 V, 20 V, and 20 V.
The bottom unit is a programmable power supply that provides digitally controlled
voltage sources.
As shown in Figure 2.20, a “real” current source can be modeled as an ideal
current source in parallel with a resistance called the output impedance. When a load

triple-output
power supply

programmable
power supply

Figure 2.19 Example of commercially available voltage sources.

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32 C H A P T E R 2 Electric Circuits and Components

I out

Is Rout
ideal current output
source impedance

Figure 2.20 Real current source with output impedance.

is attached to the source, the source current Is divides between the output impedance
and the load. The output impedance of most commercially available current sources
is very large, minimizing the current division effect. However, this impedance can be
important when driving a circuit with a large resistance.
As shown in Figure 2.21, a “real” ammeter can be modeled as an ideal amme-
ter in series with a resistance called the input impedance of the device. The input
impedance of most commercially available ammeters is very small, minimizing
the voltage drop VR added in the circuit. However, this resistance can be important
when making a current measurement through a circuit branch with small resistance
because the output impedance adds to the resistance of the branch.
As shown in Figure 2.22, a “real” voltmeter can be modeled as an ideal volt-
meter in parallel with an input impedance. The input impedance of most commer-
cially available voltmeters (e.g., an oscilloscope or multimeter) is very large, usually
on the order of 1 to 10 MΩ. However, this resistance must be considered when mak-
ing a voltage measurement across a circuit branch with large resistance because the

Iin
VR ideal ammeter
+ –
I
Rin
input impedance

Figure 2.21 Real ammeter with input impedance.

+ input
impedance
Vin R in V
ideal
voltmeter
–

Figure 2.22 Real voltmeter with input impedance.

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2.4 Voltage and Current Sources and Meters 33

parallel combination of the meter input impedance and the circuit branch would
result in significant error in the measured value.
Figure 2.23 shows examples of commercially available digital multimeters
(DMMs) that contain, among other things, ammeters and voltmeters. Figure 2.24 Internet Link
shows an example of a commercially available oscilloscope that contains a voltme-
2.6 Instrumen-
ter capable of digitizing, displaying, and recording dynamic measurements. Internet tation online
Link 2.6 provides links to various online resources and vendors that offer an assort- resources and
ment of instrumentation (power supplies, function generators, multimeters, oscillo- vendors
scopes, data acquisition equipment, and more).
Lab Exercise 2 provides experience with the effects of input and output imped-
ance of various instruments. It is important to know how these instrument char-
acteristics can affect voltage and current measurements. Section 2.10.3 has more
information and resources on these topics. Lab Exercise 3 provides a complete over-
view of how to use an oscilloscope. Features and concepts covered include how to Lab Exercise
connect signals, grounding, coupling, and triggering. Video Demo 2.8 demonstrates Lab 2 Instrument
how to use a typical analog oscilloscope. Many of the concepts involved with using familiarization and
an analog scope are also relevant with other scopes, even more sophisticated digital basic electrical
scopes. More information and resources dealing with how to use an oscilloscope relations
properly can be found in Section 2.10.5. Lab 3 The
oscilloscope

Video Demo

2.8  Oscilloscope
demonstrations
using the Tektronix
2215 analog
Figure 2.23 Examples of commercially available digital multimeters. (Courtesy of scope
Hewlett Packard, Santa Clara, CA)

Figure 2.24 Example of a commercially available oscilloscope. (Courtesy of Hewlett

Packard, Santa Clara, CA)

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34 C H A P T E R 2 Electric Circuits and Components

EXAMPL E 2.5 Input and Output Impedance

This example illustrates the effects of source and meter output and input impedance on mak-
ing measurements in a circuit. Consider the following circuit with voltage source Vs and
voltage meter Vm.

+
Vs R1 R2 Vm

The equivalent resistance for this circuit is

R1 R2
R eq = -----------------
R1 + R2

If the source and meter were both ideal, the measured voltage Vm would be equal to Vs, and
the equivalent circuit would look like this:

+
Vs R eq Vm

However, if the source has output impedance Zout and the meter has input impedance Zin, the
“real” circuit actually looks like this:

Z out

Req Z in Vm
+
Vs
real
voltage real
source voltmeter

The parallel combination of Req and Zin yields the following circuit (a). Zout and the parallel
combination of Req and Zin are now effectively in series because no current flows into the
ideal meter Vm. Thus, the total equivalent resistance shown in circuit (b) is

R eq Z in
R′eq = -------------------
- + Z out
R eq + Z in

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2.5 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits 35

Z out

Req Zin Vm ’
Req Vm
+ +
(Req + Zin )
Vs Vs

(a) (b)

Note that R'eq defined in the previous equation approaches Req as Zin approaches infinity and
as Zout approaches 0. From voltage division in circuit (a), the voltage measured by the actual
meter would be

R eq Z in
------------------------
-
( R eq + Z in ) R′eq – Z out
Vm = ---------------------------------------- Vs = ------------------------
- Vs
R eq Z in R′eq
------------------------- + Z out
( R eq + Z in )

The measured voltage Vm equals Vs for Zin 

and Zout  0, but with a real source and real
meter, the measured voltage could differ appreciably from the expected ideal result. For
example, if R1  R2  1 kΩ,

1⋅1
R eq = ------------ kΩ = 0.5 kΩ
1+1
and if Zin  1 MΩ and Zout  50 Ω,

0.5 ⋅ 1000
R′eq = ------------------------- + 0.05 kΩ = 0.550 kΩ
0.5 + 1000

Therefore, if Vs  10 V,

V m = ⎛ ------------------------------⎞ 10 V = 9.09 V
0.550 – 0.05
⎝ 0.550 ⎠

This differs substantially from the result that would be expected (10 V) with an ideal source
and meter.

2.5 THEVENIN AND NORTON

EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
Sometimes, to simplify the analysis of more complex circuits, we wish to replace
voltage sources and resistor networks with an equivalent voltage source and series
resistor. This is called a Thevenin equivalent of the circuit. Thevenin’s theorem
states that, given a pair of terminals in a linear network, the network may be replaced
by an ideal voltage source VOC in series with a resistance RTH. VOC is equal to the
open circuit voltage across the terminals, and RTH is the equivalent resistance across

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36 C H A P T E R 2 Electric Circuits and Components

the terminals when independent voltage sources are shorted and independent current
sources are replaced with open circuits.
We will illustrate Thevenin’s theorem with the circuit shown in Figure 2.25.
The part of the circuit in the dashed box will be replaced by its Thevenin equivalent.
The open circuit voltage VOC is found by disconnecting the rest of the circuit and
determining the voltage across the terminals of the remaining open circuit. For this
example, the voltage divider rule gives
R2
V OC = ----------------- V (2.39)
R1 + R2 s
To find RTH, the supply Vs is shorted (i.e., Vs  0), grounding the left end of R1. If
there were current sources in the circuit, they would be replaced with open circuits.
Because R1 and R2 are in parallel relative to the open terminals, the equivalent resis-
tance is
R1 R2
R TH = ----------------- (2.40)
R1 + R2
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 2.26.
Another equivalent circuit representation is the Norton equivalent, shown in
Figure 2.27. Here the linear network is replaced by an ideal current source ISC and
the Thevenin resistance RTH in parallel with this source. ISC is found by calculating

R1

+ remaining
portion of circuit R2
Vs circuit
to be replaced with
network
Thevenin equivalent

Figure 2.25 Example illustrating Thevenin’s theorem.

R TH
+ remaining
VOC circuit
network

Figure 2.26 Thevenin equivalent circuit.

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