Chapter two: PN-junction (diode).

PN-junction construction
When a piece of semiconductor is doped as P-type from one side and as an
N-type from the other side, a PN – junction is formed. The PN- junction can
be looked at as if two pieces of semiconductor, one is N-type and the other
p-type, are joined together (as shown below).

Since the N-type region has a high free electron concentration and the P-
type a high hole concentration, electrons diffuse from the N-type side to
the P-type side. Similarly, holes flow by diffusion from the P-type side to
the N-type side.
As free electrons move from the N-type side to the P-type side, the
number of free electrons in the N-type side will be reduced so positive ions
are formed. Likewise, as free electrons go into the P-type side the number
of electrons increases creating negative ions. So the movement of
electrons and holes across the junction will create positive ions on the N-
type side and negative ions on the P-type side, on both side of the junction.
This will set up an electric field (which is due to the attraction force
between the positive and the negative ions) that opposes the transition of
the majority charge carriers across the junction. The direction of this
electric field is from the negative to the positive which is opposite to that
of the diffusion current for each type of carrier. As the diffusion increases
the number of the ions increases so does the strength of the electric field
due to the formation of the ions. Equilibrium is reached (the diffusion is
stopped) when the electric field is large enough to prevent further
diffusion.

Therefore, at equilibrium, a region of no majority charge carriers appears

on both sides of the junction. It is called the depletion region ‫(الطبقة‬
)‫المستنزفة‬, for it is depleted from the majority charge carriers. Across this
region the effect of the electric field appears, named the potential barrier
(its value is 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge) which can be represented as a
battery across the depletion region.

Diode Biasing
Biasing is applying an external voltage source across a PN- junction. This
can be done in two ways: 1-Forward biasing
2-reverse biasing
Forward biasing:
This is done when the P-type side of the diode is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery (the external voltage source) and the N-type side is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery (as shown in figure 2.3).

From the figure, it can be seen that the polarity of the battery is opposite
to the polarity of the potential barrier.
The potential barrier is designated by (ɸ) and the battery voltage is
designated by (V).
So the net voltage applied to the diode is V-ɸ
Start with small value of V, smaller than ɸ , the effect of the potential
barrier still exists and no current passes through the diode .Current starts
to flow when V is greater or equal to ɸ. This means that the applied
voltage overcomes the potential barrier, and current starts to flow. The
free electrons in the N-region will be attracted towards the positive
terminal of the battery crossing the junction into the P-region to the
battery. At the same time, holes in the P-region are attracted towards the
negative terminal of the battery. On crossing the junction, the holes and
electrons neutralizes the negative ions and the positive ions, respectively.
This cancels the potential barrier also reduces the width of the depletion
region.
The current versus voltage can be plotted as shown below:

For voltages less than the knee voltage there is no current (or very small)
across the diode. The application of a forward biasing voltage on the
junction diode results in the depletion layer becoming very thin and
narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction,
thereby allowing high currents to flow. This is what is called the KNEE point
of the curve (Knee voltage is the barrier potential). Continue to increase
the forward-bias voltage, the current continues to increase very rapidly.

When V ˂ ɸ no current
V≥ɸ current increases as the voltage increases
But, voltage cannot be increased indefinitely. Remember that the current
passing through the diode will heat the diode and this will break the
covalent bonds and generate electron-hole pairs. If this continues, the
crystal structure of the semiconductor will breakdown and this will destroy
the diode. This means that there is a maximum forward voltage that can be
applied across the diode, exceeding this value will destroy the diode.

Reverse biasing:
This is done when the P-type side of the diode is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery (the external voltage source) and the N-type side is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery (as shown in figure 2.5).

As it can be seen in the figure, the polarity of the battery is the same as the
polarity of the potential barrier, this means that the voltage of the battery
enforces the potential barrier. The positive voltage applied to the N-type
side attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and away from the
junction, while the holes in the P-type side are also attracted away from
the junction towards the negative electrode. The depletion region will
grow wider presenting a high resistance path so no current passes through
the diode. However, a very small reverse leakage current does flow
through the junction which can normally be measured in micro-amperes,
(μA) (figure (2.6).

If the reverse bias voltage applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently

high enough value, it will cause the PN junction to overheat and
breakdown occurs and thus the diode is destroyed. This results in the flow
of maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step downward slope in
the reverse static characteristics curve. This voltage must not be reached.
Figure (2.7) shows the IV characteristic curve of a diode.

The diode has:

 When forward biased: very low resistance, no depletion region,
current passes through the diode.
 When reverse biased: very high resistance, broad depletion region,
no current.

As it can be seen from Figure (2.4) the relation between current and
voltage is not linear which means that the diode does not obey Ohms law
(where the relation between voltage and current is linear). So the diode is
a non-linear element. the resistance is not constant during the operation of
the PN junction.
The symbol of a diode is shown in Figure (2.7), it is in a shape of an arrow
which shows the direction of the positive charges current (the
conventional current). The N-type end of the diode is named “cathode”
since it is the source of electrons, and the other end is the “anode” (the p
type end).

A diode conducts current in one direction only and that is when it is

forward biased (its resistance is very small), but there is no current when it
is reversed biased (it has very high resistance).
We can talk about ideal diode and real diode (see the figures below):

The real diode: can be represented by a battery (signifying the potential

barrier) and a resistance. when it is forward biased the voltage drop across
it is either 0.7V for Si or o.3V for Ge, and the resistance is very small. The
resistance is very large when the diode is reversed biased.

The ideal diode: we can make this easier by ignoring the voltage drop and
the resistance. So the ideal diode has no voltage drop across it, it has zero
resistance when it is forward biased and ꝏ resistance when it is reversed
biased. Now, we can consider the diode as a switch which is closed when it
is forward biased and so current can pass through it and it is a closed
switch when the diode is reversed biased (its resistance is ꝏ).
Example-1: Find the current in the given circuit if the barrier potential is
0.7Vand the resistance of the diode is 30Ω.

First we must check if the diode is

forward biased or reverse biased.
Since the anode is connected to
the (+) end of the battery, and the
cathode to the (-) end of the
battery, hence the diode is
forward biased.

V=IR
10 – 0.7 = I X (20000 +30)
I=0.464 mA This is the case of a real diode

If we assume that the diode is ideal. Then ɸ=0 and R of the diode = 0.
V=IR
10=I X 20KΩ
I=0.5mA
Example-2: Show the biasing on each diode in the given circuits.
The cathode of D1 is connected to the (+) end of
the battery and its anode is connected to the (-)
end of the battery. So the diode D1 is reversed
biased (it is an open switch).

The cathode of D2 is connected to the (-) end of

the battery and its anode is connected to the (+)
end of the battery. So the diode D2 is forward
biased (it is a closed switch).

The circuit becomes as shown.

Zener diode
A Zener diode consists of a special, heavily doped PN-junction, that is
designed to conduct in the reverse direction when a certain specified
voltage(Zener breakdown voltage) is reached, without getting damaged.

Zener diode permits current to flow in either a forward or reverse

direction. It operates just like the normal diode when in the forward-bias
mode, and has a turn-on voltage of between 0.3 and 0.7 V. However, when
connected in the reverse mode, which is usual in most of its applications, a
small leakage current may flow. As the reverse voltage increases to the
predetermined breakdown voltage (Vz), a current starts flowing through
the diode. The current increases to a maximum, which is determined by
the series resistor, after which it stabilizes and remains constant over a
wide range of applied voltage. Additionally, the voltage drop across the
diode remains constant over a wide range of voltages, a feature that makes
Zener diodes suitable for use in voltage regulation

The schematic symbol for a Zener diode is shown above

The Zener diode conducts in the reverse direction, if the voltage applied is
reversed and larger than the Zener breakdown voltage.
AC and DC voltage

The DC voltage have a constant magnitude and flows in one direction i.e.
have the same polarity either negative or positive. While the AC voltage
have variable magnitude and direction. As seen in the figure above.
The dc voltage is described fully by stating its magnitude and polarity.
the AC voltage is described fully by stating it magnitude (Vp, Vpp, or Vrms)
frequency and wave shape (sine, sawtooth, rectangular, square).