EXPERIMENT 1 Determination of Average Sand Grain Fineness

Aim: To find the distribution of sand grains using a set of sieves and find
the average GFN. Apparatus used: - Beam balance, stop watch, sieve set,
vibrator or sieve shaker and wire brush.

Theory: The grain fineness number of the sand is approximately 2.54 times
the number of meshes per centimeter of that sieve which would allow to
pass the sample if its grains were of a uniform size, i.e., the average of the
sizes of the grain in the sample. It is approximately proportional to the
surface area per unit weight of sand, exclusive of clay. The grain fineness
number test determines the grain sizes grain distribution and grain
fineness. This number is a convenient means of describing the relative
fineness of sands, most foundry sands being from about 40 to 220 in
average fineness. The most sand properties, however, depend on the size
distribution as well as average size. The fineness test makes it possible to
evaluate both the factors.

Procedure:

1. Take 50 gms or 100 gms of dry sand and place in the top sieve of a series
of sieves and close the lid.

2. Place the whole assembly of sieves on the vibratory sieve shaker and
clamp it.

3. Switch on the motor and allow the sieve assembly to vibrate for 15 min.
Then switch of the motor.

4. Collect the sand particles retained in each of sieves separately and weigh
in beam balance and enter into the tabular column. Calculate the
percentage weight retained by each of sieves. Multiply this value with the
multiplier for each sieve. Then calculate the average GFN using formula.

Diagram:
Tabular Column:

Specimen Calculations:

Average Grain Fineness Number (GFN) = Q/P

where P = ∑ C =

Q = ∑ (D x C) =

Graphs to be drawn:

1. Percentage of Sand Retained Vs Sieve Number

2. Cumulative Percentage of Sand Retained Vs Sieve Number

Result:
EXPERIMENT 2 Determination of Permeability of Green Sand

Aim: To find the effect of water content, clay content and degree of ramming on
green permeability.

Apparatus Used: - Standard Permeability Meter, Stop Watch, Standard

Specimen, Beam Balance, Sand Rammer, Weighing Pan, Steel Rule, Measuring
Jar, Specimen Tube, Stripper, Specimen Tube Cup.

Theory: Permeability is defined as that physical property of the moulding sand

mixture, which allows gas to pass through it freely. Permeability depends on the
grain size, grain shape, grain distribution, binder and its content, degree of
ramming and water content of moulding sand. It is one of the most important
properties affecting the characteristics of moulds and thereby quality of castings
produced. Permeability number is defined as the volume of air in cc that will
pass per minute under a pressure of 1gm per sq cm through a specimen which
is 1 sq cm in cross sectional area and 1 cm deep.

The sand used for casting must be porous enough, so as to allow the
gaseous material, water and steam vapors to escape freely when the molten
metal is poured into the mould. Insufficient porosity of moulding sand leads to
casting defects such as gas holes and pores. The moulder has some control over
permeability; hard ramming lowers the permeability, but this is relieved by
liberal venting.

Experimental Procedure:

1. Conduct the experiment in two parts. In the first case vary water percentage
keeping clay percentage constant. In the second case vary clay content
percentage and keep water percentage constant.

2. Take weighed proportions of sand and clay and dry mix them together in a
muller for three minutes. Then add water and wet mix for another two minutes.
A uniform sand mixture is obtained. Prepare the specimen by ramming.

3. Place the standard specimen along with the tube in the inverted position on
the rubber seal or on the mercury cup of permeability meter.

4. Operate valve and start the stopwatch simultaneously. When the zero mark
on the inverted jar just touches the top of water tank, of the permeability
apparatus, note down the manometer reading.
5. Note down the time required to pass 2000cc of air through the specimen.
Calculate permeability number by using formula.

Diagram:

Tabular Column:

Specimen Calculation:
Permeability Number = VH / PAT

where:

V = Volume of air passed through specimen = 2000 c.c.

H = Height of the specimen = 5.08 cm

P = Pressure reading from monometer in g/cm2

A = Area of the specimen i.e., π d2 /4 d = Dia., of the specimen in mm = 5.08

mm

T = Time in minutes for 2000 c.c. of air pass through the sand specimen

Graphs to be drawn:

1. Graph drawn Permeability Number Vs Percent of Moisture

2. Graph drawn Permeability Number Vs Percent of Clay

Result:
EXPERIMENT 3 Estimation of Active Clay content in Sand

Aim: To determine the clay percentage in the given Foundry Sand.

Apparatus Used: Clay washer, Syphon, Balance, Rapid direr, Base sand, 5%
NaOH solution and water.

Theory: Clay is responsible for bonding sand particles together. Clay

influences strength, permeability and other molding sand properties. The
A.F.S. clay in a moulding sand is defined as “particles which fail to settle at a
rate of 25 mm per minute when suspended in water. These are usually less
than 20 microns, in diameter”. Clay is responsible for binding sand particles
together and also influence strength, permeability and other moulding sand
properties.

Experimental Procedure:

1. Take 50 Gms of base sand in wash bottle and add 475 ml of distilled water
and 25 ml of NaOH solution to it.

2. Using mechanical stirrer, stir the mixture for about 3 min. Add distilled
water to make up the level to 6 inches height. Stir the mixture again for 2 min.
Now allow the mixture of the bottle to settle down.

3. Siphon out 5 inches level of uncleaned water using a standard siphon.

4. Add distilled water again up to 6 inches height and stir the contents again.
Allow the mixture to settle down for 5 min.

5. Siphon out 5 inches level of water from the bottom of the bottle. Repeat the
above procedure for 3-4 times till the water becomes clear in the wash bottle.

Transfer the wet sand from the bottle into a tray and dry it in an oven at 110°C
to remove the moisture. Note down the dry sand weight accurately. Using
calculation find the percentage of clay.

Diagram:
Tabular Column:

Specimen Calculations:

W1 = Weight of the dry sand sample

W2 = Weight of the dry sand sample after, removal of clay

Percentage of clay = (W1 – W2

Result:
EXPERIMENT 4

DETERMINATION OF DRY COMPRESSION STRENGTH

AIM-

To determine the dry compression strength of the cast sand

BOND STRENGTH-

Strength or bond strength is the property of sand whereby it offers resistance

to deformation and enables the sand to hold together under pressure. Green
strength is referred to as the strength of moist or tempered sand whereas dry
strength is the strength of sand dried at 110degC. The green strength of sand
is usually lower than its dry strength. Bond in moulding sand is due to the
presence of binders such as clay, core gum, molasses, linseed oil etc.

UNIVERSAL SAND STRENGTH TESTING MACHINE-

The universal sand strength testing machine consists of three major parts-
frame, pendulum weight and pusher arm. The pusher arm is motivated by
means of a small handwheel, which through a gearbox rotates a pinion
engaged in a ra ck on the quadrant. The pendulum weight swings on a ball
bearing and can be moved by the pusher arm, via test specimen, from a
vertical position, with a consequent increase of load on the test specimen. A
magnetic bar is moved up the calibrated scale by the pendulum weight and
indicates the point at which the specimen collapses. The machine can be
calibrated at g/cm^3

PROCEDURE-

1. Place the compression heads on the top position of the machine. This
position increases the load applied by a factor of 5.
2. Prepare A.F.S standard 50mmX50mm test specimen in the usual way
and dry in an oven at 110degC for few hours.
3. When cool, place in position between test heads and adjust clearance
between rubber bumper and the lug on weight arm to approximately
13mm using adjusting screws in pusher arm.
4. Apply the load as for “dry compression” until the specimen collapses.
5. Read the scale designated “Dry Compression Strength” according to the
test heads being used.
 6. Return the weight to zero by reversing the rotation of the hand wheel.
Remove the sand from compression heads.

RESULT-

The dry compression strength is-

EXP 5: DETERMINATION OF GREEN COMPRESSION AND
SHEAR STRENGTH.

Aim:

To determine the green compressive and shear strength of the given mould
sand composition.

Apparatus:

Universal Sand Strength Testing Machine, Compression heads, Shear head,

Sand Ramming machine (Rammer) with specimen tube with base, stripper.

PROCEDURE:

Adjust the weight of the foundry sand to get standard specimen.

Transfer the sand mixture into the tube and ram it with the help of a sand
rammer thrice.

Remove the standard specimen by the stripper and place it between

compression design based shackles which are fixed in the sand testing
machine for determining Green compression strength.

Repeat the first two steps and remove the standard specimen by the stripper
and place it between shear design based shackles which are fixed in the sand
testing machine for determining shear strength.

Rotate the handle of the testing machine to actuate the ram. Thus, mechanical
pressure is applied continuously till the specimen raptures.

Read the compression strength from the gauge and record the same.
Observation

The green compression strength of mould sand :

The Shear strength of mould sand :

Results:

The green compression strength and shear strength of given mould sand
composition is noted.
EXPERIMENT 6 LOSS OF IGNITION TEST FOR SAND
MOULD

Aim:

To determine the moisture content in the given sand by loss of ignition test.

Materials Required:

Green sand ,Moisture content analyzer, Precision weight balance machine

Procedure-

1. Initially 50gms of system sand is measured.

2. The scale is adjusted to coincide with metal plates and fixed red point in
moisture content analyzer.
3. The scale is taken to the end and the system sand is cooled that is comes
back to the red pointer level.
4. Then the fewer supply is increased by scroll lift so intensity of heat
increases and the set up is heated to hundred degrees and then allow it
to cool.
5. After this the pointer scale is adjusted to coincide with the red pointer.
6. This gives a value of moisture content directly.
7. To verify it, weigh the final weight of the sample, substitute it in the loss
of ignition formula and compare the values.
Observation-

Initial weight of the sample: 50gms

Final weight of the sample:

Loss of ignition = (Initial weight – Final weight)*100/Initial weight

Diagram:

Result-

The moisture content of the given sand is determined by the loss of

ignition method and also compared with values from moisture content
analyzer
EXPERIMENT 7

METAL CASTING BY GREEN SAND AND FULL MOULD PROCESS

AIM-

To study and observe various stages of casting through demonstration of Sand

Casting Process.

Background

Casting is one of oldest and one of the most popular processes of converting
materials into final useful shapes. Casting process is primarily used for
shaping metallic materials; although it can be adopted for shaping other
materials such as ceramic, polymeric and glassy materials. In casting, a solid
is melted, treated to proper temperature and then poured into a cavity called
mold, which contains it in proper shape during solidification. Simple or
complex shapes can be made from any metal that can be melted. The resulting
product can have virtually any configuration the designer desires. Casting
product range in size from a fraction of centimetre and fraction of kilogram to
over 10 meters and many tons. Moreover casting has marked advantages in
production of complex shapes, of parts having hollow sections or internal
cavities, of parts that contain irregular curved surfaces and of parts made from
metals which are difficult to machine. Several casting processes have been
developed to suit economic production of cast products with desired
mechanical properties, dimensional accuracy, surface finish etc. The various
processes differ primarily in mold material (whether sand, metal or other
material) and pouring method (gravity, pressure or vacuum). All the processes
share the requirement that the material solidify in a manner that would avoid
potential defects such as shrinkage voids, gas porosity and trapped inclusions.
Any casting process involves three basic steps, i.e. mold making, melting and
pouring of metals into the mold cavity, and removal and finishing of casting
after complete solidification.

SAND CASTING PROCESSES

Sand is one of the cheaper, fairly refractory materials and hence commonly
used for making mold cavities. Sand basically, contains grains of silica (SiO2)
and some impurities.
For mold making purposes sand is mixed with a binder material such as clay,
molasses, oil, resin etc. Green Sand Molding In green sand molding process,
clay (a silicate material) along with water (to activate clay) is used as binder.
The mold making essentially consists of preparing a cavity having the same
shape as the part to be cast.

A pattern is a reusable form having approximately the same shape and size as
the part to be cast. A pattern can be made out of wood, metal or plastic; wood
being the most common material. Green sand refers to an intimate mixture of
sand (usually river sand), bentonite clay (3-7 percent by weight of sand, to
provide bonding or adhesion between sand grains), and water (3-6 percent by
weight of sand, necessary to activate the bonding action of the clay).

Mixing the above ingredients in a sand4 muller best provides the intimate
mixing action. In practice, a major part of this sand mixture consists of ‘return
sand’, i.e. the reusable portion of the sand left after the solidified metal casting
has been removed from the mold. Molding flasks are rectangular frames with
open ends, which serve as containers in which the mold is prepared. Normally
a pair of flasks is used; the upper flask is referred to as ‘Cope’ and the lower
one as ‘drag’. A riddle is a relatively coarse sieve. Riddling the green sand helps
in breaking the lump and aerates the sand.

Sometimes the casting itself must have a hole or cavity in or on it. In that case
the liquid metal must be prevented from filling certain portions of the mold. A
‘core’ is used to blockoff portions of the mold from being filled by the liquid
metal. A core is normally made using sand with a suitable binder like
molasses. Core is prepared by filling the core-box with core sand to get the
desired shape and the baking this sand core in an oven at suitable
temperature. During mold making a suitable ‘gating system’ and a riser’ is also
provided. The gating system is the network of channels used to deliver the
molten metal from outside the mold into the mold cavity. The various
components of the gating system are pouring cup, sprue, runners and gates.
Riser or feeder head is a small cavity attached to the casting cavity and the
liquid metal of the riser serves to compensate the shrinkage in the casting
during solidification.

FULL MOLD CASTING PROCESS-

With full-mold casting, both foam and sand are used to create the mold. The
mold is first made out of foam and then cut into the desired or size and shape
for the intended application. Next, the mold is coated with heat-resistant sand
that binds to its foam surface.
After the mold has been prepared, molten metal is poured into the pattern’s
cavity. With molten metal reaching 2,500 degrees Fahrenheit or hotter, it’s able
to vaporize foam on contact. As the foam vaporizes, it creates a new object in
the same shape and size as the mold pattern. The area in which the foam was
located prior to being vaporized is replaced with metal. Once the molten metal
cools and hardens, the newly created object is removed from the mold pattern.

Full-mold casting is most commonly used to produce automotive components

like exhaust manifolds, cylinder heads and brake rotors. Of course, full-mold
casting can be used for countless other applications. It’s often preferred over
other molding processes because of the unique advantages it offers.

SAND CASTING vs FULL-MOLD CASTING

Full-mold casting isn’t the same as sand casting or lost-foam casting. Rather, it
uses elements from both of these alternative evaporative-pattern casting
processes. With sand casting, the molds are made entirely of sand. With lost-
foam casting, the molds are made entirely of foam. Full-mold casting, on the
other hand, uses a sand-covered foam mold.
Removal and Finishing of Castings

After complete solidification, the castings are removed from the mold. Most
castings require some cleaning and finishing operations, such as removal of
cores, removal of gates and risers, removal of fins and flash, cleaning of
surfaces, etc.
EXPERIMENT 8

ARC STRIKING PRACTICE

AIM-

To prepare a joint with mild steel strip.

EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS-

Welding unit, consumable mild steel wire, mild steel flats (140 x 25 x 5 mm),
protecting gas, Wire Brush, Tongs etc.

PROCEDURE-

1. Clean the mild steel flats to be joined by wire brush

2. Arrange the flat pieces properly providing the gap for full penetration for
butt joint(gap ½ thicknesses of flats).
3. Practice striking of arc, speed and arc length control
4. Set the welding current, voltage according to the type of metal to be
joined.
5. Strike the arc and make tacks at the both ends to hold the metal pieces
together duringthe welding process.
6. Lay beads along the joint maintaining proper speed and arc length
(Speed 100-150 mm/min).
GAS WELDING

In this process, a joint is established by fusing the material near the region of
joint by means of a gas flame. The common gas used is mixture of oxygen and
acetylene which on burning gives a flame temperature of 3300OC. A filler rod is
used to feed molten material in the gap at the joint region and establish a firm
weld. The flame temperature can be controlled by changing the gas
composition i.e. ratio of oxygen to acetylene. The color of flame changes from
oxidizing to neutral to reducing flame.

BRAZING

In this process metal parts to be joined are heated to a temperature below the
melting point of the parts but sufficient to melt the lower fusion point filler
material which is used to fill the gap at the joint and establish a bond between
the edges through the filler material (Fig.3.3). This process can establish a joint
between two dissimilar metals also though a proper choice of filler material.
Unlike in welding the filler rod differs widely in composition from the parent
material(s). Gas (oxy-acetylene mixture) is used for heating.