Integrated Pest

Management
CRP002
Terminologies

• Insect Pests are insects that injure or cause damage to man’s interest. They are organisms or
animals that destroy, compete with humans for food and shelter, transmit diseases, and reduce
availability, quality, and value of human resources. It is restricted to refer only to insects and
mites that cause economic damage to agricultural crops, plant products, and structures.
Pests and Pest Status

Pest Definition:

• Pest- any living species whose activities, enhanced by numbers, causes economic losses to
human possessions, directly threatens human health, or is annoying; A pest is an organism
which harms man or his property.

Kinds of pests

• Various ways to classify: how injury is caused, physiological effect, commodity

• commodity: agronomic, horticultural, medical and veterinary, silvicultural, stored product,

urban (frequently aesthetic)

• injury: root feeders, fruit feeders, leaf feeders, stem feeders, etc.

Pest Status- the rank or standing of a pest relative to the economics of control

• Less than 0.1% of insects are pests. Insects can cause damage directly (by their feeding or
making of shelters) or indirectly by other means.

DIRECT

• Chewing of plants

• e.g. grasshoppers, caterpillars, leaf miners, root chewing beetle larvae, stem borers.

• Piercing and sucking

• Direct removal of plant sap or animal blood

• e.g. aphids, vegetable bugs, mites, bed bugs, lice, ticks

INDIRECT

• Transmitters of disease (vectors) - from plant to plant or animal to animal

• e.g. plant viruses and bacteria transmitted via aphids and leafhoppers, malaria, dengue fever
and heartworm via mosquitoes.

• Disease entering independently through wound site of feeding or egg laying.

 • e.g. bacterial rots of cotton, infected bites on animals.

Spoiling

• e.g. webbing and feces in food products, cockroach feces on goods, sooty mould growing on
honeydew exudates from aphids leading to both spoilage and reduction of photosynthesis by
affected foliage.

Toxic saliva or allergies

• e.g. flea irritation on dogs, mosquitoes and sandflies on humans.

• Insecticides- any substance used to kill insects. However, insecticides also kill or affect other
organisms, man, and animals. The term pesticides include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides,
bactericides, nematicides, mollusicides, and rodenticides.

• Agro ecosystem- is an agricultural area sufficiently large to permit long-term interactions of all
the living organisms in their non-living environment.

• Insect Control- the performance of any practice that prevents further increase in insect pest
population growth or that suppresses or reduces existing insect pest population. To many,
insect control denotes chemical control.

Principles of Insect Control

• reduce insect pest populations

• decelerate their rates of increase

Reduction of Population of Insect Pests

1. Exclusionary measures

- are those applied directly against insect pests to keep out those pests that are already outside the
field, farm, region, or the country.

2. Eradicative measure - are eliminative; they get rid of insect pests already present in an area.
Eradicative measures are frequently taken against pests during interim between growing seasons for
crop plants, but some such measures may continue year round.

The most familiar eradicative pest control measures are soil treatment with heat or chemicals to
control insect pests, weeds and pathogens; chemical treatments to poison insect pests, vermin; dormant
sprays with insecticides and other pesticides; crop rotation with non-susceptible plant species to deny
insects and other pests of their sustenance; genetic insect control method (introduction of sterile males
in an island); and mechanical or chemical destruction of pests.
 3. Therapeutic measures - are those that control insect pests by acting directly against the pests,
but only after the pest-victim relationship has begun. Although therapy acts to reduce the
population of insect pests, therapeutic treatments, unlike exclusionary and eradicative ones, are
made on crop plants.

4. Vertical resistance - is the heritable capacity of the plant species to withstand the onslaught (fierce
attack) of a would-be pest. A vertical resistant crop-plant variety is almost completely resistant to the
predominantly strains or biotypes of insect pest species, and that resistance is usually conferred by a
single gene or a very few genes

Decelerating the Rate at which Insect Pest Population Increase

1. Horizontal resistance- is inherited polygenically, quantitative, or relative. It permits some

infection/infestation (colonization) by insects or pests. It allows pest species only a fraction of
what they need from victimized plants for their most rapid growth and reproduction.

2. Protection or protective measures may mean any effort that controls pests, but here, it is used
to mean those in which growing plants or plant products are so treated that a barrier-either
chemical or physical is placed on or immediately surrounding the plants to prevent pests in the
vicinity from establishing pest-victim relations with them.

3. Avoidance- is a control measure in which people work with the environment to enable their plants to
escape contact with pests exemplifies the principle of avoidance. It is unique principle because the
target of other pest control principles is either the pest or its victim; the target of avoidance is the third
member of the triad, the environment.

Methods of Insect Pest Control

a. Cultural Control- is the use of different cultural practices in the control of insect pests.
Examples are tillage, water management, sanitation, fertilizer management, crop rotation, use
of pest-free propagation materials, and other similar practices.

b. Mechanical and Physical Control- is direct mechanical and physical methods of barring,
avoiding, and killing insect pests. The use of mechanical equipment or materials like screens
and plastic sheets houses, fences and mechanical traps protect high-value or small-area crops
from insect pests.

c. c. Host Plant Resistance- is the control of insect pests by planting resistant plant varieties.
Example is planting of Matatag 3,4,5 and 6 rice varieties which are resistant to green
leafhoppers and consequently to rice tungro virus (RTV).

d. d. Genetic Insect Control Method- is altering the DNA of the pest or crop for insect control.
There are two techniques used under this method. The first is sterile male technique used in fruit
 First- Sterile male technique
second- use of biotechnology (covers the molecular biology [entomology] in agri)

flies. The second is the use of biotechnology (also called as molecular technologies) in the control
of insect pests. It covers the application of molecular biology (entomology) in agriculture,
environment, and health. It emphasizes the improvement of the genetic characteristics of the
cell (of plant, animal, bacterium, or fungus) by exploiting recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and other molecular technologies to develop improved methods and modified organisms
or genetically engineered organisms.

Knipling Method/sterile insect release method(SIRM)

-E. F. Knipling in 1955

-This method involves the mass rearing in huge population of the target insect species, sterilizing the
insects with ionizing radiation/ chemosterilant and then releasing them in large enough in the target
area to reduce the probability of successful matings in the wild population.

- First demonstrated by th eradication of the screw worm from the Carribean Island in Curacao in 1955.

Limitation of SIR

• Geography – the eradication zone must have natural barriers

• Economics – SIR is very costly and one of the major limitations to each wide spread utilization is
that the cost currently outway the benefits.

• Desirability of Sterile Males – the lab reared and sterilize males must be competitive with the
native males mating with a native females.

• Knowledge

• Timing

• Resistance

e. Biological Control- the use of living organism(s) for the control of insect pests.

The following are agents used in biological control:

• e.1. Predators and parasites (parasitoids) like Curinus coeruleus Mulsant (a metallic blue
beetle used against Leucaena psyllids), spiders, toads, and frogs; and Trichogramma spp.,
respectively.

• e.2. Fungi: green muscardine fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae, white muscardine fungus,
Beauvaria basiana against beetles and bugs.

• e.3. Bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis, against diamond back moth larvae.

• e.4. Viruses like nucleic polyhedrosis virus (NPV) against the larvae of armyworms and
cutworms and Baculovirus oryctes against rhinoceros beetles, Oryctes rhinoceros
 • e.5. Nematodes: Romanomermis spp., against flies, gall midges, and leaf miners and
Neoplectana spp., against larvae of Lepidoptera and termites.

• e.6. Protozoa, Nosema locustae, against locusts.

• f. Chemical Control- is the use of insecticides in the control of insect pests.

Examples of insecticides are Karate, Chix, Cymbush, Rador, Magnum, and other related products.
Insecticides act in various ways:

• Stomach poisons are eaten by the pests and absorbed into the body through the digestive tract.

• Contact poisons enter an insect’s body because of contact with treated surfaces such as plant
foliage.

• Fumigants enter the insect’s body through the respiratory system.

• Systemic poisons move through the plant’s vascular system. Insects that feed on the leaves,
stems, fruits, or roots of treated plants absorb them.

• Physical poisons kill insects by suffocating them (e.g., dusts) or by desiccation (e.g., petroleum
oils disrupt cuticle formation).

• Juvenile hormones are substances that regulate insect development and prevent them from
reaching maturity. Synthetic compounds are being developed for use as biochemical control
agents.

• Growth regulators are natural chemical substances in plants and animals that control their
growth and are usually specific in action. These substances may interfere with hatching,
molting, and pupation in insects or with cell division and cell elongation in plants. These
substances are analyzed and synthesized. An example is NOMOLT.

• Pheromones are substances used for communication between individuals of the same species in
the form of natural sex-attractants or sex pheromones, food attractants and repellents (or
deterrents) are synthesized. The use of these substances as a method in pest control is also
called insect behavior-related techniques. An example is Methyl Eugenol as food attractant.

g . Quarantine/Legal Control- is also called as preventive control method. A law is imposed by

disallowing plants, plant products, plant materials, organisms, and other materials to be transported
to another island, province, or country without undergoing strict quarantine and regulatory control
procedures like fumigation, spraying or other suitable control measures to prevent the spread of
pests.

h. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) - is the best mix of pest control tactics for a local pest problem as
measured by the parameters of yield, profits, safety and stability. IPM includes the management of
insects, pathogens, weeds, rats, mollusks, and bird pests. Insect Pest Management (IPM) may be
defined as the practical manipulation of insect or mite pest populations using any compatible “control”
methods in a sound ecological manner.

Integrated Pest Management

• careful consideration of all available pest control, techniques and subsequent integration of
appropriate measures that discourage the development of pest population and keep pesticide
and other interventions to levels that economically justified and reduced/ minimized risk to
human health and environment.

• effective & environmentally sensitive approach to pest management that relies on the
combination of common sense practices.

What IPM is not:

• It is not a biological control program.

• It is not an organic program, though organic materials can certainly be used if they do not cause
economic, environmental, or sociological problems.

• It is not a pesticide-free program, because the chemical control tactics may be warranted.

• It is not the least/most expensive method of pest mgt. usually, the cost of pest control remains
close to original cost.

Important concept of IPM

• No single pest control method is always used.

• Monitoring of the pest is constantly needed to evaluate the status of a pest population.

Basic Components of IPM Strategy

1. Prevention – limits/prevents initial outbreaks of pests.

A. Location – growing crop in proper locations where they are suited to climate, soil, and topography.

B. Crop rotation – growing crops in rotation helps reduce the build-up of certain pest especially those in
the soil as well as weeds.

C. Cropping pattern – avoid planting of similar host crops along side with each other.

D. Crop variety selection- planting of disease and pest resistant varieties.

e. Crop husbandry and hygiene – mechanical, physical, and cultural crop protection are important in
promoting good crop development & in preventing pest infestation.
f. Irrigation – supply of water to the crop is essential in increasing and maintaining plant health and can
greatly influence pest incidence and impact.

g. Natural habitat management and biodiversity conservation

- Protection of natural habitats w/n the farm environment is recognize as a means of

conserving biodiversity including many of natural enemies of pest.

h. Intercropping

i.Harvesting and storage

j. Tillage

k. Plant nutrition

2. Observation – monitoring

a. Crop monitoring

b. Decision support system

c. Area wide management

3. Intervention

a. Cultural control

b. Physical & Mechanical Control

c. Biological control

d. Chemical control

Objectives of IPM:

• To maximize net profit with least input cost;

• To preserve the environment;

• To avoid poisoning due to careless use of pesticides; and

• To attain fewer insect pest outbreaks.

Why IPM?

The concept of IPM came up because total reliance to insecticides or pesticides lead to the following
undesirable side effects:

• Development of insect pest resistance to insecticides or pesticides;

 • Pest resurgence. It is an increase in population of major or key pests due to their ability to
adopt/utilize/degrade the insecticides that have been continuously and indiscriminately used for
sometime.

• Occurrence of pest outbreaks. It is an increase in population of minor pests due to the

destruction of natural enemies by continuous use of insecticides.

• Biomagnification of pesticidal residue through the food chain or food web. It means an
increase in insecticide residue in food or crop produce or animals at higher level along the chain
or web.

• Rising cost of insecticides. It is an increase in the price of insecticides due to further

development of new insecticides, which require longer processes since previously developed
insecticides are not effective anymore against pests. Monetary devaluation also added to this
problem of costly insecticides.

• Human health effects. Insecticides are biocides hence; these are hazardous or poisonous to
human beings, animals, and wildlife.

To minimize such problems, farmers must diversify their pest control practices. The government
through Presidential Pronouncement of IPM as the crop protection policy of Philippine agriculture in mid
1986 supports this strategy.

• The Basic Elements of IPM:

• Natural control- the maintenance of population number (or biomass) with certain upper
and lower limits by the action of the whole environment (biotic and abiotic factors). It is
otherwise known as equilibrium position or balance of nature. It is defined also as the
average population density of pest over a long period.

• Sampling or monitoring- quantitative measure of pest density or amount of insect pest

damage.

• Control action threshold (CAT)- is the insect density at which control measures should
be applied to prevent and increasing pest population from reaching the economic injury
level or economic damage. It is also called as economic threshold level (ETL). Economic
damage is the amount of injury (or damage) equal to the cost of control.

• Using ETL is the soundest way of determining whether or not to treat or apply control
measures against the insect pests.
d. Insect pest biology-ecology is the life history of a pest and its relationship to the environment.

The Important Principles Behind the IPM Concept:

• Allow pest population to exist below ETL. Eradication of insect pests is not the goal of IPM but
maintaining pest population below ETL.

• Understand that an ecosystem is a management unit. An ecosystem has components and each
component has an important role to play.

• Maximize the use of non-chemical methods of pest control. These methods of control reduce
pollution and other undesirable side effects of insecticides.

• That any control tactic may produce undesirable or unexpected effects. The desirable, as well
as, undesirable effects of any control strategy should be analyzed before recommendation.

• Promote an interdisciplinary approach for developing an IPM programme. Holistic team

approach is important for a successful IPM programme implementation.

Constraints in IPM implementation:

• Unacceptable monitoring procedures.

• Risk averseness of farmers. This is due to hang over of insecticide application.

• Inability of the farmers to perceive the non-monetary advantage of IPM.

• Consumer demand for insect damage free produce.

• Gender issue. Farming is a family enterprise. Hence, technology extension should be focused
not only to the male farmers but also to his wife and children as our target clients in extension.
Pattern of Crop Production

Pest management – is the reduction of pest problems by actions selected after the life systems
of the pest are understood and the ecologic as well as economic consequences have been predicted as
accurately as possible to the best interest of man kind (Rabb and Guthrie, 1980).

PHASES IN CROP PROTECTION

1. Subsistence phase - characterized by the absence of irrigation system, use of traditional varieties,
rare if not zero application of pesticides and farmers usually depend on luck.

Characteristics of Traditional Varieties - late maturing, highly seasonal, wider distance of

planting, non-responsive to fertilization, low yielding

2. Exploitation phase - characterized by the construction and or establishment of

irrigation systems, use of modern varieties of crops and rampant application of pesticides.

Characteristics of Modern Varieties - early maturing., non-seasonal, closer distance of

planting, highly responsive to fertilization, high yielding

3. Crisis phase – characterized by the high cost of farm inputs such as fertilizers and , pesticides,
unleashed population of secondary pests, development of insect resistance and resurgence, and
creation of biotypes.

4. Disaster phase – characterized by high cases of human ailments, high environmental pollution, high
residual toxicity and underground water contamination.

Banned Pesticides - Endosulfan , Methyl parathion, Azinphos ethyl, Monocrotophos , Aquatin

and Brestan (Molluscicide)

5.Ecological agriculture – characterized by the use of host plant resistance and judicious application of
pesticides.

Categories of Pests

1. Major/Primary pest – oftentimes pest population tend to go beyond threshold

level which significantly affects yield

Economic threshold level (ETL) – level of pest population wherein control measure is

initiated to prevent it from reaching to injury level.

2. Minor/Secondary pest – oftentimes pest population are below threshold level and do

not affect yield.

3. Occasional pest – considered as minor pest but due to favorable whether condition its
 population fluctuates which significantly affects yield.

Pest Groups- Insects, Weeds, Pathogens, Vertebrates

How Can We Deal With Pests?

- More history prior to pesticides, little ability to handle pest problems e.g., Irish potato famine

- problems with pesticides

- over use - resistance (500+ species of insects)

- environmental contamination and non-target effects

Focus on tactics

- developing new ways to kill insects (mostly pesticides)

- key alternatives were biological control and host plant resistance

Development of Integrated Pest Management

- Late 1950's seeking accommodations between insecticide use and biological control

- Stern et. al 1959, Geier and Clark 1961; note both contributions predate Silent Spring

- Developed concepts of pest status, general equilibrium position, economic damage, and
economic injury levels and thresholds

- Theoretical issue: integrated control and management

- integrated control - using different tactics together in a harmonious fashion

- management - altering the ecology of a pest population to reduce its pest status

Causes of insect outbreaks

1. Large- scale culture of a single crop or stock animals by man.

2. Introduction of a pest into favorable new areas without its natural enemies.

3. Favorable weather condition for rapid development for pest but unfavorable to natural enemies.

4. Use of insecticides which kill the natural enemies of pests.

5. Use of poor cultural practices which encourage build-up of pest infestations.

6. Destruction of natural biotic communities which otherwise provide regulation of insect population
levels.
Different Pest Management Interventions

A. Cultural Control – purposeful manipulation of the area to make it less favorable thereby exerting
economic control of the pest or at least reducing their rates of increase and damage.

- Primary Cultural Method – design primarily to regulate pest population but

secondarily from crop culture.

- Secondary Cultural Method – design primarily for crop culture but secondarily

regulate pest population.

I. Sanitation – plain removal of the breeding and hibernating places of the pest

population.

A. Crop Refuse Utilization/Destruction

- Destruction of insect infested/disease infected plant parts

- Drop fruits utilization

- Grazing of livestock right after harvest

- Destruction of abandoned orchard

B. Clean field borders

C. Proper disposal of wastes

D. Proper storage facilities

II. Tillage and Cultivation

- Tillage – loosening the area before the crop is planted

- Cultivation – loosening the area after the crop is planted.

Off-barring – an inter row cultivation wherein the soil clods are thrown away from the

base of the plants.

Hilling-up – an inter row cultivation wherein the soil clods are thrown into the rows of

plants.

III. Crop rotation - planting of a crop from one plant family and is followed by a crop
of different family which is not the host of the insects to be

controlled.

IV. Other Practices

- Thinning – removal of excess seedlings after a certain period of planting to

maintain standard density and in relation to pest control and regulation.

- Detopping – refers to the cutting or removal of the flower buds of tobacco to

prevent pest infestation and in order to plow back the nutrients to the

leaves.

- Trap crop – is a small planting using susceptible variety usually done ahead of

the main crop or During a cropping season in order to divert the

attention of the pest from attacking the main crop.

B. Physical Control – involves the use of mass such as netting of seedbed or use of

electromagnetic energy such as light trap in order to arrest

nocturnal flying insects.

C. Mechanical Control – involves the use of motion and force such as beating,

dragging and crushing of insects by the use of hands, tools, and

machines to control or regulate pest population.

D. Host Plant Resistance – is the first line of defense by the farmers against pest

population.

* Horizontal resistance – moderate type of resistance.

Resistant to two or more pest species.

* Vertical resistance – specific or highly resistant to a limited pest species

*Pseudo resistance – an apparent resistant which is the result of a transitory

characters found in a potentially susceptible host plants.

Types of Pseudoresistance
 - Escape form – very low if not total absence of pest population in a cropping

seasons.

- Host evasion – high pest population but does not coincide with the critical or

vulnerable stage of the crop.

- Induced resistance – attributed by the application of fertilizers and other soil

amendments.

*True resistance – beneficial traits are inherited or transferred to the offspring

from generation to generation.

3 Mechanisms of Resistance

1. tolerance – host plant can survive heavy infestations without significant yield loss.

- ability of plant to survive high pest infestation that would normally

severely injure or kill other pests. Pest’s numbers on tolerant varieties are equal to those

on susceptible varieties.

2. non- preference – insects don’t feed upon, ovipositor in or use a RV for shelter and caused by
modification in the substances that attract the pests, lack or modified substances caused by the
pests as a feeding stimulants repellent. It is defined to be when the plants seem to be “ignored” by the
pest. antixenosis

3. antibiosis- insects don’t grow, survive or reproduced well on the host plant; the ability to induce
detrimental effects on the pest and thereby reduce damage by insects. Effects include death, lowering
fecundity, survival rate, affect diapause’s, decreases size.

2 General groups of R Vars. On the basis of their reactions to biotypes/races

1. Horizontal R- general resistance usually controlled by many genes.

* This group of varieties with HR has low or moderate level of R to all or many
Biotypes/races of given species.

2. Vertical R- specific resistance usually controlled by one gene or a small number of genes.

* Varieties with VR are usually highly resistant to one or several biotypes/races but maybe
susceptible to others.
E. Biological Control

Present type of biocontrol fall into several categories:

1. use of insect parasitoids or predators.

Parasitoid- insect parasitizing another insect.

2. use of pathogenic organisms.

3. genetic control.

* Parasites and predators are called beneficial as they help control insect pests.

* They’ll not always prevent damaging buildups of insect pests, but they reduce the severity of damage
and the frequency of outbreaks.

* Some insect pests are more effectively controlled by beneficial than are others.

Characteristics of parasites

1. Parasites attack only one host species or a few closely related species.

2. Only the larvae are parasites.

Each parasite usually feeds on only a single host and gradually destroys it.

3. adults are free living.

- feeding on nectar, honeydew.

Characteristics of predators

1. feed on different species of insects.

2. may attack a number of insect prey.

3. kill their prey quickly.

4. both the immature and adult stages attack prey.

5. develop separately from their prey but live in the same areas.

Advantages of Biocon

1. Biocon agents often are very selective.

2. insect resistance is less evident than in the case of pesticides.

3. ecosystem is less affected.

 4. parasites and predators are less dangerous.

Disadvantages of Biocon

1. difficulty in achieving the requirements for effectiveness.

2. difficulty in meeting government regulations for viruses, fungi and bacteria since these
organisms must meet standards set under the pesticide laws for labeling and use.

3. viral and bacterial pathogens must be normally ingested by the target insect.

4. timing of spraying pathogens is often critical.

• Fungi infect susceptible insects not only via the alimentary canal but via the integument.

• Hyphae invade insects tissue, killing the host and complete development as saprophytes by
feeding upon the remaining tissues.

-when hyphae become numerous the cadaver is termed a MUMMY.

• Mass sterilization of males then releasing them to compete for mates with native males is
another potential technique.

• Parasites and predators are called beneficial as they help control insect pests.

-They’ll not always prevent damaging buildups of insect pests, but they reduce the severity
of damage and the frequency of outbreaks

G. Legal control- (restrictions upon people and their manufactured products) often play an important
role into limiting the distribution of potential insect pests and diseases they may carry. Plant
quarantines- excluded about 286 pest species from the US.

Quarantines- prevented serious buildups and the spread of exotic or

introduced pest species.

- Provided regulations to control possible introduction of diseases and insect from foreign countries.

H. Chemical Control – use of chemical pesticides to control or suppress pest population

* Active ingredients (ai) – substance responsible of killing the target organisms.

* Formulation – the form in which pesticides is sold for use.

* Spectrum of activity – the range of organisms controlled by a particular compound

A pesticide is any chemical use to control pests.

Types of pesticides

1. insecticides

2. herbicides/ weedicides

3. rodenticides

4. nematicides

5. acaricides

6. miticides

7. molluscicides

A pesticide consist of toxicant poisonous substance, and one or more inert non poisonous
materials that function to dissolve the poison or act as a carrier, emulsifier, dispersant, or spreader
sticker.

So pesticides must be diluted with water or oil so that it would be less toxic to humans and can
be spread evenly over a large area.

Kinds of Formulation

Liquid Formulation

a. Water solution d. Suspension concentrate

b. Oil solution e. Soluble concentrate

c. Emulsifiable f. Flowables concentrate

2. Solid Formulation

a. Granules e. Tablets

b. Wettable powder f. Micro encapsulation

c. Water dispensable granules g. Dry flowables

d. Pellets h. Cellophane impregnated strips

3. Gas Formulation

a. Smokes

b. Fogs
 c. Aerosols

d. Mists

Dusts- pesticides and finely ground particles such as clay, talc or volcanic ash.

Advantages:

- require no mixing

- can be apply directly to the plants

Disadvantages

- may drift long distance and contaminates areas were human and livestock are present.

Granules- pesticides and dry particles of clay/sand which are larger than those used in
dusts.

Advantages:

- can be applied with simple equipment.

- Require no additional mixing

- Non toxic to applicators

- Don’t drift long distance

Disadvantage:

- can’t be used to treat foliage because it will not stick into it.

liquid formulation or emulsifiable concentrate- pesticides in organic form plus organic solvent (to
dissolve pesticides) plus spreader and stickers (to help pesticides cover and stick to target area better)
plus emulsifier(to help pesticides mix with water).

Advantages:

a. contain high concentration of pesticides, the price of pesticides is low

b. easy to transport or store

c. effective for treating foliage

d. require little agitation in the tank to keep them mixed

Disadvantages:
e. easy to under dose or overdose if not carefully mixed

f. dangerous to human because of their liquid form which allow the pesticides to be absorbed
through the skin.

Wettable powder- like EC except that insecticides is distributed in small, dry, powder like particles.
WP are mixed with water to form suspension.

WC= pesticides in powder + wetting agent form (increases the spreading of

droplets and helps pesticides cover target area better).

Advantages

- cheap

- easy to carry and store

- easily measured and mixed

- not easily absorbed thru the skin

- used effectively to treat foliage

Disadvantage

- toxic to applicator

- require periodic agitation or they’ll settle out in tank

Soluble powders- have the same materials as WP but dissolve in water to form solution.

Advantages:

-same as WP

-need not be agitated as they’ll not settle out.

Disadvantage:

- toxic to application

Toxicity- means how poisonous.

2 kinds of toxicity

1. acute toxicity- poisonous effect after a single exposure

- can be measured in terms of oral, dermal and inhalation toxicity

- Oral and dermal toxicity are measured in LD50 amts. Ranging from 0 up.
 LD- means lethal dose (deadly amount) requires killing 50% of test animal
in a given time.

- usually measured in mg. of insecticides/kg. body weight if human

- (1mg/kg)=1ppm (part per million)

- pesticides with low LD50 are more toxic than pesticides with high LD50 values.

Ex. Insecticides A LD50= 10mg is more toxic than one with as LD50 of 100mg/kg

Acute inhalation toxicity is measured by LC50

LC- means lethal concentration

LC values are measured in mg/liter

-pesticides with low in LC50 values are more toxic than pesticides with high LC values

-Acute toxicity is the basis for the warning statements on the pesticides label

2. Chronic toxicity- is the poisonous effect on pesticides on a animal or man after small,
repeated doses over a period of time.

• this is important since pesticides can remain in the body for a long time. If one is often expose to
these, they may build up in ones body and can be poisoned even without getting a large dose of
pesticides.

Classification of Insecticides Based on Mode of Entry

1. Physical poison 4. Nerve poison

2. Protoplasmic poison 5. Poison of a more general in nature

3. Respiratory poison

Classification of Insecticides Based on Mode of Action

1. Contact poison

2. Stomach poison

3. Fumigant poison

4. Systemic pesticide

Spectrum of Activity
 1. Specific pesticide – affects a single or well-defined species of organisms

2. Narrow spectrum – affects a limited number or species of organisms

3. Broad spectrum – affects a wide range of organisms

Kinds of Insecticides

Organochlorines (CHi)

Organophosphates

Carbamates

Synthetic pyrethroids

Botanical insecticides

- Nicotinoids ,Azadiractin ,Pyrethrum, Rotenoids

Symptoms of Insecticide Acute Poisoning

Mild Moderate

• Headache Blurred vision

• Diarrhea Rapid Heart Beat

• Fatigue Extreme weakness

• Irritation Upset stomach

Excessive perspiration Muscle twitches

Severe

• Convulsion and vomiting

• Difficulty in breathing

• Pinpoint pupils

• Unconsciousness

Classification of Insecticides Mode of Entry

1. Physical Poison - Contact poison

2. Respiratory poison - Stomach poison

3. Protoplasmic poison - Fumigant poison

4. Nerve poison

5. Poison of a more general in nature

Problems caused by pesticides misuse

Pesticides are useful and necessary part of IPM but must be applied properly and used only
when necessary. In proper use or over use may cause and desirable side effects:

1. Pesticides resistance- certain species become resistant to certain insecticides. To reduce this
phenomenon, apply chemicals only when pest levels reach the ET and the minimum effective rate.

2. Environmental pollution

a. Non accumulative pesticides- pesticides will breakdown quickly into harmless materials after
they are applied. Generally they don’t have a long lasting effect on the environment.

b. Persistent pesticides- remain unchanged in the environment for long periods. They are not
necessary harmful unless they are taken up and accumulate in living organisms.

c. Accumulative pesticides- taken up from the environment and accumulate in animals and plant.
Wild life and people that eat animals contaminated with pesticides may be poisoned without directly
contacting a pesticides this type is very harmful in the environment and causes long-lasting damage.

3. Phytotoxicity- toxicity to plants

Maybe caused by:

1. using the wrong pesticides

2. applying an improper pesticides mixture

3. incorredct timing of application

4. using too much pesticides

5. selecting the wrong pesticides formulation

PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS OF IPM

In 1950’s the goal of most agriculturists was to achieve maximum yield thru 100% (eradication) of pests
by intensive used of insecticides. The word CONTROL WAS SYNONYMOUS WITH ERADICATION.
However, overdependence on insecticides create new insect pest problems and that the target pests
were even more difficult to enroll.

Agricultural entomologists had heated arguments over the proper use of insecticides.

2 groups evolved:

1. first supported by chemical companies favored continued exclusive use of pesticides.

2. 2nd supported by ecologists who wanted to lessen dependency on them.

To the first group IPM meant no insecticides were to be used but IPM concept moved beyond
that stage. Rather it advocates rational use of pesticides based on avoiding long term consequences of
overdependence on pesticides.

Intensive use of pesticides has produced a number of problems which are called the PESTICIDES
SYNDROME (set of symptoms). Others called this set of symptoms pesticide treadmill . because for the
all the energy expended little progress is made.

Ex. Running in place

FACTORS THAT LEAD TO THE LOSS OF CONTROL OF PESTS

1.pesticide resistance

Extensive use kills most individuals from the pests population but not all. Due to genetic variation some
are not affected for they possess mechanisms usually enzymes that detoxify and neutralize the poison.
Offspring of the few survivors in turn possess the detoxifying agents and eventually dominate the
population. The development of biotypes of BPH or races of blast to rice varieties involves the same
reaction.

So the lesson is that to be effective, pesticides should be used in moderation so that R populations will
not develop.

2. pest resurgence

Resurgence- refers to the situation where insecticide application produces an increase in the target
insect pest population compared to untreated population . the insecticide kills natural enemies of the
target pest more effectively than the pest itself.

Ex. BPH resurgence

So the lesson here is that resurgence causing insecticide applications should be avoided.

3. secondary pest outbreaks

 making the minor pests a major pest after the major pest has been controlled

4. safety to human

- hazards of pesticide

- poisoning effect

- disease-causing effect

5. biomagnification- insecticides that are not degraded easily are taken up in the food chain in
increasing concentration.

Food chain- flow of food and nutrient energy (trophic levels)

Autotrophs- primary consumers (carnivores)

Heterotrophs- secondary consumers (carnivores and insectivors)

In food chain- insects are primary and secondary consumers and decomposers.

6. economics- increase in prices of production inputs especially chemicals.

IPM- is a multidisciplinary ecological strategy for the management of pest population which
utilizes a variety of control tactics compatively in a single coordinated pest management system.

4 fundamental tactics of IPM

1. utilization of indigenous natural control

2. management thru cultural practices

3. utilization of RVs

4. Selective use of pesticide

ex. IPM for corn borer

corn borer- attack plants from whorl to maturity

- all larval stages are destructive

alternate hosts- tobacco, tomato, okra, sorghum, sugarcane.

 Pests Management Recommendations

a. cultural

- detasselling

- synchronous planting

- sanitation

b. Biocon

- use of trichogramma sp.

The use of chemicals is the last choice in an IPM program. Judicious application of pesticides
through need based decisions includes the use of appropriate quipment and application techniques at
the proper time and at dosages required for best results.

Category and Sign of Hazards Color/Symbol

Category 1.

Danger : poison Red

Category 2. Yellow

Warning : harmful

Category 3.

Caution Blue

Category 4. Green

Color scheme/Band- is adapted for different toxicity categories to protect USERS.

- located along the base of the labels.

Pesticide Calculation

Simple conversion factors:

Area: 1 hectare (ha)= 10,000square meter

Weight: 1 kilogram (Kg)= 1,000 square meter

Volume: 1 liter = 1,000 milliliters (ml)

1 gallon (gal)= 3.8 liters

1 tablespoon= 10 ml

to convert g/liter to % divide by 10.

to convert lb/US gallon to % multiply by 12.

To convert lb/Imperial gallon to % multiply by 10.

Foliar sprays

It is important to apply the correct volume of spray per hectare when treating a field. If the
spray volume is too low, the plants are not properly covered.

If too much spray is applied, the insecticides will run off the foliage and be wasted.

To provide adequate coverage , a knapsack sprayer should be calibrated to deliver at least 300
liters spray/hectare.

Information needed to calculate spray volume in liters per hectare.

a. size of sprayer

b. area of field

c. number of sprayer loads

size of sprayer(liters)x no. of loads

liters of spray/hectare= --------------------------------------------

 area of field (ha)

Example:

1. you have a 10- liters sprayer and you apply 6 loads to a 0.2 ha. field. What is your spray volume
(liters/ha) in the field?

Solution:

10 liters(size of sprayer) x 6 loads

Liter of spray/ha= -------------------------------------------

0.2 ha

60

= -----

0.2

= 300 liters/ha

To determine how many spray loads are necessary to achieve a certain spray volume (liters/ha), use the
equation

Desired spray volume (liters/ha) area of field (ha)

No. of loads = ------------------------------------------------------------

Size of sprayer (liters)