Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Engineering Physics
Subject Code: BT-201
Semester: 2nd
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VIJAY BHAT

Notes Introduction to Solids

Q.1 Give the free electron model of solids and explain its limitations. (April10)
Ans: Free Electron Model of Metals
1. Loosely bound electrons in a metal are free to roam around
2. These conduction electrons can be treated as a perfect gas obeying FD statistics.
3. We neglect interactions with atomic ions and self-interactions, but the electrons are still
bound to the solid
Free electron model successfully predicts temperature dependence of electrical conductivity of
metals.
Derivation for Conductivity of Metal: Mean kinetic energy electron gas at temperature T is
given as
1 3
( )2 =
2 2
2 3
Hence =
3
or = (1)
Let us consider a metallic cylinder of length l an electric field is applied across the length of
cylinder

If ‘R’ is the resistance of metallic cylinder considered then according to ohms law
�= (2)
Also
= (3)

Therefore �= Or �=

�
=

= (4)

As the electric field intensity is E, therefore the force experienced by the electron of material

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=
Hence acceleration produced in the electron will be

=
It implies that the drift velocity of electron will be � = �, where � is mean free time between
two successive collisions when electron is accelerated under the influence of applied filed.

� = �
Mean free time � can be given as � =
Hence

� = (5)
As we know that = � (6)
Using equation (1) (4) (5) and (6) we can write

2
=
3
or
3
= 2
Q.2 Calculate the density of states in the energy range E and E+dE using free electron model.
Ans: If N is the total number of states between the energy states E and E + dE , then the density of
states will be given as

=
Allowed states of energy according to the solution of Schrodinger equation
(nx 2 + ny 2 + nz 2 )π2 ℏ2
=
2mL2
Or
2 2 2
2mL2
nx + ny + nz = 2 2
π ℏ
Equation above represents a sphere in n-space with radius

2mL2
R=
π2 ℏ2

As nx , ny and nz can have only positive integer non zero values, therefore allowed states of

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energy will be only one octant of sphere Therefore

3
1 4 2mL 2 2
=
8 3 π 2 ℏ2
3
L3 2m 2 3
Or = 2
6π 2 ℏ2
3
3 V 2m 2 3
In the equation above L = V, hence = 2
6π 2 ℏ2
As each states can accommodate two electrons one with spin up and other with spin down,
therefore total number of states will be
3
V 2m 2 3
= 2 2
3π ℏ2
The equation above gives the total available states of energy for electron in volume V.
Q.3 Explain the band theory of solids.
Or
Differentiate insulator, conductor and semiconductors on the basis of band theory of solids.
Ans: Band Theory of Solids
The material in atomic state possesses discrete energy levels as in gaseous state. In gaseous state
the atoms are much far away from each other and they do not influence the energy levels of the
other atom. When two atoms are brought closer than their valance electrons interact with each
other and significant changes in the energy levels of valance electron is observed. In a solid a
large number electrons are very close packed together and the outer most energy level of
individual is splitted into various energy levels very closely spaced, these closely spaced energy
levels forms a virtual continuum and is called as band of energy. The electrons can occupy these
bands obeying Pauli’s exclusion principle and as consequence some of energy states cannot be
occupied by the electrons resulting in the formation of forbidden energy band. The lower band of
energy is called as valance band while the upper energy band is called conduction band.
The formation of bands is illustrated in the following diagrams. In the figure ‘a’ individual atom
is shown. In the figure ‘b’ the energy levels of the individual atom is shown on graph. The length
of horizontal lines parallel to x- axis indicates the circumference of the energy level. While the
position of horizontal line on y-axis gives the energy value of an energy level.
0 x-axis

y-axis

Figure: a Figure: b
In the figure c two atoms are shown closer and the overlapping of valence energy levels is
observed.

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0 x-axis 0

y-axis y-axis

Figure: c
In the last figure n numbers of atoms are shown closer and the formation of bands is also shown

0 x-axis 0 0 0 0

Conduction
Valance y- y- y-
Band
Band axi axi axi

Figure: d
In the figure‘d’ formation of bands for a solid is depicted. In these bands where electron can
freely move is known as conduction band, valance electrons attached to the atom forms valance
band, whereas energy bands which cannot be occupied by electrons is known as forbidden
energy band.
On the basis of band theory conductors are the solids in which valance band and conduction
bands overlap each other, whereas in insulators separation between valance and conduction band
is large and is typically of the order of 7 eV. Semiconductors are the solids who have a moderate
energy gap between valance and conduction band typically of the order of 1 eV.
Energy band diagram for conductor, insulator and semiconductor is shown in the figures below.

Conduction Band Conduction Band Conduction Band

7 eV 1 eV
Valance Band
Valance Band
Valance Band

Conductor Insulator Semiconductor

Q. 4 Define semiconductor. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor. ( (Feb10)

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Or
Define n-type and p-type extrinsic semiconductors. (Jun15)
Ans: Intrinsic Semiconductors
The intrinsic semiconductors are the semiconductors are elemental semiconductors or also called
as pure semiconductors. These semiconductors are made up of one kind of atoms only. The
examples of intrinsic semiconductors are Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge). The intrinsic
semiconductors have several limitations when practical applications are considered, because in
intrinsic semiconductors the energy gap cannot be changed as per requirement.
At T=0 K the intrinsic semiconductor behaves as insulators. Because no electron exists in the
conduction band. But at ordinary temperatures due to thermal agitations the covalent bonds are
broken and some electrons move to conduction band. The number of electrons and holes are
equal inside an intrinsic semiconductor. The Fermi energy level inside an intrinsic semiconductor
lies in the middle of energy gap. The energy band diagram for intrinsic semiconductor is shown
below.

CONDUCTION BAND

Fermi Energy Level Forbidden Energy gap Eg

VALANCE BAND

Extrinsic Semiconductors
The energy gap and conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors cannot be tailored as per the
requirement of application. This problem can be overcome by doping suitable impurity in the
intrinsic semiconductors. Thus obtained semiconductors are called as extrinsic semiconductors.
Depending upon the type of impurity added the extrinsic semiconductors can be classified as N-
type and P-type semiconductors.
N-type Semiconductors
When intrinsic semiconductors either Si or Ge are doped with pentavalent material, then the
obtained semiconductor material is called N-type semiconductor. The Si or Ge are tetravalent
materials hence the four electrons in the outer shell of these materials forms the covalent bond
with another Si or Ge atoms to complete their octet. When a pentavalent impurity Like Arsenic
(As) is added to the Si or Ge then the four out of five valance electrons are shared by the host
atoms(Si or Ge) while the fifth electrons of the impurity is loosely bound to its parent atom.
These loosely bound electrons give rise to new energy levels which exists in the energy gap just
below the conduction band and are called as donor levels. At ordinary temperature all the
electrons of the donor level move to the conduction band. Thus the electrons become majority
charge carriers as compared holes. Since the number of carriers are more in conduction band as
compared to holes in valance band the Fermi level in N-type semiconductor shifts towards
conduction band. The band diagram for N-type semiconductor is shown in figure below

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CONDUCTION BAND
Donor Energy Level
Fermi Energy Level
Forbidden Energy gap Eg

VALANCE BAND

Band diagram of N-type semiconductor

P-type Semiconductors
When intrinsic semiconductors either Si or Ge are doped with trivalent material, then the
obtained semiconductor material is called P-type semiconductor. The Si or Ge are tetravalent
materials hence the four electrons in the outer shell of these materials forms the covalent bond
with another Si or Ge atoms to complete their octet. When a trivalent impurity Like Arsenic (Al)
is added to the Si or Ge then the three valance electrons of impurity atom is shared by the host
atoms (Si or Ge) and one of the electrons of host atom remain unshared. This result in the
deficiency of an electron which tries to capture the electron from nearby covalent bond. Thus
electron deficiency exists in valance band which give rise to new energy levels which exists in
the energy gap just above the conduction band and are called as acceptor levels. Thus the holes
become majority charge carriers as compared electrons. Since the numbers of carriers are more in
valance band as compared to electrons in conduction band the Fermi level in P-type
semiconductor shifts towards valance band. The band diagram for P-type semiconductor is
shown in figure below

CONDUCTION BAND

Forbidden Energy gap Eg

Fermi Energy Level

VALANCE BAND Acceptor Energy Level

Band diagram of P-type semiconductor

Q.5 What is Fermi energy level?

Or
Explain the effect of temperature on Fermi Dirac distribution function. (Jun14)
Ans: Fermi Dirac distribution function & Fermi energy level

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The Fermi Dirac distribution function gives the probability of finding an electron in energy state
E for a given temperature t. mathematically it is expressed as
1
= −
+1
Where is Fermi energy level and is Boltzmann’s constant.
Let = 0 � and > then the value of Fermi Dirac distribution function will be
= 0. This implies that all the energy levels above the Fermi energy levels are empty at
=0 � .
If = 0 � and < then the value of Fermi Dirac distribution function will be =
1. This implies that all the energy levels below the Fermi energy levels are completely occupied
by electrons at = 0 � or we can say that Fermi energy level is the highest possible level
of energy for electron at =0 � .
For the temperature above 0 � and = the value of Fermi Dirac distribution function
1
will be = i.e. we can say that for the temperatures above 0
2
� the Fermi level is the
1
level of energy for which the probability of occupancy of electron is .
2
Variation of Fermi Dirac function with temperature is shown in figure below. This figure clearly
indicates that conduction band is completely empty at T=0K whereas with the increase in the
temperature more energy states in the conduction band is occupied indicated by the increased
value of F(E).

Variation of Fermi Function with Temperature

Q.6 What is P-N junction diode? Explain the characteristics of P-N junction diode under reverse and
forward bias. (Dec10, 11)
Ans: PN Junction diode When a slab of intrinsic semiconducting material is doped with trivalent
impurity at one end while other end of the slab is doped with pentavalent impurity then a PN
junction diode is formed.
PN Junction under no bias When the junction is formed the flow of electrons starts across the
junction due to concentration gradient. As the density of electron is more on N-side as compared
to P-side. The electrons and holes recombine across the junction; as a result the ions are
uncovered on both P and N-side in a small region around the junction. On N-side +ve ions are
uncovered while on P-side –ve ions are uncovered these uncovered ions sets a potential barrier
across the junction and prevents the flow of electrons and holes. Hence no current flows across
the junction under no bias condition. Figure below represents the diagram of PN junction.

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N P

Immobile positive and negative ions

The symbol of PN junction diode is shown in the diagram below.

Forward biased PN junction When a PN diode is connected in a circuit such that its P side is
connected to the positive terminal of battery and N side is connected to negative of battery. Then
the diode is said to be under forward bias.

The negative potential at the N side forces the electrons to cross the junction. Initially when the
value of applied potential is less than the potential barrier no current flows across the junction as
the potential applied becomes greater than potential barrier electrons starts to cross the junction
further increase in applied potential forces more electrons to cross the junction and a current in
the circuit increases rapidly while the voltage across the diode does not change significantly as
shown in the curve below.
Current I

Figure: Forward Biased Diode

Characteristics

Voltage V
Reverse biased PN junction When a PN diode is connected in a circuit such that its P side is
connected to the negative terminal of battery and N side is connected to positive of battery. Then

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VIJAY BHAT

the diode is said to be under forward bias.

The positive potential at the N side forces the electrons to move away from the junction.
Similarly holes also moves away from the junction as consequence majority charge carriers do
not contribute to the current in the circuit. But the minority electrons from P side and minority
holes from N side moves towards junction and a small current flows across the junction due
small number of charge carriers. Further increase in the applied potential does not result in the
increase of current. The current is called as reverse saturation current and it depends upon the
junction temperature rather than applied potential.
Voltage V
Current I

Reverse saturation Current

Figure: Reverse Biased Diode
Characteristics

Reverse bias and Breakdown When a diode is connected in the reverse bias then the majority
charge carriers moves away from the junction and the immobile ions on P and N side gets
uncovered resulting in the widening of depletion layer and minority charge carriers contribute to
small current. When the applied potential is increased it leads to abrupt increase of reverse
current this is called as breakdown. Two kind of mechanism are responsible for the abrupt
current change
1. Avalanche breakdown This kind of break down occurs when the impurity concentration
is lower. The increase in the reverse applied potential does not leads to increase in the
current but increase in the potential results in the increase in the kinetic energy of

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electron, when electron acquires the kinetic energy of the order of the strength of
covalent bond then this electron breaks the covalent bond of the atom resulting in the
electron hole pair. Thus produced electrons get accelerated and break another covalent
bond and the process continues in the generation of large number of current carriers and
large current starts to flow across the junction. The avalanche breakdown results in the
damage of diode. The breakdown curve in this case is gradual near breakdown voltage.
2. Zener breakdown This kind of break down occurs when the impurity concentration is
higher. The increase in the reverse applied potential does not leads to increase in the
current but increase in the potential results in the widening of depletion layer. Thus a
large electric field is set across junction, when the strength of internal field is of the order
of the strength of covalent bond then this field breaks the covalent bond of the atoms
resulting in the generation of large number of electron hole pairs and large current starts
to flow across the junction. The zener breakdown does not damage the diode. When
reverse potential is removed then the diode acquires its original state. The breakdown
curve in this case is sharp near breakdown voltage.
Q.7 What is Zener diode? Draw the equivalent circuit of an ideal and actual Zener diode. What are its
uses? (Jun 12, 14, 15)
Ans: Zener Diode: Zener diode is made by heavily doped P and N type semiconductors and the
surface are of the junction is also increased to avoid the increase in junction temperature in case
of break down. When the break down occurs then the zener curve suggests that the voltage
becomes constant and increase in the applied potential results in the increase in the reverse
current. This property of the zener diode is used for the voltage regulator applications. The
symbol of zener diode is shown in the figure below.

Equivalent circuit for ideal and actual zener diode

+
V

- (a) (b)
Reverse biased zener diode Equivalent circuit (a) Ideal (b) Actual

For an ideal zener diode in the reverse bias the voltage across the diode will remain constant
irrespective of the current through the diode, however for practical applications it is limited by
zener impedance.
A zener diode can be used as voltage regulator, voltage clipper, wave shaper and rectifier.
(Note that V-I characteristics of zener diode are similar to P-N junction diode

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except in the reverse bias where zener breakdown takes place unlike avalanche
break down in P-N junction diode)
Q.8 Discuss the basic operation and characteristics of a solar cell with necessary diagram. (Dec13)
or
Explain V-I characteristics of a photovoltaic cell. (Jun16)
Or
Write a short note on solar cell (Jun13,10)
Or
Describe with the diagram the basic operation and characteristics of a solar cell including the
short circuit current and open circuit voltage. Derive the expression for the maximum power
delivered to the load, fill factor and efficiency of the solar cell.
Ans: Solar cell: A solar cell converts the optical energy into the electrical energy it is a PN junction
diode. When the light is incident on the PN junction the flow of electron and hole pair results in
the photocurrent. The equivalent circuit for solar cell is given in the diagram below

RL

The construction of solar cell is given in the diagram below

Glass

+
P
vcc N

Working; when a photon collides with the valance electron either in P-type material or N-type
material, it imparts sufficient energy to the electron to leave its parent atom. As a result, free
electrons and holes are generated on each side of junction. In P-type material electrons are

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minority carriers and similarly holes are minority in N-type materials. These holes and electrons
move towards junction without applied bias. The result is increase in minority carriers flow.
Characteristics of solar cell: Let us consider a solar cell with a resistive load R. when the light
is incident on the PN junction it produces photocurrent IL. This current produces a voltage drop
across the solar cell and the PN junction becomes effectively forward bias. The current IF due to
forward bias is into opposite direction to photocurrent IL. Therefore the net current is given by
�
= − = − −1 1
Where is reverse saturation current.
Under open circuit condition I=0. Therefore,
�
0= − = − −1
Or
�
= −1
�
+1=
�
On taking log +1 =
Or � = +1
�
The power delivered to load will be = �= �− −1 �
� �
For maximum power
�
=0= − −1 − � −1

�
+
� = 2
1+
Using equation 1 for maximum current we get
�
= − −1
Or
�
=( + )− 3
Using equation 2 and 3 we get

�
=( + )
� +
Hence the maximum power delivered by solar cell will be

�2
=� =( + )
� +
Fill Factor: the ratio of maximum obtainable power to the product of the open-circuit voltage
and short-circuit current

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Q.9 What is Kronig-Penny model of solids and show that it leads to energy band structure of solids.
(Dec10)
Or
Discuss the salient features of Kronig-Penny model. (Jun11)
Or
Draw periodic potential observed by an electron, moving in one dimensional crystal lattice.
Discuss Kronig-Penny model proposed for periodic potential. Write Schrodinger wave equation
for such potential and discuss its solution. (Dec12)
Or
Describe the behavior of electron in periodic potential using final expression of Kronig-Penny
model. (Dec13)
Or
Describe the behavior of electron in periodic potential using final expression of Kronig-Penny
model and explain the formation of energy bands. (Jun14)
Or
Find the effective mass of electron on the basis of Kronig-Penny Model. (Dec15)
Ans: Kronig Penny Model
The Kronig Peny model considers that electrons inside solid moves in a periodic potential due to
rest electrons and ion cores. An approximate picture inside solid is shown in the figure below.

The picture above is one-dimensional periodic potential of electron inside solid. Even though the
model is one-dimensional, it is the periodicity of the potential that is the crucial property that
yields electronic band structure. The mathematical form of the repeating unit of the potential is
� � = �0 − <�<0

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� � = 0 0<�<
As shown in figure 1 the potentail has a period of = + . The Schrodinger equation for this
model will be
2� 2
+ �=0 0<�< 1
�2 ℏ2
2� 2 ( −�0 )
+ �=0 − <�<0 2
�2 ℏ2
The solution satisfying above equations will be obtained by using Bloch Theorem and will be
sin �
�
+ cos � = cos 3
Where
�0
=
ℏ2
and
2
�=
ℏ2
In equation 3 there are two variables � and . The right hand side of equation can have values
only between +1 and -1. This implies that the equation 3 will be valid only when left hand side of
equation will have values between +1 and -1. To find the allowed values of � we plot left hand
side of the equation with respect to � . In the plot below we have drawn two lines parallel to the
x-axis at y-values +1 and -1.
7

0
b
-1
e
-2

-3

In the above plot the thick line from point ‘b’ to ‘c’ shows the allowed values of energy for
sin �
electrons. Because the term + cos � is between +1 to -1, hence the continuous allowed
�
values indicate the formation of band. While the values of � between points ‘c’ to ‘f’ indicates
sin �
the forbidden band because the term + cos � having the values less than -1.
 The solution also suggests that the width of allowed band increases with increase in the
�

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value of � .
 For P=0 the width of forbidden band becomes zero and the electron is a free electro.
 For = ∞ the energy band reduces to the energy levels.
 At = ± where n= 1, 2, 3…..the energy curve shows the discontinuity.
 The region between to − is called the first Brillouin zone.
Effective Mass of electron
2
As = 2 also = ℏ by de-Broglie’s hypothesis.
ℏ2 2
Therefore = , thus electron energy is parabolic, with wave vector k. the electron mass is
2
2 ℏ2
inversely related to the curvature (second derivative) of the E-k relationship, since 2
= ∗
2 −1
∗
= ℏ2 2
∗
From the equation above it is evident that the effective mass is inversely proportional to the
2
. Following is concluded for the effective mass
 If the curvature E vs k is large the value of effective mass ∗ will be small.
2

 If the curvature E vs k is small the value of effective mass ∗ will be larger.

Q.11 What is Hall effect? Give an elementary theory of Hall effect. (Dec11, 12, Jun 12, Jan16)
Or
What are the potential applications of Hall effect? (Jun11)
Or
Show that Hall coefficient is independent of the applied magnetic field and is inversely
proportional to density of electronic charge. (Jun12, 14)
Or
Describe the Hall effect and Hall coefficient in detail. (Jun10)
Or
Deduce an expression for Hall effect of a solid and describe a method for its determination
experimentally. What important information are obtained from its measurement? (Dec12)
Ans: Hall Effect:
When a specimen (metal or semiconductor) carrying current I is placed in transverse magnetic
field. Then a potential is induced in the specimen in the perpendicular direction to both the
current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is called as Hall Effect.
Derivation
Let us consider an n-type material placed in an electric field in positive x-direction and a
magnetic field is applied normal to the field in z-direction. Then the transverse magnetic field
will exert Lorentz force on the electrons and electrons will accumulate at one side of specimen
giving rise to potential.
t
Iz
d

Hz

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When the value of force due to generated field equals the Lorentz force then the induced
potential acquires the equilibrium in this condition.
Hall force = Lorentz force
=
− = �� �
Where �� is drift velocity of electrons.
Or
= −�� �
�
As � = �� we get � = − =−
� �
� �
Or � =− �
=−
�
Since t is thickness � =− �
The expression above is called as hall voltage. The value of Hall field per unit magnetic field
and per unit current density is called as hall coefficient and is denoted by .
�

=− =−
� � � �
1
=−
In terms of Hall coefficient the Hall voltage is given by

�
� =
�
Since the electron mobility is given as = therefore
=
The direction of Hall field is the direction the net field in the semiconductor. The net field in the
semiconductor is the vector sum of applied field � and Hall field as shown in figure below

Ex
θH

�
�
tan � = as = = �
also � =
� EH�
�
Therefore tan � = or tan � = �
Since = therefore tan � = �
−1
Hence � = � � this is known as direction of Hall field.

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Applications:
1. Hall effect can be used for the measurement of the strength of magnetic field
2. It is used for the determination of carrier concentration of semiconductors
3. The sign of Hall coefficient tells about the predominant charge carriers in a semiconductor
4. Hall effect can be used for the amplification of weak signals

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