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1 BASIC DESIGN COSIDERATIONS

 DESIGN PROCEDURE
 General Cosideration in Design
 Types of load
 Stress-Strain Diagram
 Types of Stresses
 Concept of Creep
 Fatigue
 S-N Curve
 Endurance Limit
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Course Outcome
C604.1: Analyze and evaluate the loads, forces, stresses
involved in components and decide the dimensions.
C604.2: Select design criteria for different machine
components.
C604.3: Select proper material for machine
components.
C604.4: Identify various modes of failure of machine
components under different load patterns.
C604.5: Use design data book and different IS codes
for design.
C604.6: Select standard components with their
specifications as per design.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
General Cosideration in Design
1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load.
2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine.
3. Selection of materials.
4. Form and size of the parts.
5. Frictional resistance and lubrication.
6. Convenient and economical features.
7. Use of standard parts.
8. Safety of operation.
9. Workshop facilities.
10. Number of machines to be manufactured.
11. Cost of construction.
12. Assembling.
Types of load
1. Dead or steady load : A load is said to be a dead or
steady load, when it does not change in magnitude or
direction.
2. Live or variable load: A load is said to be a live or
variable load, when it changes continually.
3. Suddenly applied or shock loads : A load is said to be a
suddenly applied or shock load, when it is suddenly
applied or removed.
4. Impact load : A load is said to be an impact load, when
it is applied with some initial velocity.
Stress-Strain Diagram
1. Proportional limit.
2. Elastic limit.
3. Yield point.
4. Ultimate stress.
5. Breaking stress.
6. Perntage reduction in area.

A = Original cross-sectional area.

a = Cross-sectional area at the neck
7. Percentage elongation.
Types of Stresses
Tensile Stress
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulls
P (also called tensile load) as shown in Fig., then the stress
induced at any section of the body is known as tensile stress
as shown in Fig.
Tensile stress, σt =P/A
Tensile strain,εt = δl/ l
Compressive Stress

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite

axial pushes P (also called compressive load) as shown
in Fig, then the stress induced at any section of the
body is known as compressive stress as shown in Fig.
Compressive stress, σc = P/A
compressive strain, εc = δl /l
Shear Stress
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces
acting tangentially across the resisting section, as a result of
which the body tends to shear off the section, then the stress
induced is called shear stress

Single Shear
Double shear.
 The area resisting the shear off the rivet,
Crushing Stress
A localised compressive stress at the surface of
contact between two members of a machine part, that
are relatively at rest is known as crushing stress
Bearing Stress
A localised compressive stress at the surface of contact between
two members of a machine part, that has relative motion is
known as bearing stress
Torsional Shear Stress
 When a machine member is subjected to the action of two equal and opposite
couples acting in parallel planes (or torque or twisting moment), then the
machine member is said to be subjected to torsion. The stress set up by
torsion is known as torsional shear stress.
 Torsion equation:
Bending Stress
 In engineering practice, the machine parts of structural members may
be subjected to static or dynamic loads which cause bending stress in
the sections besides other types of stresses such as tensile, compressive
and shearing stresses.

 The bending equation is given by

Principal Stresses and Principal Planes
 Planes which have no shear stress are known as principal planes and
the direct stresses along these planes are known as principal
stresses. The planes on which the maximum shear stress act are
known as planes of maximum shear.
 When a member is subjected to bi-axial stress (i.e. direct stress in two
mutually perpendicular planes accompanied by a simple shear stress),
then the normal and shear stresses are obtained as discussed below:
When a member is subjected to direct stress in one
plane accompanied by a simple shear stress as shown
in Fig, then the principal stresses are obtained by
substituting σ2 = 0 in above equations.
 Creep: When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long
period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This
property is considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and
turbines.
 Creep Strength: It is defined as the maximum strength that the material can
withstand for a specified length of time without excessive deformation.
 Creep Ruptuure strength of the material is the maximum strength that the
material can withstand for a specified length of time.

Creep Curve
Fatigue: When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails
at stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a
material is known as *fatigue. The failure is caused by means of
a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and of
microscopic size. This property is considered in designing shafts,
connecting rods, springs, gears, etc
Fatigue Life:- The fatigue life is defined as the number of
stress cycles that the standard specimen can complete during
the test before the appearance of the first fatigue crack.
ENDURANCE LIMIT(Se)
The endurance limit of a material is defined as the
maximum amplitude of completely reversed stress that the
standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of
cycles without fatigue failure.
 FACTORS AFFECTING ENDURANCE STRENGTH
Load factor (KL) 
for bending=1, for axial=0.8, for torsional=0.5
Surface finish factor(Ka)  
as surface finish decreases , Ka will decreases
Size factor(Kb)

Reliability factor(Kc)
 
Modifying Factor to Account for Stress Concentration.
(Kd)
Factor of safety
It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to
the working stress Mathematically,

ductile materials e.g. mild steel, the fos is based upon the yield
point stress to the working stress.

brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the fos for brittle materials is
based on ultimate stress
Selection of Factor of Safety
Before selecting a proper factor of safety, a design
engineer should consider the following points :
1. The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these
properties during service ;
2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these
results to actual machine parts ;
3. The reliability of applied load ;
4. The certainty as to exact mode of failure ;
5. The extent of simplifying assumptions ;
6. The extent of localized stresses ;
7. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture ;
8. The extent of loss of life if failure occurs ; and
9. The extent of loss of property if failure occurs.
Stress Concentration
 Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-
section, the simple stress distribution no longer holds good and the
neighborhood of the discontinuity is different. This irregularity in the
stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress
concentration.
 Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high
stresses due to the irregularities present in the component and
abrupt changes of the cross-section.
 It occurs for all kinds of stresses in the presence of fillets, notches,
holes, keyways, splines, surface roughness or scratches etc.
Causes
Abrupt Change of c/s
Poor surface finish
Localized loading
Variation in the material properties

Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration

•Avoiding sharp corners
•Providing fillets
•Use of multiple holes instead of single hole.
•Undercutting the shoulder part
Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration
Theoretical or Form Stress Concentration Factor
The theoretical or form stress concentration factor is defined as the
ratio of the maximum stress in a member (at a notch or a fillet) to the
nominal stress at the same section based upon net area.
Mathematically, theoretical or form stress concentration factor,
The value of Kt depends upon the material and geometry of the part.
 Fatigue stress concentration factor:-(Kf) It is ratio of the actual
maximum stress in a component (at discontinuity) to the nominal stress
at the same section.

NOTCH SENSITIVITY (q)

This is defined as the degree to which the actual stress concentration effect
compares with theoretical stress concentration effect.
Steels Designated on the Basis of Mechanical
Properties
These steels are carbon and low alloy steels where the
main criterion in the selection and inspection of steel
is the tensile strength or yield stress. According to
Indian standard **IS: 1570 (Part–I)- 1978 (Reaffirmed
1993), these steels are designated by a symbol ‘Fe’ or ‘Fe
E’ depending on whether
the steel has been specified on the basis of minimum
tensile strength or yield strength, followed by the
figure indicating the minimum tensile strength or yield
stress in N/mm2. For example ‘Fe 290’ means a steel
having minimum ultimate tensile strength of 290
N/mm2 and ‘Fe E 220’ means a steel having minimum
yield strength of 220 N/mm2.
Steels Designated on the Basis of Chemical Composition
 According to Indian standard, IS : 1570 (Part II/Sec I)-1979 (Reaffirmed 1991),
the carbon steels are designated in the following order :
(a) Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon content,
(b) Letter ‘C’, and
(c) Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese
content.
 The figure after multiplying shall be rounded off to the nearest integer.
 For example 20C8 means a carbon steel containing 0.15 to 0.25 per cent (0.2
per cent on an average) carbon and 0.60 to 0.90 per cent (0.75 per cent
rounded off to 0.8 per cent on an average) manganese.
Free Cutting Steels
 According to Indian standard, IS : 1570 (Part III)-1979 (Reaffirmed
1993), carbon and carbon manganese free cutting steels are designated
in the following order :
 1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon,
 2. Letter ‘C’,
 3. Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of
manganese, and
 4. Symbol ‘S’ followed by the figure indicating the 100 times the
average content of sulphur.
 If instead of sulphur, lead (Pb) is added to make the steel free cutting,
then symbol ‘Pb’ may be used
Indian Standard Designation of Low and Medium Alloy Steels

 According to Indian standard, IS : 1762 (Part I)-1974 (Reaffirmed 1993),

low and medium
 alloy steels shall be designated in the following order :
 1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage carbon.
 2. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by the
figure for its average
 percentage content multiplied by a factor as given below :
Indian Standard Designation of High Alloy Steels (Stainless Steel
and Heat Resisting Steel)
 According to Indian standard, IS : 1762 (Part I)-1974 (Reaffirmed 1993),
the high alloy steels
 (i.e. stainless steel and heat resisting steel) are designated in the
following order:
 1. Letter ‘X’.
 2. Figure indicating 100 times the percentage of carbon content.
 3. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by a
figure for its average percentage content rounded off to the
nearest integer.
 4. Chemical symbol to indicate specially added element to allow
the desired properties.
 For example, X 10 Cr 18 Ni 9 means alloy steel with average carbon 0.10
per cent, chromium 18 per cent and nickel 9 per cent.
Indian Standard Designation of High Speed Tool Steel
 According to Indian standard, IS : 1762 (Part I)-1974 (Reaffirmed 1993),
the high speed tool
 steels are designated in the following order :
 1. Letter ‘XT’.
 2. Figure indicating 100 times the percentage of carbon content.
 3. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by the
figure for its average percentage content rounded off to the
nearest integer, and
 4. Chemical symbol to indicate specially added element to attain
the desired properties.
 For example, XT 75 W 18 Cr 4 V 1 means a tool steel with average
carbon content 0.75 percent, tungsten 18 per cent, chromium 4 per
cent and vanadium 1 per cent.
Theories of Failure Under Static Load

1. Maximum principal (or normal) stress theory

(also known as Rankine’s theory).
2. Maximum shear stress theory (also known as
Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
3. Maximum principal (or normal) strain theory
(also known as Saint Venant theory).
4. Maximum strain energy theory (also known as
Haigh’s theory).
5. Maximum distortion energy theory (also
known as Hencky and Von Mises theory).
Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs

at a point in a member when the maximum principal or
normal stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches the
limiting strength of the material in simple tension test.
Since the limiting strength for ductile materials is yield
point stress and for brittle materials(which do not have
well defined yield point) the limiting strength is
ultimate stress, therefore according to the above theory,
taking factor of safety (F.S.) into consideration, the
maximum principal or normal stress (σt1) in a bi-axial
stress system is given by
•This theory gives better result for brittle material.
•This will not give satisfactory results for ductile material.
 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory)
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a
member when the maximum
shear stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches a value equal to the shear
stress at yield point in a
simple tension test. Mathematically,
Ʈmax = Ʈyt /F.S. ...(i)
where Ʈmax = Maximum shear stress in a bi-axial stress system,
Ʈyt = Shear stress at yield point as determined from simple tension test,
and F.S. = Factor of safety.

•This theory gives better result for ductile material.

•This will not give satisfactory results for brittle material.
Mb= 5000×500=2500×103 Nmm

Ma
= 5000×500+500×1500=10000×103 Nmm