Chapter 3

theory is a formal, logical explanation of some events that includes predictions of how things relate to
one another.

concept (or construct) A generalized idea about a class of objects that has been given a name; an
abstraction of reality that is the basic unit for theory development

ladder of abstraction Organization of concepts in sequence from the most concrete and individual to
the most general.

abstract level In theory development, the level of knowledge expressing a concept that exists only as an
idea or a quality apart from an object.

empirical level is the Level of knowledge that is verifiable by experience or observation.

latent construct A concept that is not directly observable or measurable, but can be estimated through
proxy measures.

propositions Statements explaining the logical linkage among certain concepts by asserting a universal
connection between concepts.

Hypothesis is a formal statement explaining some outcome. In its simplest form, a hypothesis is a guess.
It is an unproven proposition that is empirically testable

empirical testing Examining a research hypothesis against reality using data.

variables Anything that may assume different numerical values; the empirical assessment of a concept

operationalizing The process of identifying the actual measurement scales to assess the variables of
interest.

deductive reasoning The logical process of deriving a conclusion about a specific instance based on a
known general premise or something known to be true.

inductive reasoning The logical process of establishing a general proposition on the basis of observation
of particular fact.

scientific method A set of prescribed procedures for establishing and connecting theoretical statements
about events, for analyzing empirical evidence, and for predicting events yet unknown; techniques or
procedures used to analyze empirical evidence in an attempt to confirm or disprove prior conceptions

Chapter 4
exploratory research Conducted to clarify ambiguous situations or discover ideas that may be potential
business opportunities.

descriptive research Describes characteristics of objects, people, groups, organizations, or

absolute causality Means the cause is necessary and sufficient to bring about the effect

conditional causality Means that a cause is necessary but not sufficient to bring about an effect

contributory causality Means that a cause need be neither necessary nor sufficient to bring about an
effect.

experiment A carefully controlled study in which the researcher manipulates a proposed cause and
observes any corresponding change in the proposed effect

experimental variable Represents the proposed cause and is controlled by the researcher by
manipulating it.

test-market An experiment that is conducted within actual market conditions

forward linkage Implies that the earlier stages of the research process influence the later stages

backward linkage Implies that later steps influence earlier stages of the research process

research objectives The goals to be achieved by conducting research

research design A master plan that specifies the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing
the needed information.

sampling Involves any procedure that draws conclusions based on measurements of a portion of the
population.

data analysis The application of reasoning to understand the data that have been gathered.

research project A single study that addresses one or a small number of research objectives.

research program Numerous related studies that come together to address multiple, related research
objective

pilot study A small-scale research project that collects data from respondents similar to those to be used
in the full study.

focus group A small group discussion about some research topic led by a moderator who guides
discussion among the participant

Chapter 7
qualitative business research is a Research that addresses business objectives through techniques that
allow the researcher to provide elaborate interpretations of phenomena without depending on
numerical measurement; its focus is on discovering true inner meanings and new insights.

quantitative business research is Business research that addresses research objectives through
empirical assessments that involve numerical measurement and analysis.
qualitative data that are not characterized by numbers, and instead are textual, visual, or oral; focus is
on stories, visual portrayals, meaningful characterizations, inter-pretations, and other expressive
description

quantitative data Represent phenomena by assigning numbers in an ordered and meaningful way.

phenomenology A philosophical approach to studying human experiences based on the idea that
human experience itself is inherently subjective and determined by the context in which people live

ethnography Represents ways of studying cultures through methods that involve becoming highly active
within that culture

grounded theory Represents an inductive investigation in which the researcher poses questions about
information provided by respondents or taken from historical records; the researcher asks the questions
to him or herself and repeatedly questions the responses to derive deeper explanations

case studies The documented history of a particular person, group, organization, or event.

focus group interview An unstructured, free-flowing interview with a small group of around six to ten
people. Focus groups are led by a trained moderator who follows a flexible format encouraging dialogue
among respondents

piggyback A procedure in which one respondent stimulates thought among the others; as this process
continues, increasingly creative insights are possible

focus blog A type of informal, “continuous” focus group established as an Internet blog for the purpose
of collecting qualitative data from participant comments.

depth interview A one-on-one interview between a professional researcher and a research respondent
conducted about some relevant business or social topic

conversations An informal qualitative data gathering approach in which the researcher engages a
respondent in a discussion of the relevant subject matter.

Chapter 9
respondents People who verbally answer an interviewer’s questions or provide answers to written
questions.

sample survey A more formal term for a survey

random sampling error A statistical fluctuation that occurs because of chance variation in the elements
selected for a sample

systematic error resulting from some imperfect aspect of the research design that causes respondent
error or from a mistake in the execution of the research.

sample bias A persistent tendency for the results of a sample to deviate in one direction from the true
value of the population parameter
respondent error A category of sample bias resulting from some respondent action or inaction such as
nonresponse or response bias

nonresponse error The statistical differences between a survey that includes only those who responded
and a perfect survey that would also include those who failed to respond

self-selection bias A bias that occurs because people who feel strongly about a subject are more likely to
respond to survey questions than people who feel indifferent about it.

response bias A bias that occurs when respondents either consciously or unconsciously tend to answer
questions with a certain slant that misrepresents the truth

acquiescence bias A tendency for respondents to agree with all or most questions asked of them in a
survey.

extremity bias A category of response bias that results because some individuals tend to use extremes
when responding to questions.

interviewer bias A response bias that occurs because the presence of the interviewer influences
respondents’ answers.

social desirability bias s in responses caused by respondents’ desire, either conscious or unconscious, to
gain prestige or appear in a different social role.

administrative error An error caused by the improper administration or execution of the research task.

data-processing error A category of administrative error that occurs because of incorrect data entry,
incorrect computer programming, or other procedural errors during data

sample selection error An administrative error caused by improper sample design or sampling
procedure execution

interviewer error Mistakes made by interviewers failing to record survey responses correctly

interviewer cheating The practice of filling in fake answers or falsifying questionnaires while working as
an interviewer

structured question A question that imposes a limit on the number of allowable responses

unstructured question A question that does not restrict the respondents’ answers.

undisguised questions Straightforward questions that assume the respondent is willing to answer.

disguised questions Indirect questions that assume the purpose of the study must be hidden from the
respondent

cross-sectional study A study in which various segments of a population are sampled and data are
collected at a single moment in time

longitudinal study A survey of respondents at different times, thus allowing analysis of response
continuity and changes over time
 Chapter 13
measurement The process of describing some property of a phenomenon of interest, usually by
assigning numbers in a reliable and valid way

concept A generalized idea that represents something of meaning.

operationalization the process of identifying scales that correspond to variance in a concept to be

scales A device providing a range of values that correspond to different values in a concept being
measured.

correspondence rules Indicate the way that a certain value on a scale corresponds to some true value of
a concept

construct A term used to refer to concepts measured with multiple variables

nominal scales Represent the most elementary level of measurement in which values are assigned to an
object for identification or classification purposes only

ordinal scales Ranking scales allowing things to be arranged based on how much of some concept they
posses

interval scales is Scales that have both nominal and ordinal properties, but that also capture information
about differences in quantities of a concept from one observation to the next.

ratio scales Represent the highest form of measurement in that they have all the properties of interval
scales with the additional attribute of representing absolute quantities; characterized by a meaningful
absolute zero.

discrete measures that take on only one of a finite number of values

continuous measures that reflect the intensity of a concept by assigning values that can take on any
value along some scale range

attribute A single characteristic or fundamental feature of an object, person, situation, or issue.

index measure An index assigns a value based on how much of the concept being measured is
associated with an observation. Indexes often are formed by putting several variable together