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GLOBAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

ITS-1, IT Park, EPIP, Sitapura, Jaipur – 302022, Rajasthan – INDIA

E-mail: sunil.sharma@gitjaipur.com

LECTURE NOTES

Basic Mechanical Engineering

UNIT - I

BRANCH-All Streams

Prepared by - Mr. Sunil Sharma

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Introduction: Objective, Scope and Outcome of the Course

Objective 1: Understand the fundamentals of Mechanical Engineering.

Objective 2: Understand the basic working of Steam Boilers, Steam Turbines and Power Plants.

Objective 3: Understand the Pumps and IC Engines and Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Objective 4: Understand the Primary Manufacturing Processes

Objective 5: Understand the Engineering Materials and Heat Treatment of Steel.

Scope & Course outcomes-

Students will be able to

CO1- Identify and classify common machine elements with their functions and power transmission
devices.

CO-2 Explain the concept of design and mechanisms to acquire knowledge of mechanical engineering.

CO-3 Compare different manufacturing processes.

CO-4 Describe the working of different conventional machine tools.

CO-5 State and explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics.

CO-6 Apply knowledge of thermodynamics to different industrial applications.

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UNIT- I
RTU SYLLABUS

Fundamentals: Introduction to mechanical engineering, concepts of thermal engineering, mechanical

machine design, industrial engineering and manufacturing technology.

Steam Boilers classification and types of steam boilers and steam turbines. Introduction and
Classification of power plants.

BLOWN-UP

Contents
1 Fundamentals ................................................................................................................................. 5

1.1 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering ................................................................................. 5

1.2 Concept of Thermal Engineering ............................................................................................ 5

1.2.1 Basic Terminology ........................................................................................................... 6

1.2.2 Laws of Thermodynamics.............................................................................................. 11

1.2.3 Heat Transfer ................................................................................................................. 14

1.3 Mechanical Machine Design ................................................................................................. 14

1.3.1 Need of Mechanical Design ........................................................................................... 15

1.4 Concept of Industrial Engineering ........................................................................................ 15

1.5 Steam Boiler .......................................................................................................................... 15

1.5.1 Introduction of Steam Boilers ........................................................................................ 15

1.5.2 Boiler mountings ............................................................................................................ 16

1.5.3 Locomotive Boiler ......................................................................................................... 19

1.5.4 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler ........................................................................................... 21

1.5.5 Lamont Boiler ................................................................................................................ 21

1.5.6 Benson Boiler................................................................................................................. 22

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1.5.7 Advantages of High Pressure Boilers ............................................................................ 23

1.5.8 Characteristics of a Good Boiler .................................................................................... 23

1.5.9 Differences Between Fire Tube and Water Tube Boilers .............................................. 24

1.6 Steam Turbines ...................................................................................................................... 24

1.6.1 Introduction to Steam Turbines ..................................................................................... 24

1.6.2 Main parts of a Steam Turbine....................................................................................... 25

1.6.3 Types of Turbines .......................................................................................................... 25

1.6.4 Working of a Single Stage Impulse Turbine.................................................................. 26

1.6.5 Compounding of Impulse Steam Turbine ...................................................................... 27

1.6.6 Working of Parson’s Reaction Turbine ......................................................................... 28

1.6.7 Differences Between Impulse and Reaction Turbine .................................................... 29

1.7 Power Plants .......................................................................................................................... 29

1.7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 29

1.7.2 Classification of Power Plant ......................................................................................... 29

1.7.3 Nuclear Power Plant ...................................................................................................... 30

1.7.4 Diesel Power Plant ......................................................................................................... 31

1.7.5 Hydroelectric Power Plant ............................................................................................. 32

1.7.6 Steam Power plant ......................................................................................................... 33

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1 Fundamentals
1.1 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering
Mechanical engineering is an engineering discipline that combines engineering
physics and mathematics principles with materials science to design, analyze, manufacture, and
maintain mechanical systems. It is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering disciplines.

In addition to these core principles, mechanical engineers use tools such as computer-aided
design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), and product lifecycle management to design
and analyze manufacturing plants, industri al equipment and machinery, heating and cooling
systems, transport systems, aircraft, watercraft, robotics, medical devices, weapons, and others. It is
the branch of engineering that involves the design, production, and operation of machinery.

Mechanical engineering emerged as a field during the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th
century; however, its development can be traced back several thousand years around the world. In the
19th century, developments in physics led to the development of mechanical engineering science. The
field has continually evolved to incorporate advancements; today mechanical engineers are pursuing
developments in such areas as composites, mechatronics, and nanotechnology.

It also overlaps with aerospace engineering, metallurgical engineering, civil engineering, electrical
engineering, manufacturing engineering, chemical engineering, industrial engineering, and other
engineering disciplines to varying amounts. Mechanical engineers may also work in the field
of biomedical engineering, specifically with biomechanics, transport
phenomena, biomechatronics, bionanotechnology, and modelling of biological systems.

1.2 Concept of Thermal Engineering

A thermal engineer will have knowledge of thermodynamics and the process to convert generated
energy from thermal sources into chemical, mechanical, or electrical energy. A thermal engineer must
allow the proper amount of energy to be transferred for correct use. Too much and the components
could fail, too little and the system will not function at all. Thermal engineers must have an
understanding of economics and the components that they will be servicing or interacting with. Some
components that a thermal engineer could work with include heat exchangers, heat sinks, bi-metals
strips, radiators and many more. Some systems that require a thermal engineer include; Boilers, heat
pumps, water pumps, engines, and more.

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1.2.1 Basic Terminology

1.2.1.1 Thermodynamic Systems, Surrounding And Boundary
A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for the study. The mass or
region outside the system is called the surroundings.

The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary.
These terms are illustrated in Fig. 1-1 boundary of a system can be
fixed or movable. Note that the boundary is the contact surface shared
by both the system and the surroundings. Mathematically speaking,
the boundary has zero thickness, and thus it can neither contain any
mass nor occupy any volume in space.

Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on

Figure 1-1 System,
whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for the Surroundings and boundary
study. A closed system (also known as a control mass) consists of a
fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed
system, as shown in Fig. But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary; and the
volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed. If, as a special case, even energy is not allowed
to cross the boundary, that system is called an isolated system.

Consider the piston-cylinder device shown in Fig. 1-2. Let us

say that we would like to find out what happens to the enclosed
gas when it is heated. Since we are focusing our attention on
the gas, it is our system. The inner surfaces of the piston and
the cylinder form the boundary, and since no mass is crossing
this boundary, it is a closed system. Notice that energy may
cross the boundary, and part of the boundary (the inner surface
of the piston, in this case) may move. Everything outside the Figure 1-2 Closed system with moving
boundary
gas, including the piston and the cylinder, is the surroundings.

An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly selected region in space. It
usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle. Flow
through these devices is best studied by selecting the region within the device as the control volume.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.

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A large number of engineering problems involve mass flow in and out of a system and, therefore, are
modelled as control volumes. A water heater, a car radiator, a turbine, and a compressor all involve
mass flow and should be analyzed as control volumes (open systems) instead of as control masses
(closed systems). In general, any arbitrary region in space can be selected as a control volume. There
are no concrete rules for the selection of control volumes, but the proper choice certainly makes the
analysis much easier. If we were to analyze the flow of air through a nozzle, for example, a good choice
for the control volume would be the region within the nozzle.

The boundaries of a control volume are called a control surface, and they can be real or imaginary.
In the case of a nozzle, the inner surface of the nozzle forms the real part of the boundary, and the
entrance and exit areas form the imaginary part since there are no physical surfaces there (Fig. 1–3a).

A control volume can be fixed in

size and shape, as in the case of a
nozzle, or it may involve a
moving boundary, as shown in
Fig. 1–3b. Most control volumes,
however, have fixed boundaries
and thus do not involve any
moving boundaries. A control
Figure 1-3 Control volume with different boundaries.
volume can also involve heat
and work interactions just as a closed system, in addition to mass interaction. As an example of an
open system, consider the domestic water heater. Let us say that we would like to determine how much
heat we must transfer to the water in the tank to supply a steady stream of hot water. Since hot water
will leave the tank and be replaced by cold water, it is not convenient to choose a fixed mass as our
system for the analysis. Instead, we can concentrate our attention on the volume formed by the interior
surfaces of the tank and consider the hot and cold water streams as mass leaving and entering the
control volume. The interior surfaces of the tank form the control surface for this case, and mass is
crossing the control surface at two locations.

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1.2.1.2 Thermodynamic Properties

Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar properties are pressure P,
temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list can be extended to include less familiar ones such as
viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric
resistivity, and even velocity and elevation.

Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.

Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of
a system, such as a temperature, pressure, and density. Extensive
properties are those whose values depend on the size or extent of
the system. The total mass, total volume, and total momentum are
some examples of extensive properties. An easy way to determine
whether a property is intensive or extensive is to divide the system
into two equal parts with an imaginary partition, as shown in Fig.
1–4. Each part will have the same value of intensive properties as
the original system, but half the value of the extensive properties.

Generally, uppercase letters are used to denote extensive properties

(with mass m being a major exception), and lowercase letters are Figure 1-4 Criterion to differentiate
intensive and extensive properties.
used for intensive properties (with pressure P and temperature T
being the obvious exceptions).

Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties. Some examples of specific
properties are specific volume (v =V/m) and specific total energy (e =E/m).

Pressure
The pressure in general exerted by the matter in the system on unit area of the surface is described as
the pressure at the point. But in a gas, the kinetic theory of gases explains the concept of pressure. In
a gas, the pressure is a force caused by the rapid motion of molecules and the molecules colliding on
the surface. This is due to the change in momentum of these molecules. The pressure at a point in gas
is found to be proportional to the square of the average velocity of the molecules and the number of
molecules in the control volume. The pressure in a gas can be measured using a pressure gauge. Since
the gas relative to the atmosphere. Such pressure is called gauge pressure. But the absolute pressure is
calculated by adding atmospheric pressure to the gauge pressure.

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure.

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For vacuum pressures the equation becomes

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure – Gauge Pressure.

Figure 1-5 Relationship between pressures

1 Pa = 1 N/m2

1 bar = 105 Pa = 100kPa = 0.1Mpa = 105 N/m2

1 atm = 1.01325 bar = 1.01325 x 105 Pa = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa

The pressure can also be measured by a manometer using a suitable liquid and the liquid and the
pressure measured as a height of liquid column.

The absolute pressure can be calculated with the help of the following expression,

Pabs= ρ g h

where,

h = liquid column height

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ρ = density of the liquid and

g = acceleration due to gravity.
Volume
From the macroscopic perspective, the description of matter is simplified by considering it to be
distributed continuously throughout a region. The correctness of this idealization, known as the
continuum hypothesis, is inferred from the fact that for an extremely large class of phenomena of
engineering interest the resulting description of the behaviour of matter is in agreement with measured
data.

The Specific volume v is defined as the reciprocal of the density, v= 1/ρ. It is the volume per unit mass.
Like density, specific volume is an intensive property and may vary from point to point. SI units for
density and specific volume are kg/m3 and m3/kg, respectively. However, they are also often expressed,
respectively, as g/cm3 and cm3/g. English units used for density and specific volume in this text are
lb/ft3 and ft3/lb, respectively.

In certain applications, it is convenient to express properties such as the specific volume on a molar
basis rather than on a mass basis. A mole is an amount of a given substance numerically equal to its
molecular weight. We generally express the amount of substance on a molar basis in terms of the
kilomole (kmol) or the pound mole (lbmol).

In each case we use n = m/ M

The number of kilomoles of a substance, n, is obtained by dividing the mass, m, in kilograms by the
molecular weight, M, in kg/kmol. Similarly, the number of pound moles, n, is obtained by dividing the
mass, m, in pound-mass by the molecular weight, M, in lb/lbmol. When m is in grams, Above equation
gives n in gram moles or mol for short.

ῡ = Mv

where, M is the molecular weight in kg/kmol; ῡ is the volume per kmol.

Density
The density, or local mass per unit volume, is an intensive property that may vary from point to point
within a system. Thus, the mass associated with a particular volume V is determined in principle by
integration

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and not simply as the product of density and volume.

The density of a substance, in general, depends on temperature and pressure. The density of most gases
is proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to temperature. Liquids and solids, on the other
hand, are essentially incompressible substances, and the variation of their density with pressure is
usually negligible. At 20°C, for example, the density of water changes from 998 kg/m 3 at 1 atm to
1003 kg/m3 at 100 atm, a change of just 0.5 percent. The density of liquids and solids depends more
strongly on temperature than it does on pressure. At 1 atm, for example, the density of water changes
from 998 kg/m3 at 20°C to 975 kg/m3 at 75°C, a change of 2.3 percent, which can still be neglected in
many engineering analyses.

Sometimes the density of a substance is given relative to the density of a well-known substance. Then
it is called specific gravity, or relative density, and is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance
to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C, for which
ρwater =1000 kg/m3).

1.2.2 Laws of Thermodynamics

1.2.2.1 Temperature and Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Although we are familiar with temperature as a measure of “hotness” or “coldness,” it is not easy to
give an exact definition for it. Based on our physiological sensations, we express the level of
temperature qualitatively with words like freezing cold, cold, warm, hot, and red-hot. However, we
cannot assign numerical values to temperatures based on our sensations alone. Furthermore, our senses
may be misleading. A metal chair, for example, will feel much colder than a wooden one even when
both are at the same temperature.

Fortunately, several properties of materials change with temperature in a repeatable and predictable
way, and this forms the basis for accurate temperature measurement. The commonly used mercury-in-
glass thermometer, for example, is based on the expansion of mercury with temperature. Temperature
is also measured by using several other temperature-dependent properties.

It is a common experience that a cup of hot coffee left on the table eventually cools off and a cold
drink eventually warms up. That is, when a body is brought into contact with another body that is at a
different temperature, heat is transferred from the body at higher temperature to the one at lower
temperature until both bodies attain the same temperature. At that point, the heat transfer stops, and
the two bodies are said to have reached thermal equilibrium. The equality of temperature is the only
requirement for thermal equilibrium.
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The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third
body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. It may seem silly that such an obvious fact
is called one of the basic laws of thermodynamics. However, it cannot be concluded from the other
laws of thermodynamics, and it serves as a basis for the validity of temperature measurement. By
replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can be
restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same
temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

In other words: If two systems (say A and B) are in thermal equilibrium

with a third system (say C) separately (that is A and C are in thermal
Figure 1-6 Thermal equilibrium of
equilibrium; B and C are in thermal equilibrium) then they are in thermal bodies

equilibrium themselves (that is A and B will be in thermal equilibrium).

The zeroth law was first formulated and labeled by R. H. Fowler in 1931. As the name suggests, its
value as a fundamental physical principle was recognized more than half a century after the
formulation of the first and the second laws of thermodynamics. It was named the zeroth law since it
should have preceded the first and the second laws of thermodynamics.

1.2.2.2 First Law of Thermodynamics

This is also known as the conservation of energy principle. This provides a sound basis for studying
the relationship among the various from of energy and energy transformations. First law states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only change forms. Energy is conserved property
and no process is known to have taken place in violation of the First Law of Thermodynamics.

[Net energy transfer to (or from) the system as heat and work] = [Net increase (or decrease) in the

total energy of the system].

(Q – W) = ∆E

where Q = net heat transfer across boundaries

(Q in – Q out )

W = net work done in all form

(W out – W in)

∆E = net change in total energy of system = E2 – E1.

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∆E = ∆U + ∆KE + ∆PE

Q–W = ∆U + ∆KE + ∆PE

1.2.2.3 Second Law of Thermodynamics

A cup of the tea left in a room eventually cools off. This process satisfies the First Law of
Thermodynamics as the energy lost by the tea is gained by the surrounding air. Now consider the
reverse process, tea which is at room temperature becoming hot by absorbing energy from the
surroundings. We all know very well that this process cannot take place.

Even though it perfectly obeys First Law of Thermodynamics, (i.e.) heat gained by tea is equal to heat
lost by the surroundings, this process cannot take place. It is clear from the above example that
processes can process can proceed in certain direction only, which is not taken care of by the First Law
of Thermodynamics. This inadequacy is taken care of by the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Kelvin-Planck's Statement : "It is

impossible to construct an engine working
on cyclic process whose sole purpose is to
convert all the heat supplied to it into
equivalent amount of work."

Clausius’ Statement : "Heat flows from a hot object to a

cold object unaided but it cannot flow from a cold object to
a hotter object without the expenditure of mechanical
energy."

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1.2.3 Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and
exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various
mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy
by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species, either cold
or hot, to achieve heat transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur
simultaneously in the same system.

Heat conduction, also called diffusion, is the direct

microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles
through the boundary between two systems. When an
object is at a different temperature from another body or its
surroundings, heat flows so that the body and the
surroundings reach the same temperature, at which point
they are in thermal equilibrium. Such spontaneous heat
transfer always occurs from a region of high temperature
to another region of lower temperature, as described in the second law of thermodynamics.

Heat convection occurs when bulk flow of a fluid (gas or liquid) carries heat along with the flow of
matter in the fluid. The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, or sometimes (in
gravitational fields) by buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid (for example
in a fire plume), thus influencing its own transfer. The latter process is often called "natural
convection". All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion, as well. Another form of
convection is forced convection. In this case the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump, fan or other
mechanical means.

Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent medium (solid or fluid or gas). It is the
transfer of energy by means of photons in electromagnetic waves governed by the same laws.

1.3 Mechanical Machine Design

Machine Design or Mechanical Design can be defined as the process by which resources or energy is
converted into useful mechanical forms, or the mechanisms so as to obtain useful output from the
machines in the desired form as per the needs of the human beings. Machine design can lead to the
formation of the entirely new machine or it can lead to up-gradation or improvement of the existing
machine. For instance if the existing gearbox is too heavy or cannot sustain the actual loads, entirely

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new gearbox can be designed. But if the same gearbox has the potential to lift more loads, it can be
upgraded by making certain important changes in its design.

1.3.1 Need of Mechanical Design

It is used to design machine parts, machine tools, components of a machine, products, or systems
of mechanical nature. For example, designs of various machine elements such as shafts, bearings,
clutches, gears, and fasteners fall into the scope of mechanical design.

1.4 Concept of Industrial Engineering

In order to maximize his earnings and enhance his living standards, man has always attempted to
improve his processes, methods and tools in order to improve the productivity of his resources. That
continued effort gave birth the joint of Industrial Engineering and Production Management.

About the concept of Industrial Engineering, some autors tell us that Industrial Engineering is
concerned with the design, improvement and installation of integrated system of men, material and
machines for the benefit of mankind. It draws upon specialized knowledge and skills in the
mathematical and physical sciences together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis
and design to specify predict and evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems.

1.5 Steam Boiler

1.5.1 Introduction of Steam Boilers
A steam boiler is a power generation device, used for
generating steam by applying the heat energy to water. The
pressure range of earlier boilers ranges from low pressure to
medium pressure (7 kPa to 2000 kPa/ 1psi to 290 psi). The
present boilers are more useful because it works with high
pressure than old ones. This boiler is very used whenever a
steam source is necessary, and the size, type mainly depends
on the type of application like mobile steam engines which
includes handy engines, steam locomotives, and road
vehicles. These vehicles include a mini boiler that can be
worked with steam power. Generally, power stations or
stationary steam engines have a separate large steam generating capacity.

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1.5.2 Boiler mountings

Boiler mountings are a set of safety device installed for the safe operation of a boiler. There are seven
main mountings on a boiler shell; safety valve, steam stop valve, vent valve, pressure gauge, water
level indicator, feed check valve and fusible plug.

These equipment save the boiler from damage due to extreme pressure, steam back flow, shell collapse
due to vacuum, unregulated steam pressure, low water level, back flow of feed water to the pump and
dry running respectively.

Regular accidents and boiler break down can happen due to improper maintenance and cleaning.
Without boiler mounting one can damage boiler and its surrounding with one mistake followed by a
series of events.

1. Safety valve

Safety valves are fitted on every boiler to avoid over

pressurizing. Normally three safety valves are fitted on the
boiler with one on the super heater and rest two on steam drum.
In no condition these valves be less than two in number and
must lift at a pressure 3% above boiler working pressure
irrespective of boiler types.

A steam valve is made up of cast iron body with two

independent valves fitted on the valve seat. These valves are
connected to a lever by means of a pivot held tight to its position by spring. The spring force keep the
valve sit shut on the valve seat under normal condition. When the upward pressure exceeds the
downward spring force; the valve is lifted and excess steam is released to the atmosphere.

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2. Steam stop valve

A steam stop valve is connected to the boiler to stop and regulate

steam flow from boiler to the distribution lines. Main steam stop
valve on boiler is kept shut to avoid back-flow of steam to the boiler.
The flange of the steam stop valve is bolted on top of the steam drum.
Valve main body is made of cast iron while the valve seat is made
from gun metal. The spindle on one end is connected to the valve
while the other end to the handle wheel passing through ( yoke /
Gland nut ) and gland packing. The valve is operated by rotating the
hand wheel. Rotating hand wheel in turn rotate the spindle which move the valve up allowing path for
steam to flow.

3. Vent valve

Vent valve is installed on the boiler shell to vent air from

steam drum during starting of boiler. These vent valves also
comes handy during boiler shut down as it let fresh air to
enter the boiler drum avoiding its collapse under pressure.
A vent valve can also be used to release / dump moist steam
at start.

4. Pressure gauge

Pressure gauge are fitted to the steam drum and super heater to indicate steam pressure inside. These
gauge are fitted on the front top of the boiler shell and represent pressure in bar. A bourdon tube of
closed cross section is attached to the steam space on one end through siphon tube. The tube itself
contain water to avoid steam to enter into the pressure gauge. The pointer is connected to the threaded
gear attached to the spindle. When pressure is applied to the bourdon tube it becomes circular turning
the spindle. This cause the pointer to move along with the gear; representing the boiler pressure.

5. Water level indicator

A pair of water level indicator is installed directly to the boiler shell with an additional remote reading
gauge installed at convenient position. They are installed directly on the front end of all boiler types;
showing water level in boiler drum. It consist of a glass tube with three independent cock ( Steam cock,
water cock and drain cock ).

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Steam and water cock separates the glass tube with boiler steam and water respectively. Drain cock on
other hand used to drain water from glass tube. A metal ball is provided on the water side of the gauge
glass to avoid subsequent accident and water loss; by water flashing off steam in event of glass rapture
/ failure.

Under normal condition both steam and water cock is open allowing water and steam pressure to
balance. In event of incorrect reading we need to blow through; by closing the water cock and opening
drain cock. A strong blow will indicate the steam cock is clear; now repeat the process with steam cock
closed and water cock opened. Strong blow of steam with hissing sound indicate the water cock is
clear. Now close the drain cock and let water fill in; slowly open the steam cock equalizing the
pressure.

6. Feed check valve

A feed check valve is a non return valve type fitted on the boiler shell just below the normal water
level. It regulates the flow of feed water restricting possible back flow to the feed pump. These valves
are usually fitted with extended spindle for remote operation. The inlet and outlet point of these valves
are exposed to different pressure. When the feed pump is operational; sufficient pressure is build at
the inlet point of the valve. When the inlet pressure is more than the outlet point the valve lift allowing
water to pass to the boiler.

7. Fusible plug

A fusible plug is the threaded gunmetal cylinder with conical plug and tappet hole drilled into it. This
This hole is then filled with an alloy of low melting point such as tin. The plug can be of either fire
actuated or steam actuated type fitted over the combustion chamber.

Under normal condition one side of the plug is exposed to extreme temperature while the other
submerged under water; keeping it cool. This low melting point alloy can not melt away till submerged
and so remain intact even under extreme condition.

In event of water level reach below a safe limit and plug tip is exposed to steam; the tin alloy will melt
exposing combustion chamber with steam. As steam is not effective coolant and convection medium
the tin alloy can’t transfer heat to the steam leading it to melt away. This sudden injection of steam
into the furnace will stop the combustion protecting boiler from any damage.

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1.5.3 Locomotive Boiler

A locomotive boiler is a device which is used to create steam from water by using heat energy. It is a
horizontal drum axis, multi-tubular, natural circulation, artificial draft, forced circulation, mobile,
medium pressure, solid fuel fired fire tube boiler that has an internal fire furnace. It is capable of
producing high steam rate and hence it is used for railway locomotive engines and in marines.

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Figure 1-7 locomotive boiler

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1.5.4 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

It is a Horizontal drum axis, natural draft, natural circulation, multitubular, stationary, high pressure,
solid fuel fired, externally fired water tube boiler.

It was discovered by George Herman Babcock and Stephen Wilcox in the year 1967. And if was named
after its discoverer as Babcock and Wilcox boiler.

1.5.5 Lamont Boiler

A LaMont boiler is a
type of forced-
circulation water-tube
boiler in which the boiler
water is circulated
through an external pump
through long closely
spaced tubes of small
diameter. The mechanical
pump is employed in
order to have an adequate
and positive circulation in
steam and hot water
boilers.

A centrifugal pump which

forms the heart of this
boiler is responsible to
circulate water within the boiler system. It receives water from the drum and delivers this water to a
distribution header as shown in the diagram here. The number of headers may differ in numbers and
depends on the size and boiler design of each boiler.

The boiler heating surfaces includes a number of tubes arranged in a parallel form and the inlet ends
are welded to the distributors or the headers. A circulation pressure is to be provided during the
installation of the pump as per the boiler design and it should be sufficient to over come the resistance
offered by the tubes. An even circulation takes place with the helps of the inlet nozzles provided at the
inlet of tubes which creates the differential pressure adequate to cover the variations occurring at

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fluctuating loads or uneven firing conditions. The riser tubes outlet is welded to the collector headers
and also directly to the drum containing steam and water.

1.5.6 Benson Boiler

Benson Boiler is a high
pressure, drum less,
supercritical, water tube
steam boiler with forced
circulation. This boiler
was invented in the year
1922 by Mark Benson.
This boiler is a super
critical boiler in which
the feed water is
compressed to a
supercritical pressure
and this prevents the
formation of bubbles in
the water tube surface. The bubbles do not form because at supercritical pressure the density of water and
steam becomes same. It was Mark Benson who first proposed the idea to compress the water at supercritical
pressure before heating into boiler and due to this the latent heat of water reduces to zero. As the latent heat
of water reduces to zero the water directly changes into steam without the formation of bubbles.

It works on the principle that the pressure of the water is increased to the supercritical pressure (i.e. above
critical pressure of 225 bar). When the pressure of water is increased to the super critical level, the latent
heat of water becomes Zero and due to this, it directly changes into steam without boiling. And this prevents
the formation of bubbles at tube surface.

In Benson Boiler, the feed pump increases the pressure of the water to the supercritical pressure and then
it enters into the economiser. From economiser, the water the water passes to the radiant heater. Here the
water receives the heat through radiation and partly gets converted into steam. The temperature raises
almost to the supercritical temperature. After that mixture of steam and water enters into convective
evaporator where it is completely converted into steam and may superheated to some degree. Finally it is
passed through the superheater to obtained the desired superheated steam. This superheated steam is then
used by turbines or engine to produce the electricity.

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1.5.7 Advantages of High Pressure Boilers

 High-pressure boilers use the forced circulation of water which ensures the positive circulation
of water and increased evaporative capacity.
 They require less heat of vaporization.
 They are compact and thus require less floor space.
 Due to the high velocity of water, the tendency of scale formation is minimized.
 All parts are uniformly heated and the danger of overheating is minimized.
 The steam can be raised quickly to meet the variable load requirements without the use of
complicated control devices.
 The plant efficiency is increased.
 With the use of high-pressure boilers, the steam generation is economical.
1.5.8 Characteristics of a Good Boiler
A good boiler should have the following characteristics:
1. The boiler should have maximum steam generation rate with minimum fuel consumption.
2. It can be started or stopped quickly.
3. Its initial cost, running and maintenance cost should not be high.
4. Its erection time should be less, and its parts should be easily dismantable.
5. The boiler should have positive controls and safety apparatus.
6. It should have a high rate of heat transfer and better combustion efficiency.
7. It should be able to accommodate the load variation.
8. It should occupy less floor space.
9. It should be trouble free and require less attention and less maintenance.
10. It should be free from manufacturing defects.
11. Mud should not get deposited on the heating surface. Soot or scale should not be deposited
on the tubes.
12. All parts of the boiler should be accessible for cleaning and inspection.
13. It should conform to Indian Indian Boilers Regulations Acts.

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1.5.9 Differences Between Fire Tube and Water Tube Boilers

1.6 Steam Turbines

1.6.1 Introduction to Steam Turbines
A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to
do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by Charles
Parsons in 1884.

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The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic
efficiency from the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam, which results in a closer
approach to the ideal reversible expansion process. Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is
particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator about 85% of all electricity generation in
the United States in the year 2014 was by use of steam turbines.

1.6.2 Main parts of a Steam Turbine

The main parts of a steam turbine are

1 Nozzles: in steam turbines, normally, convergent-divergent type of nozzles are used. When steam
flows through the nozzle, there is a pressure drop which is converted into velocity or kinetic energy.
The nozzles also guides the steam in the proper direction to strike the blades. The nozzles are kept
very close to the blades to minimize the losses.
2 Rotor: The Rotor or runner consists of a circular disc fixed to a horizontal shaft. The rotor is mounted
on suitable bearings.
3 Blades: on the periphery of the rotor, a large no. of blades are fixed. The steam jet from the nozzle
impringes on the surface of the blades due to which the rotor rotates. The surface of the blades is
made smooth to reduce frictional losses.
4 Casing: it is a steam tight steel casing which encloses the rotor, blades etc. in a multistage turbine,
the casing also accommodates the fixed blades. The casing helps the flow of steam and also protects
the inner parts from any accidents.

1.6.3 Types of Turbines

Depending on their operating pressures, size, construction and lots of alternative parameters, there are
two basic varieties of steam turbines.

1. Impulse Turbine
2. Reaction Turbine

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1.6.4 Working of a Single Stage Impulse Turbine

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1.6.5 Compounding of Impulse Steam Turbine

In multistage impulse turbines,there are three type of compounding, namely, pressure compounding,
velocity compounding and pressure- velocity compounding.

Pressure Compounding

The pressure drop or expansion of steam is done in more than one set of nozzles and each set of
nozzles is followed by weight of moving blades.

Velocity Compounding

Hear the entire expansion of a steam occurs in one set of nozzle resulting in a very high velocity at the
outlet. The steam is then passed through several sets of moving blades, followed by fixed blades.
Moving blades are fitted on the rotor while the fixed blades are fixed on the casing. The function of
the fixed blades is to change the direction of steam and guide the steam in the proper angle to the next
set of moving blades.

Pressure Velocity Compounding

In power plants, pressure velocity compounding is more common. In this arrangement , for each
pressure stage there is a velocity Staging. a two stage pressure velocity compounding shown in figure.
In practice there will be more than 20 stages in a power station.

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1.6.6 Working of Parson’s Reaction Turbine

In this turbine, the power is obtained mainly by an impulsive force of the incoming steam and small
reactive force of the outgoing steam. This turbine consists of a rotor of varying diameter. Moving
blades are fixed on he rotor. The diameter of casing also varies. Fixed blades are attached to the casing.
Steam is admitted to the first set of moving blades through nozzles. The blades receive the impulse
force of the incoming steam. Then it goes to fixed blades which act as nozzles. Thus, steam flows
alternatively through moving and fixed blades.

Figure 1-8 Parsons reaction turbine

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1.6.7 Differences Between Impulse and Reaction Turbine

1.7 Power Plants

1.7.1 Introduction
Power plants are used for the generation of electrical power. To improve the standard of living, rapid
industrialization is necessary for which adequate electrical power is essential.

1.7.2 Classification of Power Plant

These can be classified as follows:

1. Nuclear power plant

2. Diesel power plant
3. Hydroelectric power plant
4. Steam power plant
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1.7.3 Nuclear Power Plant

Figure 1-9 Nuclear reaction

Nuclear Fission Large amount of heat energy is derived by fissioning of the nucleus of a fissionable
material like U235 , when a neutron bombards the nucleus of U235, the atom splits into Krypton and
barium and releases 2.47 fast moving neutrons and also produces a large amount of heat energy.

As in figure, one of the neutrons released during the fission continues to fission another nucleus of
U235 causing a chain reaction which produces enormous amount of heat energy about 0.9 neutron is
captured by U235 which gets converted to fissionable material Pu239 and about 0.6 neutrons is partly
absorbed by the moderator and a part escapes from the reactor Pu239 is a fissionable material and is
called secondary nuclear fuel.

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1.7.4 Diesel Power Plant

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1.7.5 Hydroelectric Power Plant

In a hydro electric power plant, the potential energy of water stored in a dam is made use of in running
a water turbine coupled to an electric generator. It is estimated that more than 23 percent of the total
electric power in the world comes from hydro power.

India is the 7th largest producer of hydroelectric power in the world. As of 30 April 2017, India's
installed utility-scale hydroelectric capacity was 44,594 MW, or 13.5% of its total utility power
generation capacity. Additional smaller hydroelectric power units with a total capacity of 4,380 MW
(1.3% of its total utility power generation capacity) have been installed. India's hydroelectric power
potential is estimated at 148,700 MW at 60% load factor.

Hydropower plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity. A turbine converts the
kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy. Then a generator converts the mechanical
energy from the turbine into electrical energy.

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1.7.6 Steam Power plant

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