Toward a Design Theory of Problem SoMng

LI David H. Jonassen -

Problem solving is generally regarded as the o Gagne believed that “the central point of edu-
most important cognitive activity in everyday cation is to teach people to think, to use their
and professional contexts. Most people are rational powers, to become better problem solv-
required to and rewardedfor solving problems. ers” (1980, p. 85). Like Cagne, most psycholo-
However, learning to solve problems is too gists and educators regard problem solving as
seldom required informal educational settings, the most important learning outcome for lIfe.
in part, because our understanding ofits Why? Virtually everyone, in their everyday and
processes is limited. Instructional—design professional lives, regularly solves problems.
research and theory has devoted too little Few, if any, people are rewarded in their profes-
attention to the study ofproblem -solving sional lives for memorizing information and
processes. In this article, I describe differences completing examinations, yet examinations are
among problems in terms of their the primary arbiter of success in sodety. Unfor-
structuredness, domain specificity tunately, students are rarely, if ever, recpted to
(abstractness), and complexity. Then, I briefly solve meaningful problems as part of their cur-
describe a variety of’individual differences ricula. The few problems that students do
(factors internal to the problem solver) that encounter are nonnally well-structured (story)
affect problem solving. Finally, I articulate a problems, which are inconsistent with the
typology of problems, each type ofwhich nature of the problems they wIll need to learn to
engages different cognitive, affective, and solve in their everyday lives (“How can I get so-
conative processes and therefore necessitates and-so to pay attention to me?”), professional
dzfl’erent instructional support. The purpose of lives (“What kind of marketing approach is
this paper is to propose a metatheory of appropriate for this new product line?”), or even
problem solving in order to initiate dialogue their school lives (“Should I spend the next two
and research rather than offering a definitive hours studying for my math exam or go outside
answer regarding its processes. and play ball with my Mends?”). Therefore,
graduates are rarely, if ever, adequately pre-
pared to function in everyday and professional
contexts following education and training. The
discrepancy between what learners need (com-
plex, ill-structured problem-solving experience)
I This paper represents an effort to introduce issues and and what formal education (schools and corpo-
concerns related to problem solvIng to the instructional
design community. I do not presmne that the community is rate training) provides represents a complex and
ignorant of problem solving or its literature, only that too
little effort has been expended by the field in articulating
~ problem that instructional design
design models for problem solving. There are many reasons may be able to ameliorate.
for that stateof affairs. Why are we so inept at engaging learners in
The curse of any introductory paper is the lack of depth in problem solving? A major reason, I argue, is that
the treatment of these issues. To explicate each of the issues
raised in this paper would require a book (which is we do not understand the breadth of problem-
forthcoming), which makes it onpublishable in a journal. My solving activities well enough to engage and
purpose here is to introduce these issues in order to stimulate
support learners in them. Problem solving has
discussion, research, and development of problem-solving
instruction that will help us to articulate better design never been sufficiently acknowledged or articu-
models. lated in the instructional design literature. With

ETR&D. Vol. 48, No.4. 2(flI. pp. 63-85 ISSN 1042-1629 63

Table 1 El A description of problem lypes.

Rule- Decision
Logical Algorithmic Story Using making
Problems Problems Problems Problems Problems

Learning logical procedural disambiguate procedural identifying

Activity control and sequence of variables; process benefits and
manipulation manipulations; select and constrained limitations;
of limited algorithmic apply by rules; weighting
variables; process algorithm to select and options;
solve puzzle applied to produce apply rules selecting
similar sets correct to produce alternative
ofvariables; answer using system- and $stifying
Calculating prescribed constrained
or producing method answers or
correct answer products

Inputs puzzle formula or story with situation in decision

procedure formula or constrained situation with
procedure system; limited
embedded finite rules alternative
outcomes

Success Criteria efficient answer or answer or productivity answer or

manipulation; product matches product matches (number of product
number of in values in values and relevant or matches
moves or and form form; correct useful in values
manipulations algorithm answers or and form
required used products

Context abstract task abstract, constrained to purposeful life decisions

formulaic pre-defined academic,
elements, real world,
shallow context constrained

Stucturedness ‘ discovered procedural well-defined unpredicted finite

predictable problem classes; outcome outcomes
procedural
predictable

Abstractness abstract, abstract, limited need-based personally

discovery procedural simulation situated

Table continua

oriented knowledge structures and the lack or of conceptual understanding of the underlying
absence of conceptual understanding of the processes. This is a common complaint about
objects of the algorithm and the procedures learning statistics, where professors focus on the
engaged. Content that is learned only-as aproce- algorithms and miss the purpose of studying the
dure can rarely be transferred because of a lack statistical analysis. Learners who are adept at
TOWARD A DESIGN THEORY OF PROBLEM SOLVENG 75

Table 1 El Continued.
Trouble- Diagnosis- Strategic Case
shooting Solution Perfvrmance Analysis Design
Problems Problems Problems Problems problems Dilemmas

examine troubleshoot applying solution acting on reconciling

system; run system faults; tactics identification, goals to complex,
tests; evaluate select and to meet altemative produce non-
results; hypo- evaluate strategy in actions, artifact predictive,
thesize and treatment real-time, argue problem vexing
confirm fault options and complex position structuring decision
states using monitor; performance & with no
strategies (re- apply maintaining articulation solution;
place, serial problem situational perspectives
elimination, schemas awareness irreconcil-
space split) able

malfunctioning complex real-time, complex, vague goal situation

system with one system with complex leisure-time statement with
or more faults faults and performance system with with few antinomous
numerous with competing multiple constraints; positions
optional needs ill-defined requires
solutions goals structuring

fault(s) strategy used; achieving multiple, multiple, articulated

identification; effectiveness strategic unciear undefined preference
efficiency of and efficiency objective criteria; no with some
fault isolation; of treatment; right or wrong justification
justification of —only better
treatment or worse
selected

closed system real world, real-time real world, complex, topical,

real world technical, performance constrained real world; complex,
mostlyclosed degrees of inter-
system freedom; disciplinary
limited input
& feedback

finite faults & finite faults & ill-structured ill-structured ill-structured finite
outcomes outcomes strategies; outcomes,
well-structured multiple
tactics reasoning

problem problem contxtually case problem Sue

situated situated situated situated situated situated

abstract reasoning can learn increasingly com- Stow Problems

plex algorithms, such as those encountered in
calculus, trigonometry, and other mathematics In an attempt to situate algorithms in some kind
domains. Global reasoning learners are limited of context, many textbook authors and teachers
in their ability to create such abstract representa- employ story problems (also known as word
tions of procedures, so they encounter problems. problems). Story problems have been exten-
76 ETR&D. Vol. 46. N0 4

Table 2 El Examples of problem types.

Logical Problems
Tower of Hanoi; Cannabals & Missionaries; how can I divide the water in the firstjug and second jug using
only threejugs; Rubic’s Cube; draw four straight lines on 3 x 3 array of dots without removing pen from
paper; divide triangular cake into four equal pieces

Algorithms
Factor quadratic equation; convert Farenheit to Celsius temperatures; bisect any given angle

Story Problems
How long for car A to overtake car B traveling at different speeds; apply Boyle’s law to problem statement;
calculate reagents needed to form a specific precipitate in a chemical reaction; most back-of-the-chapter
textbookproblems

Rule-Using Problem
Search an online catalog for best resources; expand recipes for 10 guests; how many flight hours are required-
to pay off a 777; prove angles of isosoles triangle are equal; calculating material needed for addition; change
case to subjunctive

Decision-Making Problems
Should I move in order to take another job; which school should my daughter attend; which benefits package
should Iselect; which strategy is appropriate for a chess board configuration; how am I going to pay this bill;
what’s the best way to get to the interstate during rush hour; how long should my story be

Troubleshooting Problems
Troubleshoot inoperative modem; whywon’t car start; determine chemicals present in qualitative analysic:
determine why newspaper article is poorly written; identify communication breakdowns in a committee;
determine why local economy is inflationary despite national trends; isolate cause of inadequate elasticity in
polymer process; why are trusses showing premature stressing; why is milk production down on dairy farm

Diagnosis-Solution Problems
Virtually any kind of medical diagnosis and treatment; how should I study for the final exam; identifying
and treating turfgrassproblems on a golf course; develop individual plan of instruction for special education
students

Strategic Performance
Flying an airplane; driving a car in different conditions; managing investment portfolio; how can I avoid
interacting with person X; moving to next level in Pokemon game; teaching in live class; arguing points of
law before court

Situated Case—Policy Problems

Harvard business cases; plan a menu forforeign dignitaries; render judgment in any tort case; develop policy-
for condominium association; evaluate performance of a stock portfolio; how should Microsoft be split up

Design Problems
Design instructional intervention given situation; write a short story; compose a fugue; design a bridge; makt’
a paper airplane; design a dog house; design a vehicle that flies; developing curriculum for school; plan
marketing campaign for new Internet company; develop investment strategy for money market fund

Dilemmas
Should abortions be banned; resolve Kosovo crisis; negotiate peace between Hutus and Tutsis in Rwanda;
redistribute wealth through tax policies; develop bipartisan bill forUS. Congress that will pass with ½
majority

Note: Conditions (parameters, constraints, restraintsl and pertormancestandards notincluded. These necessarily affect the
structuredness, complexity, and abstractness of problems and so will affect categorization of the problernx