PL/SQL

Basiscs of PL/SQL

1. What is PL/SQL ?
PL/SQL is a procedural language that has both
interactive SQL and procedural programming
language constructs such as iteration, conditional
branching.

2. What is the basic structure of PL/SQL ?

PL/SQL uses block structure as its basic

structure. Anonymous blocks or nested blocks can
be used in PL/SQL.

3. What are the components of a PL/SQL block ?

A set of related declarations and procedural

statements is called block.

4. What are the components of a PL/SQL Block ?

Declarative part, Executable part and Execption

part.

Datatypes PL/SQL
5. What are the datatypes a available in PL/SQL ?

Some scalar data types such as NUMBER,

VARCHAR2, DATE, CHAR, LONG, BOOLEAN.
Some composite data types such as RECORD &
TABLE.

6. What are % TYPE and % ROWTYPE ? What are

the advantages of using these over datatypes?

% TYPE provides the data type of a variable or a

database column to that variable.

% ROWTYPE provides the record type that

represents a entire row of a table or view or columns
selected in the cursor.

The advantages are : I. Need not know about

variable's data type
ii. If the database definition of a column in a table
changes, the data type of a variable changes
accordingly.

7. What is difference between % ROWTYPE and

TYPE RECORD ?

% ROWTYPE is to be used whenever query

returns a entire row of a table or view.
TYPE rec RECORD is to be used whenever query
returns columns of different
table or views and variables.

E.g. TYPE r_emp is RECORD (eno emp.empno

% type,ename emp ename %type
);
e_rec emp% ROWTYPE
cursor c1 is select empno,deptno from emp;
e_rec c1 %ROWTYPE.

8. What is PL/SQL table ?

Objects of type TABLE are called "PL/SQL

tables", which are modelled as (but not the same
as) database tables, PL/SQL tables use a primary
PL/SQL tables can have one column and a primary
key.

Cursors

9. What is a cursor ? Why Cursor is required ?

Cursor is a named private SQL area from where

information can be accessed. Cursors are required
to process rows individually for queries returning
multiple rows.

10. Explain the two type of Cursors ?

There are two types of cursors, Implict Cursor and

Explicit Cursor.
PL/SQL uses Implict Cursors for queries.
User defined cursors are called Explicit Cursors.
They can be declared and used.

11. What are the PL/SQL Statements used in cursor

processing ?

DECLARE CURSOR cursor name, OPEN cursor

name, FETCH cursor name INTO or Record types,
CLOSE cursor name.

12. What are the cursor attributes used in PL/SQL ?

%ISOPEN - to check whether cursor is open or not

% ROWCOUNT - number of rows
fetched/updated/deleted.
% FOUND - to check whether cursor has fetched
any row. True if rows are fetched.
% NOT FOUND - to check whether cursor has
fetched any row. True if no rows are fetched.
These attributes are proceded with SQL for Implict
Cursors and with Cursor name for Explict Cursors.
13. What is a cursor for loop ?

Cursor for loop implicitly declares %ROWTYPE as

loop index,opens a cursor, fetches rows of values
from active set into fields in the record and closes
when all the records have been processed.

eg. FOR emp_rec IN C1 LOOP

salary_total := salary_total +emp_rec sal;
END LOOP;

14. What will happen after commit statement ?

Cursor C1 is
Select empno,
ename from emp;
Begin
open C1; loop
Fetch C1 into
eno.ename;
Exit When
C1 %notfound;-----
commit;
end loop;
end;

The cursor having query as SELECT .... FOR

UPDATE gets closed after COMMIT/ROLLBACK.
The cursor having query as SELECT.... does not
get closed even after COMMIT/ROLLBACK.

15. Explain the usage of WHERE CURRENT OF

clause in cursors ?

WHERE CURRENT OF clause in an

UPDATE,DELETE statement refers to the latest row
fetched from a cursor.

Database Triggers

16. What is a database trigger ? Name some usages

of database trigger ?

Database trigger is stored PL/SQL program unit

associated with a specific database table. Usages
are Audit data modifications, Log events
transparently, Enforce complex business rules
Derive column values automatically, Implement
complex security authorizations. Maintain
replicate tables.

17. How many types of database triggers can be

specified on a table ? What are they ?

Insert Update Delete

Before Row o.k. o.k. o.k.

After Row o.k. o.k. o.k.

Before Statement o.k. o.k. o.k.

After Statement o.k. o.k. o.k.

If FOR EACH ROW clause is specified, then the

trigger for each Row affected by the statement.

If WHEN clause is specified, the trigger fires

according to the retruned boolean value.

18. Is it possible to use Transaction control

Statements such a ROLLBACK or COMMIT in
Database Trigger ? Why ?

It is not possible. As triggers are defined for each

table, if you use COMMIT of ROLLBACK in a
trigger, it affects logical transaction processing.

19. What are two virtual tables available during

database trigger execution ?

The table columns are referred as

OLD.column_name and NEW.column_name.
For triggers related to INSERT only
NEW.column_name values only available.
For triggers related to UPDATE only
OLD.column_name NEW.column_name values only
available.
For triggers related to DELETE only
OLD.column_name values only available.

20. What happens if a procedure that updates a

column of table X is called in a database trigger of
the same table ?

Mutation of table occurs.

21. Write the order of precedence for validation of

a column in a table ?
I. done using Database triggers.
ii. done using Integarity Constraints.

I & ii.

Exception :

22. What is an Exception ? What are types of

Exception ?

Exception is the error handling part of PL/SQL

block. The types are Predefined and user_defined.
Some of Predefined execptions are.
CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX
NO_DATA_FOUND
TOO_MANY_ROWS
INVALID_CURSOR
INVALID_NUMBER
LOGON_DENIED
NOT_LOGGED_ON
PROGRAM-ERROR
STORAGE_ERROR
TIMEOUT_ON_RESOURCE
VALUE_ERROR
ZERO_DIVIDE
OTHERS.

23. What is Pragma EXECPTION_INIT ? Explain the

usage ?

The PRAGMA EXECPTION_INIT tells the complier

to associate an exception with an oracle error. To get
an error message of a specific oracle error.

e.g. PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT (exception

name, oracle error number)

24. What is Raise_application_error ?

Raise_application_error is a procedure of
package DBMS_STANDARD which allows to issue
an user_defined error messages from stored sub-
program or database trigger.

25. What are the return values of functions

SQLCODE and SQLERRM ?

SQLCODE returns the latest code of the error that

has occured.
SQLERRM returns the relevant error message of the
SQLCODE.

26. Where the Pre_defined_exceptions are stored ?

In the standard package.

Procedures, Functions & Packages ;

27. What is a stored procedure ?

A stored procedure is a sequence of statements

that perform specific function.

28. What is difference between a PROCEDURE &

FUNCTION ?

A FUNCTION is alway returns a value using the

return statement.
A PROCEDURE may return one or more
values through parameters or may not return at all.

29. What are advantages fo Stored Procedures /

Extensibility,Modularity, Reusability, Maintainability

and one time compilation.

30. What are the modes of parameters that can be

passed to a procedure ?

IN,OUT,IN-OUT parameters.

31. What are the two parts of a procedure ?

Procedure Specification and Procedure Body.

32. Give the structure of the procedure ?

PROCEDURE name (parameter list.....)

is
local variable declarations

BEGIN
Executable statements.
Exception.
 exception handlers

end;

33. Give the structure of the function ?

FUNCTION name (argument list .....) Return

datatype is
local variable declarations
Begin
executable statements
Exception
execution handlers
End;

34. Explain how procedures and functions are called

in a PL/SQL block ?

Function is called as part of an expression.

sal := calculate_sal ('a822');
procedure is called as a PL/SQL statement
calculate_bonus ('A822');

35. What is Overloading of procedures ?

The Same procedure name is repeated with

parameters of different datatypes and parameters
in different positions, varying number of
parameters is called overloading of procedures.

e.g. DBMS_OUTPUT put_line

36. What is a package ? What are the advantages of

packages ?

Package is a database object that groups logically

related procedures.
The advantages of packages are Modularity,
Easier Applicaton Design, Information. Hiding,.
reusability and Better Performance.

37.What are two parts of package ?

The two parts of package are PACKAGE

SPECIFICATION & PACKAGE BODY.

Package Specification contains declarations that are

global to the packages and local to the schema.
Package Body contains actual procedures and
local declaration of the procedures and cursor
declarations.

38. What is difference between a Cursor declared in

a procedure and Cursor declared in a package
specification ?
A cursor declared in a package specification is
global and can be accessed by other procedures or
procedures in a package.
A cursor declared in a procedure is local to the
procedure that can not be accessed by other
procedures.

39. How packaged procedures and functions are

called from the following?
a. Stored procedure or anonymous block
b. an application program such a PRC *C, PRO*
COBOL
c. SQL *PLUS

a. PACKAGE NAME.PROCEDURE NAME

(parameters);
variable := PACKAGE NAME.FUNCTION
NAME (arguments);
EXEC SQL EXECUTE
b.
BEGIN
PACKAGE NAME.PROCEDURE NAME
(parameters)
variable := PACKAGE NAME.FUNCTION
NAME (arguments);
END;
END EXEC;
 c. EXECUTE PACKAGE NAME.PROCEDURE if
the procedures does not have any
out/in-out parameters. A function can not be called.

40. Name the tables where characteristics of

Package, procedure and functions are stored ?

User_objects, User_Source and User_error.

6. What is schema?

A schema is collection of database objects of a User.

7. What are Schema Objects ?

Schema objects are the logical structures that
directly refer to the database's data. Schema
objects include tables, views, sequences, synonyms,
indexes, clusters, database triggers, procedures,
functions packages anddatabase links.

8. Can objects of the same Schema reside in

different tablespaces.?
Yes.

9. Can a Tablespace hold objects from different

Schemes ?
Yes.
10. what is Table ?
A table is the basic unit of data storage in an
ORACLE database. The tables of a database hold
all of the user accessible data. Table data is stored
in rows and columns.

11. What is a View ?

A view is a virtual table. Every view has a Query

attached to it. (The Query is a SELECT statement
that identifies the columns and rows of the table(s)
the view uses.)

12. Do View contain Data ?

Views do not contain or store data.

13. Can a View based on another View ?

Yes.

14. What are the advantages of Views ?

Provide an additional level of table security, by

restricting access to a predetermined set of rows
and columns of a table.
Hide data complexity.
Simplify commands for the user.
Present the data in a different perpecetive from that
of the base table.
Store complex queries.

15. What is a Sequence ?

A sequence generates a serial list of unique

numbers for numerical columns of a database's
tables.

16. What is a Synonym ?

A synonym is an alias for a table, view, sequence or

program unit.

17. What are the type of Synonyms?

There are two types of Synonyms Private and

Public.

18. What is a Private Synonyms ?

A Private Synonyms can be accessed only by the

owner.

19. What is a Public Synonyms ?

A Public synonyms can be accessed by any user on

the database.

20. What are synonyms used for ?

Synonyms are used to : Mask the real name and

owner of an object.
Provide public access to an object
Provide location transparency for tables,views or
program units of a remote database.
Simplify the SQL statements for database users.

21. What is an Index ?

An Index is an optional structure associated with a

table to have direct access to rows,which can be
created to increase the performance of data
retrieval. Index can be created on one or more
columns of a table.

22. How are Indexes Update ?

Indexes are automatically maintained and used by

ORACLE. Changes to table data are automatically
incorporated into all relevant indexes.

28. What is Database Link ?

A database link is a named object that describes a
"path" from one database to another.

29. What are the types of Database Links ?

Private Database Link, Public Database Link &

Network Database Link.

30. What is Private Database Link ?

Private database link is created on behalf of a

specific user. A private database link can be used
only
when the owner of the link specifies a global object
name in a SQL statement or in the definition of the
owner's views
or procedures.

31. What is Public Database Link ?

Public database link is created for the special user

group PUBLIC. A public database link can be
used when any user
in the associated database specifies a global
object name in a SQL statement or object definition.

32. What is Network Database link ?

Network database link is created and managed by a
network domain service. A network database link
can be used when any user of any database in the
network specifies a global object name in a
SQL statement or object definition.
51. What is a Data Dictionary ?

The data dictionary of an ORACLE database is a set

of tables and views that are used as a read-only
reference about the database.
It stores information about both the logical and
physical structure of the database, the valid users
of an ORACLE database, integrity constraints
defined for tables in the database and space
allocated for a schema object and how much of it is
being used.

52. What is an Integrity Constrains ?

An integrity constraint is a declarative way to define

a business rule for a column of a table.

53. Can an Integrity Constraint be enforced on a

table if some existing table data does not satisfy the
constraint ?
No.

54. Describe the different type of Integrity

Constraints supported by ORACLE ?
NOT NULL Constraint - Disallows NULLs in a
table's column.
UNIQUE Constraint - Disallows duplicate values
in a column or set of columns.
PRIMARY KEY Constraint - Disallows duplicate
values and NULLs in a column or set of columns.
FOREIGN KEY Constrain - Require each value in
a column or set of columns match a value in a
related table's UNIQUE or PRIMARY KEY.
CHECK Constraint - Disallows values that do
not satisfy the logical expression of the constraint.

55. What is difference between UNIQUE constraint

and PRIMARY KEY constraint ?
A column defined as UNIQUE can contain NULLs
while a column defined as PRIMARY KEY can't
contain Nulls.

56. Describe Referential Integrity ?

A rule defined on a column (or set of columns) in

one table that allows the insert or update of a row
only if the value for the column or set of columns
(the dependent value) matches a value in a
column of a related table (the referenced value).
It also specifies the type of data manipulation
allowed on referenced data and the action to be
performed on dependent data as a result of any
action on referenced data.

57. What are the Referential actions supported by

FOREIGN KEY integrity constraint ?

UPDATE and DELETE Restrict - A referential

integrity rule that disallows the update or deletion of
referenced data.

DELETE Cascade - When a referenced row is

deleted all associated dependent rows are deleted.

58. What is self-referential integrity constraint ?

If a foreign key reference a parent key of the
same table is called self-referential integrity
constraint.

59. What are the Limitations of a CHECK

Constraint ?

The condition must be a Boolean expression

evaluated using the values in the row being inserted
or updated and can't contain subqueries, sequence,
the SYSDATE,UID,USER or USERENV SQL
functions, or the pseudo columns LEVEL or
ROWNUM.
60. What is the maximum number of CHECK
constraints that can be defined on a column ?
No Limit.

DATA ACCESS

90. Define Transaction ?

A Transaction is a logical unit of work that
comprises one or more SQL statements executed by
a single user.

91. When does a Transaction end ?

When it is committed or Rollbacked.

92. What does COMMIT do ?

COMMIT makes permanent the changes resulting
from all SQL statements in the transaction. The
changes made by the SQL statements of a
transaction become visible to other user sessions
transactions that start only after transaction is
committed.

93. What does ROLLBACK do ?

ROLLBACK retracts any of the changes resulting
from the SQL statements in the transaction.
94. What is SAVE POINT ?
For long transactions that contain many SQL
statements, intermediate markers or savepoints
can be declared which can be used to divide a
transaction into smaller parts. This allows the
option of later rolling back all work performed from
the current point in the transaction to a declared
savepoint within the transaction.

PROGRAMMATIC CONSTRUCTS

110. What are the different types of PL/SQL

program units that can be defined and stored in
ORACLE database ?

Procedures and Functions,Packages and Database

Triggers.

111. What is a Procedure ?

A Procedure consist of a set of SQL and PL/SQL
statements that are grouped together as a unit to
solve a specific problem or perform a set of related
tasks.

112. What is difference between Procedures and

Functions ?
A Function returns a value to the caller where as a
Procedure does not.

113. What is a Package ?

A Package is a collection of related procedures,
functions, variables and other package constructs
together as a unit in the database.

114. What are the advantages of having a

Package ?
Increased functionality (for example,global
package variables can be declared and used by
any proecdure in the package) and performance (for
example all objects of the package are parsed
compiled, and loaded into memory once)

115. What is Database Trigger ?

A Database Trigger is procedure (set of SQL and
PL/SQL statements) that is automatically executed
as a result of an insert in,update to, or delete from
a table.

116. What are the uses of Database Trigger ?

Database triggers can be used to automatic data
generation, audit data modifications, enforce
complex Integrity constraints, and customize
complex security authorizations.
117. What are the differences between Database
Trigger and Integrity constraints ?
A declarative integrity constraint is a statement
about the database that is always true. A constraint
applies to existing data in the table and any
statement that manipulates the table.

A trigger does not apply to data loaded before

the definition of the trigger, therefore, it does not
guarantee all data in a table conforms to the rules
established by an associated trigger.

A trigger can be used to enforce transitional

constraints where as a declarative integrity
constraint cannot be used.

63. What is snapshots ?

Snapshot is an object used to dynamically replicate

data between distribute database at specified time
intervals. In ver 7.0 they are read only.

64. What are the various type of snapshots ?

Simple and Complex.

65. Differentiate simple and complex, snapshots ?

 - A simple snapshot is based on a query that
does not contains GROUP BY clauses, CONNECT
BY clauses, JOINs, sub-query or snashot of
operations.
- A complex snapshots contain atleast any one of
the above.

67. How can you Enforce Refrencial Integrity in

snapshots ?

Time the references to occur when master tables are

not in use.
Peform the reference the manually immdiately
locking the master tables. We can join tables in
snopshots by creating a complex snapshots that will
based on the master tables.

68. What are the options available to refresh

snapshots ?

COMPLETE - Tables are completly regenerated

using the snapshot's query and the master tables
every time the snapshot referenced.
FAST - If simple snapshot used then a snapshot log
can be used to send the changes to the snapshot
tables.
FORCE - Default value. If possible it performs a
FAST refresh; Otherwise it will perform a complete
refresh.

69. what is snapshot log ?

It is a table that maintains a record of modifications

to the master table in a snapshot. It is stored in
the same database as master table and is only
available for simple snapshots. It should be created
before creating snapshots.

70. When will the data in the snapshot log be used ?

We must be able to create a after row trigger on

table (i.e., it should be not be already available )

After giving table privileges.

We cannot specify snapshot log name because

oracle uses the name of the master table in the
name of the database objects that support its
snapshot log.

The master table name should be less than or equal

to 23 characters.

SQL PLUS STATEMENTS

1. What are the types of SQL Statement ?

Data Definition Language :

CREATE,ALTER,DROP,TRUNCATE,REVOKE,NO
AUDIT & COMMIT.
Data Manipulation Language :
INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE,LOCK TABLE,EXPLAIN
PLAN & SELECT.
Transactional Control : COMMIT & ROLLBACK
Session Control : ALTERSESSION & SET ROLE
System Control : ALTER SYSTEM.

2. What is a transaction ?

Transaction is logical unit between two commits and

commit and rollback.

3. What is difference between TRUNCATE &

DELETE ?

TRUNCATE commits after deleting entire table i.e.,

can not be rolled back. Database triggers do not fire
on TRUNCATE

DELETE allows the filtered deletion. Deleted

records can be rolled back or committed.
Database triggers fire on DELETE.
4. What is a join ? Explain the different types of joins
?

Join is a query which retrieves related columns

or rows from multiple tables.

Self Join - Joining the table with itself.

Equi Join - Joining two tables by equating two
common columns.
Non-Equi Join - Joining two tables by equating two
common columns.
Outer Join - Joining two tables in such a way that
query can also retrive rows that do not have
corresponding join value in the other table.

5. What is the Subquery ?

Subquery is a query whose return values are used in

filtering conditions of the main query.

6. What is correlated sub-query ?

Correlated sub_query is a sub_query which has

reference to the main query.

7. Explain Connect by Prior ?

Retrives rows in hierarchical order.
e.g. select empno, ename from emp where.

8. Difference between SUBSTR and INSTR ?

INSTR (String1,String2(n,(m)),
INSTR returns the position of the mth
occurrence of the string 2 in
string1. The search begins from nth position of
string1.

SUBSTR (String1 n,m)

SUBSTR returns a character string of size m in
string1, starting from nth postion of string1.

9. Explain UNION,MINUS,UNION ALL,

INTERSECT ?

INTERSECT returns all distinct rows selected by

both queries.
MINUS - returns all distinct rows selected by the
first query but not by the second.
UNION - returns all distinct rows selected by either
query
UNION ALL - returns all rows selected by either
query,including all duplicates.

10. What is ROWID ?

ROWID is a pseudo column attached to each
row of a table. It is 18 character long, blockno,
rownumber are the components of ROWID.

11. What is the fastest way of accessing a row in a

table ?

Using ROWID.

CONSTRAINTS

12. What is an Integrity Constraint ?

Integrity constraint is a rule that restricts values

to a column in a table.

13. What is Referential Integrity ?

Maintaining data integrity through a set of rules that

restrict the values of one or more columns of the
tables based on the values of primary key or unique
key of the referenced table.

14. What are the usage of SAVEPOINTS ?

SAVEPOINTS are used to subdivide a

transaction into smaller parts. It enables rolling back
part of a transaction. Maximum of five save points
are allowed.

15. What is ON DELETE CASCADE ?

When ON DELETE CASCADE is specified

ORACLE maintains referential integrity by
automatically removing dependent foreign key
values if a referenced primary or unique key value is
removed.

16. What are the data types allowed in a table ?

CHAR,VARCHAR2,NUMBER,DATE,RAW,LONG
and LONG RAW.

17. What is difference between CHAR and

VARCHAR2 ? What is the maximum SIZE
allowed for each type ?

CHAR pads blank spaces to the maximum length.

VARCHAR2 does not pad blank spaces. For CHAR
it is 255 and 2000 for VARCHAR2.

18. How many LONG columns are allowed in a

table ? Is it possible to use LONG columns in
WHERE clause or ORDER BY ?
Only one LONG columns is allowed. It is not
possible to use LONG column in WHERE or ORDER
BY clause.

19. What are the pre requisites ?

I. to modify datatype of a column ?
ii. to add a column with NOT NULL constraint ?

To Modify the datatype of a column the column

must be empty.
to add a column with NOT NULL constrain, the
table must be empty.

20. Where the integrity constrints are stored in Data

Dictionary ?

The integrity constraints are stored in

USER_CONSTRAINTS.

21. How will you a activate/deactivate integrity

constraints ?

The integrity constraints can be enabled or disabled

by ALTER TABLE ENABLE constraint/DISABLE
constraint.

22. If an unique key constraint on DATE column is

created, will it validate the rows that are inserted
with SYSDATE ?

It won't, Because SYSDATE format contains time

attached with it.

23. What is a database link ?

Database Link is a named path through which a

remote database can be accessed.

24. How to access the current value and next value

from a sequence ? Is it possible to access the
current value in a session before accessing next
value ?

Sequence name CURRVAL, Sequence name

NEXTVAL.

It is not possible. Only if you access next value in

the session, current value can be accessed.

25. What is CYCLE/NO CYCLE in a Sequence ?

CYCLE specifies that the sequence continues to

generate values after reaching either maximum or
minimum value. After pan ascending sequence
reaches its maximum value, it generates its
minimum value. After a descending sequence
reaches its minimum, it generates its maximum.

NO CYCLE specifies that the sequence cannot

generate more values after reaching its maximum or
minimum value.

26. What are the advantages of VIEW ?

To protect some of the columns of a table from other

users.
To hide complexity of a query.
To hide complexity of calculations.

27. Can a view be updated/inserted/deleted? If Yes

under what conditions ?

A View can be updated/deleted/inserted if it has only

one base table if the view is based on columns
from one or more tables then insert, update and
delete is not possible.

28.If a View on a single base table is manipulated

will the changes be reflected on the base table ?

If changes are made to the tables which are base

tables of a view will the changes be reference on the
view.