Microsystems International Institute of Technology, Inc.

Inayagan, City of Naga, Cebu

Tel. No. (032) 489-6112
S.Y. 2021-2022
Second Semester

COLLEGE DEPARTMENT (PRELIM)

CONTEMPORARY WORLD (WEEKS 1 – 5)

Student’s Name:

____________________________ Quarter: ________2nd_

Grade Level/Strand: _________________________ Time Frame: __________

Mary-Ann G. Briones
Teacher

CHAPTER 1
DEFINING GLOBALIZATION
Much has changed since time immemorial. Human beings have encountered
many changes over the last century especially in their social relationships and social
structures. Of these changes, one can say that globalization is a very important change,
if not, the "most important" (Bauman, 2003). The reality and omnipresence of
globalization makes us see ourselves as part of what we refer to as the "global age"
(Albrow, 1996). The Internet, for example, allows a person from the Philippines to know
what is happening to the rest of the world simply by browsing Google. The mass media
also allows for connections among people, communities, and countries all over the
globe. So what is globalization? This question is probably an easy one to answer.
However, many scholars gave and tried to formulate its definitions. This resulted in
different, sometimes contradicting views about the concept. It cannot be contained
within a specific time frame, all people, and all situations (AI-Rhodan, 2006). Aside from
this, globalization encompasses a multitude of processes that involves the economy,
political systems, and culture. Social structures, therefore, are directly affected by
globalization.
Over the years, globalization has gained many connotations pertaining to
progress, development, and integration. On the one hand, some view globalization as a
positive phenomenon. For instance, Swedish joumalist Thomas Larsson (2oo1) saw
globalization as the process of world shrinkage, of distances getting shorter, things
moving closer. It pertains to the increasing ease with which somebody on one side of
the world can interact, to mutual benefit with somebody on the other side of the world"
(p. 9). On the other hand, some see it as occurring through and with regression,
colonialism, and destabilization. In the mid-199os, Martin Khor, the former president of
Third World Network (TWN) in Malaysia, once regarded globalization as colonization.
In this chapter, different definitions of globalization will be discussed. The task of
conceptualizing it reveals a variety of perspectives. To understand further the concept,
different metaphors will be used. These metaphors will also allow an appreciation of
earlier epochs before globalization and the present globalized world. The final lesson of
this chapter will be devoted to a general discussion of globalization theories. The
following section will highlight the different views scholars have toward globalization.
The Task of Defining Globalization Since its first appearance in the Webster's
Dictionary in 1961, many opinions about globalization have flourished. The literature on
the definitions of globalization revealed that definitions could be classified as either (1)
broad and inclusive or (2) narrow and exclusive. The one offered by Ohmae in 1992
stated, "... globalization means the onset of the borderless world..." (p. 14). This is an
example of a broad and inclusive type of definition. If one uses such, it can include a
variety of issues that deal with overcoming traditional boundaries. However, it does not
shed light on the implications of globalization due to its vagueness.
 Narrow and exclusive definitions are better justified but can be limiting, in the
sense that their application adhere to only particular definitions. Robert Cox's definition
suits best in this type: "the characteristics of the globalization trend include the
internationalizing of production, the new international division of labor, new migratory
movements from South to North, the new competitive environment that accelerates
these processes, and the internationalizing of the state... making states into agencies of
the globalizing world" (as cited in RAWOO Netherlands Development Assistance
Research Council, 2000, p. 14). Other definitions of globalization are shown in
chronological order in the Appendix. Each could fall to either one of the two types of
definitions. No matter how one classifies a definition of globalization, the concept is
complex and multifaceted as the definitions deal with either economic, political, or social
dimensions. In fact, in a comprehensive study of 114 definitions by the Geneva Center
for Security Policy (GCSP) in zoo6, 67 of them refer to economic dimension. These
definitions include political and social dimensions as well. The sheer number and
complexity of definitions do not mean that there is a remarkable improvement in every
definition given by scholars. Kumar (2003) took on a different argument about the issue.
To him, the debate about what can be done about globalization and what it is are
similar. This is in relation to what some academics have claimed about defining
globalization—it is a useless task. A more recent definition was given by Ritzer (2o15),
"globalization is a transplanetary process or a set of processes involving increasing
liquidity and the growing multidirectional flows of people, objects, places, and
information as well as the structures they encounter and create that are barriers to or
expedite, those flows… " (P. 2). Generally this definition assumes that globalization
could bring either or both integration easily in a global w and/or fragmentation. Although
things flow easily in global world, hindrances or structural blocks could slow down one's
activity in another country or could even limit places a person can visit.
If so, why are we going to spend time studying this concept? How can we
appreciate these definitions? How can these help us understand globalization? First, the
perspective of the person who defines globalization shapes its definition. The overview
of definitions implies that globalization is many things to many different people. In 1996,
Arjun Appadurai said, "globalization is a 'world of things' that have 'different speeds,
axes, points of origin and termination, and varied relationships to institutional structures
in different regions, nations, or societies' " (as cited in Chowdhury, 2006, p.137). In a
more recent study, Al.Rhodan (2006) wrote that definitions suggest the perspective of
the author on the origins and the geopolitical implications of globalization. It is a starting
point that will guide the rest of any discussions. In effect, one's definition and
perspective could determine concrete steps in addressing the issues of globalization.
For example, if one sees globalization as positive, the person can say that it is a
unifying force. On the other hand, if it is deemed as creating greater inequalities among
nations, perspective of the author on the origins and implications of globalization. It is a
starting point that will guide the rest of any discussions. In effect, one’s definition and
perspective could determine concrete steps in addressing the issues of globalization.
For example, if one sees globalization is positive, the person Second, to paraphrase the
sociologist Cesare Poppi: Globalization is the debate and the debate is globalization.
One became part and parcel of the other. As Poppi (1997) wrote: "The literature
stemming from the debate on globalization has grown in the last decade beyond any
individual's capability of extracting a workable definition of the concept. In a sense, the
meaning of the concept is self-evident, in another, it is vague and obscure as its
reaches are wide and constantly shifting. Perhaps, more than any other concept,
globalization is the debate about r" (as cited in Kumar, 2003, p. 95).
Third, globalization is a reality. It is changing as human society develops. It has
happened before and is still happen today. We should expect it to continue to happen in
the future. The future of globalization is more difficult to predict. What we could expect
in the coming years is what has happened over the past 50 years and that is the fluidity
and complexity of globalization as a concept, which made more debates, discussions,
and definitions than agreements on it.
Overall, globalization is a concept that is not easy to define because in reality,
globalization has a shifting nature. It is complex, multifaceted, and can be influenced by
the people who define it. Moreover, the issues and concerns involving globalization
have a wide range-from the Individual to society, from small communities to nations and
states, and from the benefits we can gain fro, it to the costs it could carry. In his article,
"The Globalization of Nothing," Ritz, (zoo3) said, "attitudes toward globalization depend,
among other things, on whether one gains or losses from it" (p. 19o). Nevertheless, the
task of defining globalization should stimulate more discussions about it. More
importantly, the fact that we experience globalization should give one the interest of
engaging in the study of it.
Metaphors of Globalization
In order for us to better understand the concept of globalization, we will utilize
metaphors. Metaphors make use of one term to help us better understand another term.
In our case, the states of matter-solid and liquid-will be used. In addition, other related
concepts that are included in the definition such as structures and flows will be
elaborated.
Solid and Liquid
The epochs that preceded today's globalization paved way for people, things,
information, and places to harden over time. Consequently, they have limited mobility
(Ritzer, 2015). The social relationships and objects remained where they were created.
Solidity also refers to barriers that prevent or make difficult the movement of things.
Furthermore, solids can either be natural or man-made. Examples of natural solids are
landforms and bodies of water. Man-made barriers include the Great Wall of China and
the Berlin Wall. An imaginary line such as the nine-dash line used by the People's
Republic of China in their claim to the South China Sea is an example of modern man-
made solid. This creates limited access of Filipino fishers to the South China Sea.
Obviously, these examples still exist. However, they have the tendency to melt. This
should not be taken literally, like an iceberg melting. Instead, this process involves how
we can describe what is happening in today's global world. It is becoming increasingly
liquid. Liquid, as a state of matter, takes the shape of its container. Examples of natural
solids are landforms and bodies of water. Man-made barriers include the Great Wall of
China and the Berlin Wall. An imaginary line such as the nine-dash line used by the
People's Republic of China in their claim to the South China Sea is an example of
modern man-made solid. This creates limited access of Filipino fishers to the South
China Sea. Obviously, these examples still exist. However, they have the tendency to
melt. This should not be taken literally, like an iceberg melting. Instead, this process
involves how we can describe what is happening in today's global world. It is becoming
increasingly liquid. Liquid, as a state of matter, takes the shape of its container.
Moreover, liquids are not fixed. Liquidity, therefore, refers to the increasing ease of
movement of people, things, information, and places in the contemporary world.
Zygmunt Bauman's ideas were the ones that have much to say about the characteristic
of liquidity. First, today's liquid phenomena change quickly and their aspects, spatial and
temporal, are in continuous fluctuation. This means that space and time are crucial
elements of globalization. In global finance, for instance, changes in the stock market
are a matter of seconds. Another characteristic of liquid phenomena is that their
movement is difficult to stop. For example, videos uploaded on YouTube or Facebook
are unstoppable once they become viral. The so-called Internet sensations become
famous not only in their homeland but also to the entire world. Finally, the forces (the
liquid ones) made political boundaries more permeable to the flow of people and things
(Cartier, 2oo1). This brings us to what Ritzer (2015, p.6) regarded as the most important
characteristic of liquid: it "tends to melt whatever stands in its path (especially solids).”
The clearest example is the decline, if not death, of that nation-state.
Liquidity and solidity are in constant interaction. However, liquidity is the one
increasing and proliferating today. Therefore, the metaphor that could best describe
globalization is liquidity. Liquids do flow and this idea of flow (Appadurai, d. ,996; Rey
and Ritzer, 2010) will be the focus of the next discussion. Also, it should be expected
that this concept will appear in the succeeding lessons. The literature on globalization
makes use of the concept of flows.
Flows
The previous section described the melting process of solid phenomena followed
by the increase in liquidity. It is only logical to discuss the flows of liquid phenomena.
Flows are the movement of people, things, places, and information brought by the
growing “porosity” global limitations. Think of the different foreign cuisines being
patronized and consumed by the Filipinos. Aside from local dishes, many of us are fond
of eating sushi, ramen, hamburger, and French fries-foods introduced to us by foreign
cultures. Clearly, foods are being globalized. Another example of flows is global
financial crises. As Landler (2008, p. CI) put it: "In global financial system, national
borders are porous." This means that a financial crisis in a given country can bring
ramifications to other regions of the world. An example of which is the spread of the
effects of American financial crisis on Europe in 2008. The following are other kinds of
flows that can be observed today: poor illegal migrants flooding many parts of the world
(Moses, 2006), the virtual flow of legal and illegal information such as blogs and child
pornography, respectively, and immigrants recreating ethnic enclaves in host countries.
A concrete example is the Filipino communities abroad and the Chinese communities in
the Philippines.

ASSESMENT: Answer the following questions. 15 POINTS

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using
(a) broad and inclusive definitions and;
(b) narrow and exclusive definitions of globalization?
ANSWER: Globalization is the used to describe the growing interdependence of the
world's economies, cultures and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in
goods and services, technology and flows of investment, people and information.
(A)Broad and Inclusive Definition - is describing the opportunity by which people or
factors behind a certain development in a country benefits as well. In a nutshell, broad
and inclusive globalization gives everyone a chance to participate in a management in a
such way that the perspectives or plans a country has reflected in their policies.
Advantages of Broad and Inclusive Globalization:
◾Equal opportunities for everyone.
◾Secured opportunities for everyone.
◾growth for the countries.
◾Development of the nations.
Disadvantages of Broad and Inclusive Globalization:
◾Reshaping of government institutions to cater for everyone.
◾Economic processes need to be reorganized.
◾Social processes require reorganization.
◾Failure to focus on the country's own people and policies.
Narrow and Exclusive Definition - In the English language, exclusivity is the restriction
or the limitation within the group, area or people. in terms of globalization, narrow and
exclusive means that the focus of the globalization would be limited to the country
alone.
Advantages of Narrow and Exclusive Globalization:
◾Focuses on the development of the country.
◾Enhancement of the policies in a country.
◾Supported by people.
◾Gives importance to the people and the cultures inside the country.
Disadvantages of Narrow and Exclusive Globalization:
◾Result to trade wars with other countries.
◾Limited perspective.
◾Failure to establish connections with other countries.
2. What do you think is the importance of the defining globalization?
ANSWER: Globalization is our life! For me, it is the catalyst for the progress,
development and integration—from individual to society, from small communities to
nations and states. Defining globalization is indeed important because of the reality that
the said matter enables us to see ourselves as part of the so-called “global age”.
Likewise, it transmits ideas, meanings, and values around the globe in such a way to
outspread and intensify social relations and social structures.
3. Do you agree with the idea that the contemporary world is characterized by high
liquidity? Why or why not?
ANSWER: In my opinion, the modern world is characterized by a high level of liquidity.
Nothing is stable in this fast-paced, ever changing world but change. To put it anther
way, they are not fixed, just like liquids. People , things, information, and locations are
moving more easily than ever before; in global finance, for example, stock market
changes happen in a matter of seconds; popular phone models today may become
obsolete next year, and so on.

CHAPTER 2
Globalization Theories
We have established the many definitions and issues of globalization and the
metaphors that we can use to understand easily the concept. We have also looked into
its origins and history. This section will give you a glimpse of the important theories on
globalization.
We will analyze globalization culturally, economically, and politically in this book as
reflected in the succeeding chapters. In the meantime, it would be helpful to assert that
the theories see globalization as a process that increases either homogeneity or
heterogeneity.
Homogeneity refers to the increasing sameness in the world as cultural inputs,
economic factors, and political orientations of societies expand to create common
practices, same economies, and similar forms of government. Homogeneity in culture is
often linked to cultural imperialism. This means, a given culture influences other
cultures. For example, the dominant religion in our country is Christianity, which was
brought to us by the Spaniards. Another example is Americanization, which was defined
by Kuisel (1993) as the import by non-Americans of products, images, technologies,
practices, and behavior that are closely associated with America/Americans” (p. 96).
Global economic crises are also products of homogeneity in economic
globalization. Stiglitz (2002), for instance, blamed the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
for its "one-size-fits all" approach which treats every country in the world as the same. In
the end, rich countries become advantageous in the world economy at the expense of
poor countries, which leads to increased inequality among nations. The politicaI realm
also suffers homogenization if one takes into account the emerging similar models of
governance in the world. Barber (1995) said that “McWorld” is existing. It means only
one political orientation is growing in today’s societies.
The global flow of media is often characterized as media imperialism. TV, music,
books, and movies are perceived as imposed on developing countries by the West
(Cowen, 2002). Media imperialism undermines the existence of alternative global media
originating from developing countries, such as the Al Jazeera (Bielsa, and the
Bollywood (Larkin, 2003), as well as the influence of the local and regional media. The
Internet can be seen as an arena, for alternative media. Cultural imperialism denies the
agency of viewers, but people around the world often interpret the same medium (e.g.,
movie) in significantly different ways. Global media are dominated by a small number of
large corporations. As McChesney (1999) put it, this is being “extended from old media
to new media” (p.11), such as Microsoft, Facebook, Twitter, Google, and Apple’s
iTunes.
As a result, in the long run, the Internet could end up being less diverse and
competitive. Independent Media Center, associated with the alter-globalization
movement, helps to counter this trend. It disseminates information to facilitate global
participation of activists. Hacktivists extend activism to the Internet by hacking into
computer programs to promote a particular cause (Juris, 2005).
Ritter (2008) claimed that, in general, the contemporary world is undergoing the
process of McDonaldization. It is the process by which Western societies are dominated
by the principles of fast food restaurants. McDonaldization involves the global spread of
rational systems, such as efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control. Ritter
(2008) pointed out that this process is "extended to other businesses, sectors, and
geographic areas" (p. 169). Globalization, in contrast to glocalization, is a process
wherein nations, corporations, etc. impose themselves on geographic areas in order to
gain profits, power, and so on (Ryan, 2007). Ritter (2007) also espoused the idea that
globalization can also be seen as a flow of "nothing" as opposed to "something,"
involving the spread of non-places, non-things, non-people, and non-services.
On the other hand, heterogeneity pertains to the creation of various culture,
practices, new economies, and political groups because of the interaction of elements
from different societies in the world. Heterogeneity refers to the differences because of
either lasting differences or of the hybrids or combinations of cultures that can be
produced through the different transplanetary processes. Contrary to cultural
imperialism, heterogeneity in culture is associated with cultural hybridization. A more
specific concept is "glocalization" coined by Roland Robertson in 1992. To him, as
global forces interact with local factors or a specific geographic area, the "glocal" is
being produced. Economic issues are not exempted from heterogeneity. The
commodification of cultures and "glocal" markets are examples of differentiation
happening in many economies around the world. The same goes with political
institutions. Barber (1995) also provided the alternate of "McWorld"—the "Jihad." As
Ritter (2oo8) mentioned, it refers to the political groups that are engaged in an
"intensification of nationalism and that leads to greater political heterogeneity throughout
the world" (p. 576). Although homogeneity and heterogeneity give us idea about the
effects of globalization, the picture is not yet complete. The theories about globalization
will be clarified as we look closer at each of them in the succeeding chapters.
Dynamics of Local and Global Culture
Global flows of culture tend to move more easily around the globe than ever
before, especially through non-material digital forms. There are three perspectives on
global cultural flows. These are differentialism, hybridization and convergence.
Cultural differentialism emphasizes the fact that cultures are essentially different
and are only superficially affected by global flows. The interaction of culture is deemed
to contain the potential for "catastrophic collision." Samuel Huntington's theory on the
clash of the civilizations proposed in 1996 best exemplifies this approach. According to
Huntington, after the Cold War, political-economic differences were overshadowed by
new fault lines, which were primarily cultural in nature. Increasing interaction among
different "civilizations" (such as the Sinic, Islamic, Orthodox, and Western) would lead to
intense clashes, especially the economic conflict between the Western and Sinic
civilizations are bloody political conflict between the Western and Islamic, civilizations
(Huntington 2004). This theory has been critiqued for a number of reasons, especially
on its portrayal of Muslims as being “prone to violence” (Huntington, 1996).
The cultural hybridization approach emphasizes the integration of local and
global cultures (Cvetkovich and Kellner, 1997). Globalization is considered to be a
creative process which gives rise to hybrid entities that are not reducible to either the
global or the local. A key concept is "glocalization" or the interpenetration of the global
and local resulting in unique outcomes in different geographic areas (Giulianotti and
Robertson, 2007, p. 133). Another key concept is Arjun Appadurars "scapes" in 1996,
where global flows involve people, technology, finance, political images, and media and
the disjunctures lead to the creation of cultural hybrids.
The cultural convergence approach stresses homogeneity introduced by
globalization. Cultures are deemed to be radically altered by strong flows, while cultural
imperialism happens when one culture imposes itself on and tends to destroy at least
parts of another culture. One important critique of cultural imperialism John Tomlinson's
idea of “deterritorialization of culture. Deterritorialization means that it is much more
geographic point of origin.
*deterritorialization- the eradication of social, political, or cultural practices from
their native places and populations.
The Globalization of Religion
Globalization has played a tremendous role in providing a context for current
revival and the resurgence of religion. Today, most religions are not relegated to the
countries where they began. Religions have, in fact, spread an, scattered on a global
scale. Globalization provided religions a fertile milieu, spread and thrive. As Scholte
(2005) made clear: "Accelerated globalization of recent times has enabled co-
religionists across the planet to have greater direct contact with one another. Global
communications, global organizations, global finance, and the like have allowed ideas of
the Muslims and the universal Christian church to be given concrete shape as never
before" (p. 245). Information technologies, transportation means, and the media are
deemed important means on which religionists rely on the dissemination of their
religious ideas. For instance, countless websites that provide information about religion
have been created. This makes pieces of information and explanations about different
religions ready at the disposal of any person regardless of his or her geographical
location. In addition, the Internet allows people to contact each other worldwide and
therefore hold forums and debates that allow religious ideas to spread.
Furthermore, media also play an important role in the dissemination of religious
ideas. In this respect, a lot of television channels, radio stations, and print media are
founded solely for advocating religions. Modern transportation has also contributed
considerably to the emergence, revivalism, and fortification of religion. In this respect,
Turner (2007) cited the case of Islamic revivalism in Asia which "is related to the
improvement in transportation that has allowed many Muslims to travel to Mecca, and
return with reformist ideas" (p. 63). Fundamentalist, technology, therefore, has helped
religions of different forms, such as orthodox, or modernist to cross geographical
boundaries and be present everywhere.
Globalization has also allowed religion or faith to gain considerable significance
and importance as a non-territorial touchstone of identity. Being a source of identity and
pride, religion has always been promoted by its practitioners so that it could reach the
level of globalist and be embraced by as many people as possible. Muslims, for
instance, aspire to establish the Islamic Ummah, a community believers. By paving the
way for religions to come in contact with each other and providing a context for their
flourishing and thriving, globalization has brought such religions to a circle of
competition and conflicts.
As Turner (2007) explained: Globalization transforms the generic "religion" into a
world systern of competing and conflicting religions. This process of institutional
specialization and has transformed local, diverse and fragmented cultural practices into
recognizable systems of religion. Globalization has, therefore, had the paradoxical
effect of making religion more self-conscious of themselves as being “world religions”.
(p.46)
Such conflicts among the world religions exhibit a solid proof confirming the
erosion and the failure of hybridization. Globalization, as stated in the above excerpt,
makes religions more conscious of themselves as being "world religions" reinforcing
their respective specific identities. These identities are strengthened by globalization
and cannot, in any way, intermingle or hybridize. Since religions have distinct internal
structures, their connections to different cultures and their rituals and beliefs contradict.
For instance, Islam and Christianity are mostly incompatible with each other. These
religions cannot be hybridized or homogenized even if they often come in contact.
Though religion is strengthened and fortified by globalization, it represents a
challenge to globalization's hybridizing effects. Religion seeks to assert its identity in the
light of globalization. As a result, different religious identities come to the fore and assert
themselves. Such assertions of religious identities constitute a defensive reaction to
globalization. Scholte (2005), in this respect, maintained, "At the same time as being
pursued through global channels, assertions of religious identity have, like nationalist
strivings, often also been partly a defensive reaction to globalization" (p. 245).
It has been difficult for religion to cope with values that accompany globalization
like liberalism, consumerism, and rationalism. Such phenomena advocate scientism and
secularism. This, in fact, pushed with globalization and considered religion anti-
rationalist, it can be deduced that religion is anti-globalization. To quote Scholte (2005):
Transplanetary relations have helped to stimulate and sustain some renewals of anti-
rationalist faith, but global networks have more usually promoted activities involving
rationalist knowledge. Contemporary revivalist movements have largely replayed a long-
term tendency – one that well predates contemporary accelerated globalization –
whereby certain religious circles have from time to time revolted against modern
secularism and scientism. (p. 261)
On the other hand, it can be said that the anti-rationalist qualities ascribed, to
religion can be the characteristics of fundamentalist and extremist forms of religion. We
cannot consider religion as purely anti-rationalist since many religious people reconcile
reason and faith and make moderate trends with, their religions. Nevertheless,
globalization's strict rationalism manifested in such phenomena as liberalism and
secularism can be incompatible with the norms and the values of certain religions.
Globalization is also associated with Westernization and Americanization. The
dominance exerted by these two processes, particularly on the less developed
countries, makes religion-related cultures and identities take defensive measures to
protect themselves. Sometimes, extreme forms of resisting other cultural influence are
being done, such as that of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). As Ehteshami
(2007) pointed out, "Globalization is not only seen as a rival of Islamic ways, but also as
an alien force divorced from Muslim realities. Stressing the negative impact of the loose
morals of Western life is a daily feature of airwaves in the Middle East" (p. 130). The
imperialist aspirations of globalization and its incompatibility with Islam make
globalization completely alien to the Music realities. Since globalization is cultural
construct at its core and its meaning is the Western discourse, "promoting and engaging
with it on the part of Muslims is like accepting and promoting Western cultural values
and their dominance” (p.13).
The challenges of globalization to religion link automatically to the challenges of
religion to globalization. In other words, while religion takes caution against the norms
and the values related to globalization, it challenges the latter since religion does not
approve its hybridizing effects. The idea of de-hybridizing effects of religion is approved
also by Samuel Huntington's clash of civilizations' which maintains that such de-
hybridizing upshots spring also from the religious partitioning and clashes.
Globalization and Regionalization
The processes of globalization and regionalization reemerged during the 1990s
and heightened after the end of the Cold War in the 199os. At first, it seems that these
two processes are contradicting-the very nature of globalization is, by definition, global
while regionalization is naturally regional. The regionalization of the world system and
economic activity undermines the potential benefits coming out from a liberalized global
economy. This is because regional organizations prefer regional partners over the rest.
Regional organizations respond to the states' attempt to reduce the perceived negative
effects of globalization. Therefore, regionalism is a sort of counter-globalization.
In a 2007 survey, the Financial Times revealed that majority of Europeans
considered that globalization brings negative effects to their societies (as cited in
Jacoby and Meunier, 2010). Many policy makers and scholars think that globalization
must be regulated and managed. The threats of an “ungoverned globalization" can be
countered what Jacoby and Meunier called managed globalization; it refers to “all
attempts to make globalization more palatable to citizens" (p.1).
It is important, however, to consider the gradual development inter-regional of
inter-regional relations such as the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN),
the European Union (EU), or the South American trade bloc, Mercosur. In fact, a sort of
"contagion effect" (Held et al., 2005, p. 77) has spread during the past years.
Regionalization in one part of the world encourages regionalization elsewhere-whether
by imitation, like the success of the European Single Market, or by "defensive" reaction,
such as Mercosur's, establishment as response to the creation of NAFTA. According to
this, inter-regionalism would indeed be global in nature. As Held et al. (2005) claimed,
"the new regionalism is not a barrier to political globalization but, on the contrary,
entirely compatible with it- if not an indirect encouragement” (p.77).
Hurrell (2007) captured this debate in his "one (global) world/many (regional)
worlds’ relationship" (p. 1). Regional developments in one part of the world have
affected and fueled regionalization everywhere else in a sort of contagion or domino
effect. This fact, along with increasing developments in interregional cooperation, shows
that the regionalization process is global in nature. Therefore, regionalization is
intimately linked to globalization since it is part of it and it builds on it.
The argument concerning the relationship between regionalization and
globalization is perfectly summarized in this claim:
The age of economic globalization has also been the age of regionalization and
much of the analysis of the new regionalism has been devoted to the links between the
two tendencies. Thus, regionalism is seen as critical part of the political economy of
globalization and the strategies that states (and other actors) have adopted in the face
of globalization ...The emergence of regionalism needs to be understood within the
global restructuring with power and production. The many worlds are very closely
intertwined with the character and fate of the one. The core driving force is global even
if the manifestation is regional. (Hurell, 2007, p. 4).

ASSESSMENT:
Answer the following questions. 15 POINTS
1. Are societies in the world becoming more similar (homogenous) or more different
(heterogeneous)?
ANSWER: I can’t say that our world had become heterogeneous but I do think that we
have slightly become homogenous. The rise of social media and global connectivity, we
have morphed our societies into looking somewhat similar. The trends that
are being set by our western neighbors like the Americans, have purposefully
made their way into our society and culture. An example to this is the rise of luxury high-
end brands, fast food chains, and other more products
2. What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of homogenization of
culture? How about heterogeneous?
ANSWER: The advantage of a homogenized culture is that it allows a standard for
institutions such as in education allowing a standard teaching practice and standard
learning curriculum. This standardization also allows easier and better communication
because people have shared understanding of things. The disadvantage is that it
reduces diversity of ideas because cultures and society are all the same and
everything is uniform. Heterogeneity, on one hand, means diversity and that is its
advantage. It increases open-mindedness in individuals thus allowing variety in ideas,
perspectives, and opportunities.The disadvantage is that cultures and ideas are
commodified in a society wherein everyone is promoting their own cultures and it may
eventually lead to feudalism between two cultures
3. Which of the aforementioned views on the history of globalization you find most
appealing? Why?
ANSWER: The cyclical view on the history of globalization, as proposed by Scholte, is a
concept which explained that globalization will come and go in a cyclical fashion. This
notion made much more sense to me than the other ones because it does not force the
idea that history is linear, that a thing can only be invented and then die. With the
cyclical view, a thing, this thing being globalization, can be invented, die out, and then
reinvented.