Logo ALAGE ATVET COLLEGE

Crop production and marketing

Management LEVEL IV

Unit of Competence: control weeds, pests and/or disease in crops

Module Title: control weeds, pests and/or disease in crops
LG Code: AGR CPM 409 0311
TTLM Code: AGR FCP TTLM 0812v1

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 1
Author: M.T.
 LO1: prepare for implementation
When is it a pest?
Pest refers to an insect, animal, plant or microorganism that causes problems in the garden.
Beneficial are organisms in the air, on the ground or in the soil that do good things for your garden
like pollinating flowers, feeding on insect pests or improving soil.
Some pests also are beneficial. For example, yellow jackets are both predators of pests and painful to
humans. When considering controls, weigh a creature’s damage against damage to the entire
community of garden life.

Introduction sheet-1 Learning Guide 1

This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics –

 Document IPM.

 Sample assessment

 Methods of assessment

 . Resources required for assessment

 Target species and potential impacts 0n production

 Plan to implement IPM

Learning Activities
1. Read the information written in the Information Sheets

Information Sheet-1  Document IPM.

1.1. Document IPM.

Integrated management strategies have as their goal providing maximum economic yields to the
farmer, while improving or maintaining the production site and protecting the environment. Examples
of integrated pest management (IPM) procedures to improve economic yields while reducing inputs
include: the integration of pesticides with cultural techniques for disease control; and biological,

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 2
Author: M.T.
 behavioral, and environmental controls of pests such as weeds. Biotechnology promises to have a
major impact on IPM through the use of recombinant DNA techniques to genetically engineer
microbes for the control of diseases, insects, and weeds, and to generate plants that resist insects,
pathogens, and herbicides. Examples of each management procedure follow:

1. Cultural controls: crop variety selection or host-plant resistance, double cropping and/or crop
rotation patterns, minimum or reduced tillage, use of organic fertilizers, and prescription
pesticide application.
2. Biological controls: natural pathogens or predators of insects and weeds. Several cultural
techniques mentioned above (such as variety selection) relate directly to biological control.
3. Behavioral controls: release of sterile insects, pheromone traps, and development of lethal
natural products that attract insects. These techniques have only recently received attention in
IPM; they relate to pest behavior modification based on insect communication.
4. Biotechnology: microorganisms with novel features that are currently impacting IPM strategies
include viruses and bacteria that were developed for control of insects, weeds, and/or fungal
pathogens. These practices are likely to impact substantially on IPM procedures regarding the
development of plants having novel characteristics such as herbicide tolerance and insect
resistance.
5. Environmental controls: alterations of soil pH, moisture status, use of topography,
temperature, and light intensity are among the environmental approaches. However, such
manipulations are difficult to perform. While closely related to cultural practices,
environmental controls relate to alterations in the physical environment to maintain yields and
reduce stress.

Finally, an excellent opportunity exists to introduce expert systems and computer-aided decision-
making processes into IPM strategies. Many different IPM options should be assembled into a stepwise
approach that evaluates each practice, and recommends the most appropriate choice. The best options
for a specific cropping system will always depend on the probability that desired results will occur;
thus, computerized applications are an obvious choice for future IPM planning and implementation.

CULTURAL CONTROLS

Cultural methods can be modified by using knowledge of the ecology of cultivated plants for control of
diseases, insect pests, and weeds. The five major ones are as follows.

Early planting

Sowing crops over the winter provides a plant that is more physiologically active at an earlier period
than plants sown in the spring. Accelerated crop-growth in the spring may break the plant-damaging
cycle of key pests at cenoses and thus avoid the disease-susceptible stages of the crop. As an example,
short season cotton has been incorporated effectively into IPM programs for cotton farming in Texas
(USA) to control the boll weevil and pink bollworm. Similarly, fall sowing of sugar beets decreased
damage caused by pests and diseases, including beet yellow disease and mildew of beet.

Late planting

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 3
Author: M.T.
 This technique may uncouple plant pest synchronization. For example, if wheat is sown late, it is less
likely to be attacked by Hessian flies that emerge in the spring.

Crop rotation

Sequential crop rotation may be used to reduce insect pests, plant pathogens, and weeds. Maintaining
crop rotation in alternate years or at other intervals can effectively control pests. For example, planting
sugar beets decreases the effects of weeds, diseases, and pests that survive in the soil and on crop
debris. Crop rotation provides an inexpensive control for important weed species such as Avena fauna
and Elytrigia repens, as well as for pests such as eelworms and for diseases like black leg.

Soil cultivation

Cultivation can achieve a plentiful harvest by acting as an effective control for late infestations of weed
and diseases that would lower the sowing density of emergent plants. However, if the sowing density
of seeds per unit area is too low, the risk of damage from other pests increases. For example, if a sugar
beet crop is planted at too low a density, then the crop can be attacked more frequently by aphids.

Reproductive control of pests

Technology is available to reduce the reproductive success of pests. The normal reproductive process
of pests is affected more by simple, biologically effective agrotechnical operations, and less by
chemical means. For example, such techniques have been used experimentally for control of C.
pomonella and C. molesta.

Crop variety selection for resistance to insect and plant pathogens

For example, the technique has been employed against the Hessian fly and cabbage yellows.

Information Sheet-2  Sample assessment

.Sampling Methods

Sample size, location and selection are important to any sample program. Each plant is unique
and requires individual monitoring. The first step in developing a monitoring system is to
decide how many plant need to be examined and, within this parameter, how many fruit, leaf
or soil samples need to be observed or collected for adequate representation and sampling
reliability. Sampling may involve plants randomly selected for each monitoring period or
permanently designated station plants. Plant should be dispersed sufficiently to achieve
TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV
TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 4
Author: M.T.
 representative sampling of the entire plant. .
The station plant concept involves the selection of representative plants at the time of feild
establishment or at the beginning of each season. Selected plants are tagged, numbered and
revisited each monitoring period throughout the season. Random samples provide information
on a larger proportion of plants within a plant over time. Station plants more closely follow
pest or disease dynamics on a few individual plants. Both systems have merit and, depending
on the desired result and amount of time to be invested, a combination of both methods may
prove most useful.

Field records

Systematic recording of data in the field is time consuming but necessary for clarity in review
and interpretation of results. If field counts are considered impractical and some form of
rating scale is employed for example, trace, low, medium, high, very high, the assignment of
numerical values from 1-5 is acceptable. Organization of the data in summary form
following field sampling allows for rapid review and assessment of individual orchard
situations. Information gathered during the monitoring process aids in planning future pest
management strategies.

Control action criteria

Control action criteria can be defined as specific pest population levels or threshold levels that
signal impending economic damage to the crop or trees. Ideally, each threshold value considers
the pest's life cycle, its potential for rapid population increases under existing or anticipated
environmental conditions, orchard history, the type of damage likely to occur in proportion to
control costs, other stresses the trees are experiencing and other relevant factors.

Progress has been made in establishing threshold values for almost all citrus pests. But please
note that action criteria in any pest management program are flexible and should be altered to fit
individual management conditions

Monitoring Guidelines

These guidelines provide information on how to monitor specific pests and offer insight on what
constitutes reason for control action. Pre-season monitoring suggestions are provided to
encourage early season inventory of pest populations and disease potential in advance of
post-bloom control effects. Early monitoring provides information helpful in selecting
the most appropriate and cost effective pesticides. This early information may be useful
in making volume purchases of pesticide materials and for determining which orchards merit
immediate attention.

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 5
Author: M.T.
 Information Sheet-3 Methods of assessment

Methods of assessment

Weed control methods in crop production:

Weeds compete with crops for light, space, water, and available nutrients, which result in lower crop
yields Weeds cause losses by reducing plant yield and quality, decreasing harvest efficiency, and by
harboring insects and diseases.

The adverse effects due to weeds are pronounced more under marginal conditions than when dealing
with fertile soils and abundant rainfall.

Control is necessary at all times of the crop .Crops are most sensitive to weed competition in their early
stages of growth. Competition during the first quarter of the growing period does irreparable damage to
the crop, and often results in total crop failure. Although weeds cause considerable less damage during
the later development stages of the crop, weed control is still necessary to ensure both the quality of the
harvest and for host plants that harbor disease and pest growth. Unlike other agricultural pests, weeds
do not attack our crops directly, rather they compete with them and serve as pest hosts.

Weed control should be the main activity as far as crop maintenance is concern. Most of the crops in
the production unit call for very good care in this respect .As a rule of thumb, the quicker the canopy is
closed, the less weeding will be required. Thus, the reason for row planting vs. hill planting. Weed
growth is also checked by crop rotation, which in addition reduces the incidence of diseases and pests.
As with all pests, the weed species must be accurately identified for successful management. There are
various ways to control weeds: preventive measures, hand weeding, mechanical weeding, chemical
weed control, and integrated control.

Preventive measures. Preventive measures are meant to control the further spreading of weeds. They
include the use of early cultivation, uncontaminated seed, the elimination of weeds before seeding is
started, keeping irrigation canals clean, proper composting of manure, and prevention of soil and water
runoff. The producer must create and maintain ideal conditions for the crop to develop fast and
compete with the weeds for nutrients, light, and space. Once the crop is established and the canopy
formed, it is very difficult for weeds to develop and compete with the crop. Unfortunately, many weed
researchers are trained in industrial countries where labor costs exceed the costs in developing
countries. As a result they are firm believers in the application of weed killers, well above trying to
improve the effectiveness of hand weeding.

A common stumbling block is the late start of cultivation, after the first heavy rains with no time for
pre-planting weeding. Such late start results in delayed and therefore hurried planting, leading to wide
plant spacing and many gaps. Thus, weeding has to be postponed until planting has been completed,
leading to a pile-up of weeds and work while the weeds compete fiercely with the crop seedlings. A
combination of simple measures can help prevent this situation.

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 6
Author: M.T.
 General approaches to insect control include:

Cultural Control: Some insect pests of field and vegetable crops can be controlled by cultural or good
management practices. These cultural practices are directed at "weak points" in the insects life cycle
and are generally something the farmer does anyway, such as plowing, disking, date of planting, etc.
Advantage is taken of the insect's relationship to its host plant.

Crop rotation: There are several requirements that must be fulfilled for effective crop rotation .The
first of these is that the alternate crop must be an unacceptable plant to the insect pest. Otherwise, you
have not met the basic requirement of removing the food source. The insect must also have limited
dispersal activity and a long life cycle. There is no advantage to crop rotation if a pest species is
capable of moving at will from crop to crop or can complete its development before the crop can be
rotated.

Tillage: Early cultivation after harvest to incorporate remaining crop residues into the soil also affects
insects by exposing spores, and adult insects or pupae to weathering and their natural enemies or by
turning under the litter which serves as their habitat .Other practices which may help control insects
could be to keep a strict crop hygiene that includes burning or hot composting of affected material and
removing crop residues, stalks, and stumps after harvest.

Plant Population and Date of Planting: Plant a fairly dense stand to avoid weeds that could act as
host plants for pests and diseases .Plant at the right date of planting to avoid too much water or too dry
conditions which may increase insect or disease attacks.

Balanced soil fertility program. Maintain a good fertility program to have healthy plants which can
compete effectively with the insects for survival.

Chemical Control: Despite the controversy, concern, and criticism relating to chemical control, this
method continues to be the most reliable. Alone or in combination with other techniques, chemical
insecticides will continue to be the major method of controlling most insects in the foreseeable future.
Problems have arisen because we have relied on chemicals too heavily in the past years. The types and
judiciousness of uses, and the integration of these uses with other available techniques to reduce our
dependence on pesticides must always be considered.

Preventive control of plant diseases.

Plant diseases can reduce the quantity and quality of food, fiber, and ornamental crops from the time of
planting through harvest, sale and usage A reduction in crop growth may be the result of an insufficient
supply of plant minerals or the activity of toxins produced by bacteria, fungi, or viruses. The internal
nature of most diseases causes considerable damage before the symptoms become noticeable, which
makes control very difficult and hardly economic. Managing plant diseases is a complex problem.
Curing plant diseases is nearly impossible, so management measures focus on preventing diseases from
occurring or limiting their effect.

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 7
Author: M.T.
 Fungi

Fungi are the most common plant pest. Fungi lack chlorophyll and, therefore, cannot manufacture their
own food through photosynthesis. Fungal diseases cause a variety of symptoms. Any part of a plant's
roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, or seeds may be infected. Fungi also attack harvested products,
such as grain, bulbs, and wood, while they are in transit or in storage. Fungi can be spread from healthy
to diseased plants by wind, rain, or irrigation water, soil, machinery, humans, and animals. Some fungi
can penetrate healthy tissues directly. In other instances they enter through wounds.

Bacteria

Bacteria are perhaps most familiar to us as causal agents of a number of important human and animal
diseases, e.g. tuberculosis, pneumonia, typhoid fever, brucellosis and anthrax. However, some
bacteria are destructive plant pathogens.

Bacteria are microscopic organisms that quickly increase in number, especially in wet, humid weather.
The life cycle of bacteria may be as short as 20 minutes and its population may increase tremendously
in such a short period of time. For example, if a bacterium divides every 30 minutes, a single bacterial
cell could produce 281,474,956,710,656 offspring in 24 hours. Their importance as plant pathogens
lies primarily in their astonishing reproductive capacity. Bacteria live and reproduce in the spaces
between plant cells and/or in the vascular system (conducting tubes for water and nutrients).

Like fungi, most bacteria cannot manufacture their own food; they must obtain it either from dead or
decaying organic matter or from living tissue. Bacteria are most important in post harvest decays and
spoilage of fresh fruits and vegetables while en route to or at the market, or at home in the refrigerator.
Bacteria enter through natural openings and plant wounds. Foliar diseases caused by bacteria are often
spread by wind and driven or splashing rain. Insects also introduce certain bacteria as they feed from
the crops.

Viruses

Like bacteria, viruses are probably most familiar to us as causal agents of human and animal diseases,
e.g., polio, rabies, smallpox, and warts. They are, however, responsible for some of the most
destructive plant diseases. Viral plant diseases include mosaics of tobacco and vegetables, curly top of
sugar beets, and yellow dwarf of barley among other grain crops.

Viruses are smaller than bacteria and reproduce only when associated with living tissues. Viruses cause
a variety of diseases and symptoms that most frequently cause reduced yields and poor quality
products rather than killing the host. Nearly all viruses can survive only in living cells; their spread
from diseased to healthy plants, therefore, depends on some means of direct movement from plant to
plant. Most viruses are transmitted by insects, particularly aphids, leafhoppers, and mites. Viruses are
often serious problems in plants that are propagated by vegetative means (e.g. tubers, bulbs, roots,
cuttings) because the virus is easily carried along in the propagating material.

Because of the close association of viruses with the living cells of their hosts, no chemicals have yet
been discovered which are capable of controlling the virus without doing irreparable damage to the
host. For the present at least, viruses must be controlled by means other than the use of pesticides. In

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 8
Author: M.T.
 this case as with other pests, we cannot completely get rid of plant diseases. Rather, must simply learn
to live with them; the most we can hope for is a reduction in damage to an acceptable level.

Methods of Pest control.

Resistant Varieties. Frequently, pest problems can be avoided or minimized simply by planting
resistant varieties. The degree of resistance to a particular pest may be either partial or complete. These
varieties possess genetic defenses such as protective physiological or physical characteristics which
reduce their susceptibility to pests. Selecting resistant varieties makes the environment less favorable
for pests and keeps them below harmful levels. Frequently, pest problems can be avoided or minimized
simply by using resistant varieties.

Crop Rotation. Crop rotation can be an effective mean of maintaining pest populations at manageable
levels; oftentimes it is a necessity. If a crop which is susceptible to a particular pest is grown year after
year on the same land, pest infestations can become devastating. Rotation to other crops not desired by
resident pests may offer at least a partial solution and may at the same time provide additional benefits
such as increased soil fertility and a reduction in soil erosion.

Cultural Control. Many pest problems can be avoided or minimized by using appropriate cultural
control techniques. Cultural control includes a number of practices designed to create optimal growing
conditions for the crop and/ or unfavorable conditions for the pest. Cultural control involves, normal
farming operations such as varying the planting time, cultivating, fertilizing, irrigating, and harvesting
which may alter somewhat in response to particular pest problems. Sanitation practices, such as
removal of crop residues which harbor pests, can also be an effective means of cultural control.

Biological Control. The foundation of biological control focuses on maximizing the effects of the
natural enemies of pests. Biological controls are most commonly used to manage insects, mites, and
some weeds. These natural enemies should be preserved in the field, as they are beneficial. This
requires a careful choice of pest control measures, particularly an informed selection and judicious use
of pesticides. Special consideration needs to be given to select insecticides that will not harm your
beneficial insects. You can also help to ensure the continued presence of these species by preserving
appropriate habitats in surrounding vegetation.

Chemical Control. Despite their potential hazards, chemical are essential components of pest control
programs and will remain so for the foreseeable future. Chemical controls use naturally derived or
synthetic chemicals called pesticides which kill, repel, attract, sterilize, or otherwise interfere with the
normal behavior of pests. Chemicals act quickly and are effective against large pest populations. In
many cases, the application of pesticides may be the most effective and feasible control tactic.
However, pesticides should be used only when needed and in such a manner that you, your family,
your neighbor, and the environment are adequately protected.

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 9
Author: M.T.
 Information Sheet-4 Resources required for assessment

Resources required for assessment

The Pest Control Technician is a specialist in the mixing, spraying and application of chemical
solutions to control weeds, pests, insects and plant and tree diseases.  The classification is
distinguished from the Maintenance Worker in that the incumbent does not routinely perform
construction, maintenance or landscape work.  The classification is distinguished from the Lead
Maintenance Worker in that the incumbent does not oversee a crew engaged in the performance
of construction, maintenance or landscape work..

Minimum Qualification Guidelines

Knowledge of

 Tools and techniques for the proper use and application of chemicals used to control weeds,
diseases, insects and other pests;

 Pertinent local, State and Federal rules, regulations, laws and reporting requirements;

 Proper maintenance of spray equipment;

 Safe work practices and procedures related to use of chemical sprays;

 Treatment for pesticide poisoning and basic first aid. 

Ability to

 Safely perform skilled work in the preparation and application of chemical solutions to control
weeds, diseases, insects and other pests;

 Work independently in the absence of immediate supervision;

 Communicate effectively, orally and in writing;

 Maintain accurate records; and prepare reports in a timely and accurate manner;

 Safely and skillfully operate tools and equipment related to work assignments;

 Maintain and make minor repairs to spray apparatus;

 Read and comprehend pertinent rules, laws and regulations and specialized materials such as
technical manuals, written instructions, and mixing formulas;

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 10
Author: M.T.
  Understand and follow work safety procedures and practices;

 Establish and maintain effective work relationships with the general public, co-workers, and
those contacted during the course of work. 

Special Requirements 

Physical Requirements:  On a daily basis, the essential duties of this classification require the
ability to stoop, kneel, and crouch, to reach, to stand for long periods of time to walk; to lift, push,
pull and carry objects weighing up to 20 pounds; to use finger dexterity and hand strength to
operate and grasp tools and equipment; the repetitive use of feet and hands to operate vehicles
and/or equipment; to feel attributes of objects by touch; to verbally exchange ideas and
information; to hear to receive verbal detailed information and instruction; to see from one to
twenty feet with a good field of vision and the ability to distinguish basic colors and shades of
color; and to maintain body equilibrium to prevent falling when walking, standing or crouching
on narrow, slippery or moving surfaces.

Work Environment:  Essential duties of this classification are performed primarily in a field
environment under various weather conditions.  Work is performed on a daily basis around
moving objects and vehicles; around machinery with moving parts; on slippery and uneven
surfaces; and with hands in water.  On a daily basis, the incumbent is exposed to pesticides,
solvents, and chemicals.  Occasionally, the incumbent is subjected to vibration; an atmosphere of
constant noise; and/or exposed to silica, smoke, fumes, gas, dust, grease, and oil.

Information sheet -5 Target species and potential impacts 0n production

1.2. Target species and potential impacts 0n production

1.2.1. Target species

 Weeds
 Pests and
 diseases
Side Effects or Damage caused by Product
Applications

 Post application monitoring activities must also include check for any
damage that the application of chemical treatments might have caused.
Any damage noted must be investigated.
Damage to crops includes:

 Symptoms of chemical scorching on any plant structures.

 Sudden wilting of plants, despite sufficient soil-water regimes.
TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV
TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 11
Author: M.T.
  Sudden die-back or death of plants for which no pest or disease
symptoms can be identified.
 Sudden abscission of leaves or fruit at the wrong time of year or
development stage of the leaves or fruit.
 Damage to the environment is often not immediately apparent, but can
include the following:
 Decreased water quality.
 Death of aquatic organisms due to poisoning or lack of oxygen in the
water.
 Soil and water pollution.
 Affected non-targeted organisms, indicating that the chemical came in
contact with them in some way.
 Decrease or loss of natural pest enemies.
 Decrease or loss of indigenous fauna or flora due to exposure to agro-
chemicals or loss of habitat.
 Side-effects of agro-chemicals in terms of human and animal health vary and can include
the following:
• Poisoning.
 Burns.
• Respiratory problems.
• Decreased or loss of fertility.
• Lack of appetite.
• Drowsiness or lethargy.
• Suffocation.
• Vomiting or diarrhea.
• Lack of co-ordination or balance.
• Long-term health problems such as the development of cancer or tumours.

1.4.2. Potential impacts 0n production

Potential impacts of weeds, pests and/or diseases 0n crop production includes:

a. yield reduction
Annually 33.7% yield reduction was obtained due to these three
reasons. Among these:

 weed accounts 9.7 %

 pest accounts 12.2 % and
 disease accounts 11.8 %
b. quality reduction

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 12
Author: M.T.
 Information sheet -6 Plan to implement IPM

Plan to implement IPM

Pest Management

Integrated pest management (IPM) is an approach designed to keep pest populations below
economically damaging levels by using selected control tactics, including certain cultural
practices, plant resistance, and chemical and biological control. With many pests, especially
diseases and weeds, growers must use preventive control strategies to eliminate the potential for
infection before the crop is established. In contrast, most insect pests can be controlled after a
field is infested, and scouting fields for the presence of economically damaging insect
populations is a good way to eliminate unnecessary pesticide applications. For most pests, a
combination of one or more strategies is often required for successful control, and the crop must
be closely monitored to determine the need and timing of various control practices.

Some logical steps to follow in an IPM program are identifying insects, diseases, and weeds;
keeping records of pest problems, field locations, pesticides used, weather conditions, etc.;
scouting and monitoring for pests to determine pest and action levels; proper selection, handling
and disposal of pesticides; safe and effective application of pesticides; and an integration of any
and all control tactics and strategies.

Specific and more detailed information on insects, diseases, and weeds is readily available
through local county Cooperative Extension centers. County agents and Extension specialists
offer assistance with identification, farm tests, publications, control recommendations, and
related advisory services.

Strategic Plan

Core Values

 Work cooperatively among ourselves and with others.

 Value biological control as an important component of pest management.
 Be professional in science and service.

Vision

To be a recognized standard for biological control:

 By increasing our level of participation and innovation in the introduction, establishment and use
of natural enemies;
 By establishing appropriate natural enemies leading to the successful control of pests in
California's agricultural, urban, and natural systems.

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 0
Author: M.T.
 LO 2: Assess weed, pest and/or disease infestations

Information sheet-* Learning Guide 2

This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following
content coverage and topics –

1. Materials required for weed, pest and disease assessment

2. Procedures of weed, pest and disease assessment
3. Treatments for infestation

Learning Activities

1. Read the information written in this learning guide.

Materials required for weed, pest and disease

Information Sheet-1
assessment

Materials required for weed, pest and disease assessment

Identification Techniques
Pest and disease causing organisms can be identified in different methods. If the pest is large
enough, it can be visually seen and its life stage identified. Some of the problematic organisms,
however, cannot be seen with the naked eye and assistance is sometimes required in identifying the
organism.

Macroscopic

Large insects can be seen without assistance, but the aid of a hand-held lens is often used by
pest scouts to identify the insect more clearly, categorize its life stage accurately and to determine
the insects sex.

Microscopic

Not all pest or disease-causing organisms can be seen without the assistance of a microscope.
Microscopic identification is often called for to confirm that the organism suspected of causing the
damage or disease symptom is in fact accurate. Microscopic identification requires skill of laboratory
techniques and often requires the expertise of specialists.
TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV
TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 1
Author: M.T.
 Chemical

Some laboratory techniques require specific chemical stains to identify the micro-organism. These
color the organism or react with the organism which verifies its identity. In the case of diseases
laboratory culture growth test are done to determine the presence of diseases and to identify specific
diseases.

Information Sheet-2 Procedures of weed, pest and disease assessment

Procedures of weed, pest and disease assessment

Weed risk assessment can be conducted at any stage of a species entry and spread into a
country or area. The procedures described here are concerned primarily with preventing
the entry and initial spread of plant species that are likely to become pests within a
country, or which are there and ought to be considered pests. They describe the
responsibilities of all participants in the process of plant importation required to halt the
spread of weeds. Weed risk assessment procedures for determining whether or not the
import of a species should be allowed, are described.
These procedures are based primarily on the experience of Australia and New Zealand,
two countries that have effective quarantine protocols for preventing the introduction of
and spread of unwanted plant species. One reason for the effectiveness of weed risk
assessment systems in these countries is a regulatory environment that enables the official
plant protection organizations to restrict the movement of plants across the borders and
within the countries. Without such national legislation, weed risk assessment by itself
cannot prevent the entry and spread of weeds.

The process of weed risk assessment

The most effective legislative framework to prevent the entry of new weeds is
the concept of a Permitted List of plant species (or defined taxa). If a taxon
with the potential to be a pest in an area is not on a list of taxa permitted to be
in that area, then it will be prohibited until it has been determined whether it
is potential quarantine pest. A formal weed risk assessment is part of that
process. All plants not present in the country i.e., exotic, are deemed to be
prohibited until they have undergone assessment. By systematically
undertaking weed risk assessments, countries will develop lists of species that
are either permitted entry and those that are prohibited. The latter will include
those that are present and officially controlled in the area. Provided these
Permitted and Prohibited lists are made publicly available, an applicant may
readily determine whether the plant(s) species of concern to them are
permitted or prohibited.

Information Sheet-3 Treatments for infestation

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 2
Author: M.T.
 Treatments for infestation

Specific Diseases and Their Control

Angular leaf spot is caused by the seed-borne bacterium Pseudomonas syringe pv. lachrymans
which causes straw-colored spots with well-defined angular shapes on leaves (Plate 20). The
organism occasionally attacks the fruits and may cause rotting. The disease is favored by cool,
wet weather. There are resistant cultivars. Two pickling cultivars with resistance are Endeavor
and Freemont, however these cultivars are shorter than most cultivars used by the processing
industry. Sprays with a copper fungicide may be beneficial.

Plate 1. Angular leafspot caused by

Pseudomonas syringae pv. lachrymans.

Anthracnose is caused by the fungus Colletotrichum obiculare that may be seedborne and may
live for one or more years in the soil on crop debris. Leaf spots are light brown or salmon colored
with irregular margins The centers of the spots tend to drop out. Stems and fruits are also affected
but this is rare in North Carolina. The disease is favored by warm, wet weather. Most cultivars
recommended have some level of resistance However, cultivar resistance is not always
satisfactory under severe disease pressure. A two-year crop rotation with non-cucurbit crops is an
essential practice and often must be supplemented with a regular spray program, especially for
mid- and late-season crops.

Plate 2. Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum orbiculare.

Bacterial wilt is caused by the bacterium Erwinia tracheiphila that causes a progressive wilting
of the plant and subsequent die-back of the vines The disease is easily recognized in the field.

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 3
Author: M.T.
 Individual wilted plants occur randomly which reflects beetle transmission. Often, only a single
vine or half a vine will wilt, indicating the point of infection by the beetle.

To confirm diagnosis, cut off a portion of the wilted runner near the first wilted leaf. Check for
the presence of bacteria in the vascular system by cutting the stem piece in half. Realign the two
cut surfaces, press together, and slowly separate to about 0.1 inch. The test is positive for
bacterial wilt if thin slime strings are seen between the two cut surfaces .Normal sap (e.g.,
without bacteria in it) will not form a slime string. Try several samples on different plants. This
disease is present throughout the state.

The bacterium overwinters in cucumber beetles and is spread by them. Most cultivars
recommended do not have bacterial wilt resistance; some notable exceptions are Marketmore
80Bw (slicing type) and County Fair 87 (pickling type). Bacterial wilt can be prevented by
controlling cucumber beetles with timely sprays of insecticides when beetles are present.

Cercospora leafspot and target spot. Cercospora leafspot is caused by the fungus Cercospora
citrullina and causes pale spots on leaves surrounded by a dark ring and a chlorotic halo. A
similar disease, target spot, is caused by the fungus Corynespora cassiicola. Target spot (Plate 3)
produces a similar but more angular leaf spot. Both diseases are favored by wet and warm
weather and are controlled by timely fungicide sprays.

Plate 3. Target spot caused by Corynespora cassiicola.

Damping-off and seed rot can be caused by Pythium spp., Fusarium spp., Rhizoctonia solani,
other fungi, and bacteria. Symptoms consist of poor emergence caused by seed decay in the
ground and rot of the seedling at or near the soil surface. These result in spotty stands of plants.
Most often damping-off and seed rot are problems during cool, rainy weather and are especially
serious where water does not drain freely from a field and seed germination and seedling growth
are delayed or inhibited. There are no resistant cultivars. Application of a soil fungicide or broad-
spectrum soil fumigant before seeding may be helpful in problem fields.

Downy mildew is caused by an air-borne fungus Pseudoperonospora cubensis (Plate 23), the
spores of which are blown northward each spring from overwintering areas in warmer climates.
The fungus usually appears in mid-summer. Characteristic symptoms are yellow spots with a
purplish, downy growth on the underside of leaves. The disease can be a problem during rainy
periods after mid-season. Most commercial cultivars are highly resistant, which is especially
useful in late summer and fall. Growers should follow a good fungicide spray program.

Plate 4. Downy mildew caused by Pseudoperonospora cubensis.

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 4
Author: M.T.
 Fruit rots are caused by different soil-inhabiting fungi such as Pythium spp. (cottony leak) and
Rhizoctonia solani (belly rot) that affect fruit in the field and after harvest (Plates 25 and 26).
Fruit rots are favored by wet weather. Harvested fruit should be cooled as soon as possible. There
are some cultivars and breeding lines with moderate resistance to belly rot. Marketmore 76
(slicing type) is the most resistant (Uchneat and Wehner 1998). Fungicidal sprays may be
helpful.

Plate 7. Belly rot caused by

Plate 5. Cottony leak caused Plate 6. Belly rot caused by Rhizoctonia solani. Note dry,
by Pythium spp. Rhizoctonia solani. sunken, irregular lesions.

Gummy stem blight is caused by two related fungi (Didymella bryoniae and Phoma
cucurbitacearum) that can be seed borne and overwinter on old plant material in the soil.
Symptoms are large, dark brown spots that often appear on the leaf margin (Plate 8), and lesions
on the stems. The disease is favored by wet weather and there are few cultivars with some
resistance. The cultivar Slice (slicing type) is the most resistant to gummy stem blight.

Plate 8. Gummy stem blight caused by Didymella bryoniae.

Powdery mildew is caused by the fungus Sphaerotheca fuliginea and occasionally by Erysiphe
cichoracearum and is rarely a problem in North Carolina because most commercial cultivars are
resistant. Powdery mildew can be recognized by a white, superficial, powdery growth that
usually starts on the underside of older leaves (Plate 29). The disease can spread rapidly on all
green plant surfaces except the fruit. Unlike many other diseases, powdery mildew may develop
rapidly during dry weather. Management of the disease is based on growing resistant cultivars
and spraying of a recommended fungicide if necessary.

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 5
Author: M.T.
 Plate 9. Powdery mildew caused by Sphaerotheca fuliginea.

Scab is caused by the fungus Cladosporium cucumerinum and produces dark gray, crater-like
spots on fruits. On the leaves, spots are irregular with yellow margins and brown centers. The
disease is favored by cool, moist weather and is a problem primarily in western North Carolina.
Resistant cultivars are essential in that area. Most recommended cultivars have resistance.
Management of the disease is based on a two-year crop rotation with non-cucurbit crops and a
fungicide spraying program.

Root-knot is caused by soil-borne parasitic nematodes (Meloidogyne spp., especially M.

incognita) which cause swellings or galls on the roots. The disease is more common and serious
on sandy soils than on clay soils; crop injury is more serious during dry seasons than seasons
with adequate rainfall. Root-knot is one of the most common and serious diseases of cucumbers
in North Carolina (Main and Gurtz 1989), and all growers should practice control measures. Soils
can be assayed for nematodes by the Nematode Advisory Section (there is a nominal fee per
sample). Send samples to Private laboratories can also assay soils for nematodes.

Growers should treat soils with a nematicide, if recommended. Currently, there are no resistant
commercial cultivars.

Plate 11. Root-knot nematode galls

Plate 10. Root-knot nematode galls
on developed root system.
on cucumber seedlings.

Consequently, development of effective weed control strategies should target this period. There
are a number of options available to organic producers to assist them in achieving the above
weed control goals. The use of cover crops and crop rotation, timely cultivation, mulching,
solarization, proper water management, flaming, crop competition, immediate crop destruction,
and biological control to name a few. Although none of these options are totally effective alone,
when properly used in combinations they can be highly effective

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 6
Author: M.T.
 LO 3: implement weed, pest and/or disease control strategies

Information sheet* Learning Guide 3

This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following
content coverage and topics:

Materials to implement control strategies

Minimization of negative environmental impacts

Information sheet-1 Materials to implement control strategies

1.1. Materials to implement control strategies

Qualified personnel
Chemicals
Human labor
Different materials like: knapsack, water...etc.

Information sheet-2 Minimization of negative environmental impacts

1.2. Minimization of negative environmental impacts

The Ecological Risk Assessment Process

Ecological risk assessment is a process whereby toxicity (effects data) and exposure estimates
(environmental concentrations) are evaluated for the likelihood that the intended use of a
pesticide will adversely affect terrestrial and aquatic wildlife, plants, and other organisms.

Data required to conduct an ecological risk assessment include the following:

Toxicity to wildlife, aquatic organisms, plants, and non target insects

Environmental fate
Environmental transport
Estimated environmental concentrations
Where and how the pesticide will be used
What animals and plants will be exposed
Climatologic, Metrologic, and soil information

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 7
Author: M.T.
 Environmental Movement of Pesticides

Increases in environmental awareness in the 1960s, exemplified by Rachel Carson's Silent

Spring, changed forever how pesticides would be viewed by the American public. The most
commonly used insecticides at that time were part of a chemical class of compounds called
chlorinated hydrocarbons which includes the well-known insecticide DDT. Emerging
environmental groups and the news media accurately portrayed these pesticides as chemicals that
bioaccumulation in the environment, disrupt links in the food chain, and poison wildlife. Silent
Spring captured the public's attention and rallied a cry for greater public awareness of

environmental issues.

The environmental movement added balance to discussion on the benefits of pesticide use,
providing awareness of the risks posed to people, wildlife, and ecosystems. procedures for
suspending the registration of pesticides determined to be unsafe, and the growing environmental
movement formed powerful lobbies that supported additional legislation. Politically astute
individuals and organizations directed their attention to Congress, lobbying for legislation that
would help protect the economy, the environment, and public health. As a result, manufacturers
and users were held more accountable for reducing both short- and long-term risks of pesticide
use. The public looked to Congress to pass enforceable legislation requiring pesticides to be
scientifically evaluated prior to release for agricultural, commercial, or consumer use. While the
debate has shifted over the years as issues have emerged and changed, it remains a primary
obligation of manufacturers, through government oversight, to understand and minimize risks
posed by pesticides

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 8
Author: M.T.
 LO 4: Monitor weed, pest and/or disease control operations
Information sheet-1 Learning Guide 4

Monitoring points

Monitoring pests, diseases and weeds is the most important aspect of an Integrated Production
Management strategy since the monitoring activities will alert the grower early on, rather
than later when infestation might be more difficult to manage.

Monitoring and scouting activities normally

revolve around:

 Pests, diseases and weeds present.

 Population growth of pests, diseases and weeds.
 Natural enemies and beneficial organisms present.
 Efficacy of control methods.
If monitoring takes place on a regular, planned basis and it incorporates detailed
recordkeeping, decisions can be made early on in terms of taking action against a specific
pest, disease or weed. Monitoring actions also reflect on the effect that a specific control
option has had and will assist in making further decisions in terms of control options.

Monitoring the Crop for Pest Damage

Reasons for monitoring

The first step in an IPM program is to monitor fields for signs of pest damage or potential pest
problems. Proper weed management involves a thorough inspection of each field after crop
harvest to identify major weed species in the field. When an annual crop is to be grown in the
field the following year, this information is used to assess the importance of each weed species
and to select the appropriate management strategy to be used for the coming crop. In annual
crops, fields also are monitored after the crop has emerged to assess the effectiveness of the
selected management alternative and whether additional management tactics are needed. For
establishing perennial crops, such as alfalfa, an assessment of weed species composition is
conducted after harvest of the previous crop (usually in the fall), to determine the appropriate
management alternative to be used during establishment. In an established crop, fields are
monitored to determine the need for additional tactics to manage perennial and biennial weeds.

Except for seed treatments and foliar applications in small grains, fungicides seldom are used for
managing diseases in field and forage crops. However, fields should be scouted to monitor the
presence of crop diseases. By identifying diseases in a field, the farm manager can implement

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 9
Author: M.T.
 management tactics such as crop rotation, tillage, or selection of resistant cultivars. Disease
scouting should be done frequently during the growing season.

Because of their natural mobility and reproductive potential, insects are among the most difficult
pests to manage. A field badly infested with an insect pest one year may have very little damage
the following year. Conversely, a field that has been insect free for years suddenly may have
severe insect damage. The unpredictable nature of insect damage has led many farmers to apply
insurance insecticide treatments. Although insurance applications may help you sleep better at
night, you may be using resources better employed in other farm enterprises. Routine field
monitoring can prevent the unnecessary use of funds to manage pests that are economically
insignificant and can help direct management efforts to those fields that can benefit.

For insect management, fields should be scouted every seven to ten days to adequately monitor
changing pest populations. Longer periods between field monitoring can mean detecting pest
damage only after significant losses have occurred. For pests such as the black cutworm in corn,
significant damage can occur within three to five days if fields are not watched closely.

In corn, monitoring should begin about a week after the crop has been planted. Insect pests such
as the seed corn maggot, seed corn beetle, wireworm, and white grub can feed on newly planted
seed. Monitoring can be terminated after the pest management decision has been made for the
corn rootworm. This information is useful in assessing the population potential for the next
growing season and in determining if another more resistant variety should be planted in the
future.

Scouting for insects in small grains should begin after plant emergence and continue until
harvest. In wheat, corn leaf and English grain aphids and Hessian fly can attack young seedlings
in the fall and early spring. Armyworm can clip off wheat heads as the grain begins to reach
maturity.

Monitoring methods

Many pest problems can be identified simply by observing them in the field. Weeds and diseases
typically fall into this category, as do some insect and mammalian pests. Others, however,
require specialized equipment to estimate their numbers. For example, monitoring populations of
corn soil insects such as the wireworm, white grub, seed corn maggot, seed corn beetle, black
cutworm, and rootworm larvae requires the use of a shovel or trowel in addition to a visual
damage inspection. These insects all feed below ground level and must be located by digging.

One method for monitoring wireworm populations involves burying corn or other grain in a mesh
material. Because carbon dioxide is given off by the seed as it begins to sprout, larvae of the
wireworm are attracted to the grain and can be found feeding in the corn contained in the mesh
material. This is an effective method of monitoring old sod fields before planting a corn crop.
Economic threshold values have been established for this method.

Black light traps can be used to monitor the flight periods of a number of moths. Important
insects that can be monitored this way include European corn borer, true armyworm, fall
armyworm, sod webworm, and corn earworm. Egg deposition usually is correlated with moth

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 10
Author: M.T.
 flight. Although light traps are useful monitoring tools, considerable experience is needed to sort
out the economically important insects from the hundreds of other insect species collected in the
trap.

Evaluating potato leafhopper pressure in a field requires a sweep (butterfly) net. Potato
leafhopper numbers are determined by sweeping the field, which dislodges the leafhoppers from
the alfalfa plant and deposits them in the net. Counting the number of leafhoppers captured
allows the farm manager to make a management decision. Scouting procedures and economic
thresholds for alfalfa pests are discussed in Extension Circular 284, A Pest Management Program
for Alfalfa in Pennsylvania.

Although numerous methods have been developed to scout crop pests, the best pest management
tool is observation. If you take the time to scout fields during critical periods, you can avoid most
significant pest damage. Information and organization are keys to successful pest management.
In addition to scouting fields, an experienced crop manager or consultant can use field
characteristics to help identify fields with a high probability of developing a pest problem.

Monitoring of Diseases and Weeds

While scouting and assessing traps the scout are also responsible to monitor the orchard
for occurrences of diseases and weeds.

1. Diseases
Diseases are caused by fungi, viruses, bacteria and nematodes and are much more difficult
to control than insect pests. By the time disease symptoms are visible, the disease causing
organism has already been present for some time and has already multiplied and possibly
even spread. For this reason, most diseases present in Citrus production are dealt with in a
preventive rather than a reactive way.

Diseases often destroy the plant or cause so much damage to the plant that it has to
be replaced.

When plants are replaced, it normally entails great economic expense and lost production
time in terms of a crop to sell at profit. The process used to detect and identify diseases
is discussed in chapter 3.

2. Weeds

Weeds pose many hazards to successful crop production. Weeds compete with citrus trees
for nutrients, light, water, space and harbor insects and rodents that attack citrus trees.
There are three categories of weeds that should be monitored in citrus orchards, namely
broadleaf, grasses, and sedges.

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 11
Author: M.T.
 Importance of complete monitoring

Monitoring crops for pests should not be a series of independent processes, but part of an overall
integrated monitoring plan. For instance, scouts do not walk into an alfalfa field and look only for
insect pests. Instead, they are observing insect numbers, diseases, weeds, the general health of the
crop, and the stage of crop growth, while assessing potential problems. This information provides
a baseline for future evaluations of crop health and helps measure the economic significance of
specific pests in the field. By routinely monitoring a field, the farm manager can note subtle
changes in the crop and take corrective action before major problems occur.

The occurrence of multiple pests in a field can influence the potential damage from pests. For
instance, a field with a heavy weed infestation will experience greater yield losses if an insect or
disease problem also is present. In fact, weedy fields often attract insects because of the high
humidity. Certain weeds also are attractive to insects. Because common chickweed is a preferred
host of the black cutworm, fields with heavy chickweed infestations have a significantly higher
probability of developing a black cutworm problem. Therefore, fields with heavy chickweed
infestations should be monitored closely for black cutworm infestations. Producers can reduce
the potential for this pest by eliminating chickweed from fields at least 10 days before planting.

Besides the interaction of multiple pests, plant growth stage also can influence pest damage.
Because some diseases and insect problems occur only during specific growth stages of the crop,
it is important to know what growth stages are susceptible to which pests.

By knowing the pest history of the field and what problems exist in it during a growing season,
farm managers can develop a crop production strategy to reduce pest damage. This strategy
should be integrated along with other management decisions, such as fertility management,
tillage method, and conservation management.

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 12
Author: M.T.
 LO 5: complete weed, pest and/or disease control operations
Information sheet* Learning guide 5
This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following
content coverage and topics:

 Waste removal and storage

Information sheet-1 Waste removal and storage

Hazardous Substances and Hazardous Waste

Chemicals affect our everyday lives. They are used to produce almost everything we use, from paper and
plastics to medicines and food to gasoline, steel, and electronic equipment. More than 70,000 chemicals
are used regularly around the world. Some occur naturally in the earth or atmosphere; others are
synthetic, or human-made. When we use and dispose of them properly, they may enhance our quality of
life. But when we use or dispose of them improperly, they can have harmful effects on humans, plants,
and animals.

What is hazardous waste?

Even when used properly, many chemicals can still harm human health and the environment. When these
hazardous substances are thrown away, they become hazardous waste. Hazardous waste is most often
a by-product of a manufacturing process - material left after products are made. Some hazardous wastes
come from our homes: our garbage can include such hazardous wastes as old batteries, bug spray cans,
and paint thinner. Regardless of the source, unless we dispose of hazardous waste properly, it can create
health risks for people and damage the environment.

What kinds of hazardous waste are there?

Most hazardous waste is identified by one or more of its dangerous properties or characteristics:
corrosive, ignitable, reactive, or toxic.

 Corrosive - A corrosive material can wear away (corrode) or destroy a

substance. For example, most acids are corrosives that can eat through metal,
burn skin on contact, and give off vapors that burn the eyes.

 Ignitable - An ignitable material can burst into flames easily.

It poses a fire hazard; can irritate the skin, eyes, and lungs;
and may give off harmful vapors. Gasoline, paint, and
furniture polish are ignitable.

 Reactive - A reactive material can explode or create poisonous gas when combined with other

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 13
Author: M.T.
 chemicals. For example, chlorine bleach and ammonia are reactive and create a poisonous gas
when they come into contact with each other.

 Toxic - Toxic materials or substances can poison people and other life. Toxic
substances can cause illness and even death if swallowed or absorbed through
the skin. Pesticides, weed killers, and many household cleaners are toxic.

Where does hazardous waste go?

Ideally, hazardous waste is reused or recycled. If this is not possible, hazardous waste is safely contained
while it is stored, transported, and properly disposed of to prevent an accidental release into the
environment. Advances in technology have greatly improved our ability to treat or dispose of hazardous
waste in a way that prevents it from harming people or the environment. Typical methods of hazardous
waste storage and disposal include surface impoundments (storing it in lined ponds), high temperature
incineration (controlled burning), municipal and hazardous waste landfills (burying it in the ground),
and deep well injection (pumping it into underground wells). More promising methods focus on
minimizing waste, reusing and recycling chemicals, finding less hazardous alternatives, and using
innovative treatment technologies.

What are the dangers of hazardous waste management?

Proper management and control can greatly reduce the dangers of hazardous waste. There are many rules
for managing hazardous waste and preventing releases into the environment. Even so, a lot can go wrong
when we try to contain hazardous waste. Even the most technologically advanced landfills we build will
leak some day. Tanks used for storing petroleum products and other chemicals can leak and catch fire;
underground storage tanks weaken over time and leak their hazardous contents. Transportation accidents,
such as train crashes and overturned trucks, can occur while transporting hazardous substances. There are
also cases of intentional and illegal dumping of hazardous waste in sewer systems, abandoned
warehouses, or ditches in remote areas to avoid the costs and rules of safe disposal.

How can hazardous waste affect us?

When hazardous wastes are released in the air, water, or on the land they can spread, contaminating even
more of the environment and posing greater threats to our health. For example, when rain falls on soil at
a waste site, it can carry hazardous waste deeper into the ground and the underlying groundwater. If a
very small amount of a hazardous substance is released, it may become diluted to the point where it will
not cause injury. A hazardous substance can cause injury or death to a person, plant, or animal if:

 A large amount is released at one time

 A small amount is released many times at the same place

 The substance does not become diluted

 The substance is very toxic (for example, arsenic).

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 14
Author: M.T.
 Coming into contact with a substance is called an exposure. The effects of exposure depend on:

 How the substance is used and disposed of

 Who is exposed to it

 The concentration, or dose, of exposure

 How someone is exposed

 How long or how often someone is exposed.

Humans, plants, and animals can be exposed to hazardous substances through inhalation, ingestion, or
dermal exposure.

 Inhalation - we can breathe vapors from

hazardous liquids or even from contaminated
water while taking a shower.

 Ingestion - we can eat fish, fruits and

vegetables, or meat that has been
contaminated through exposure to hazardous
substances. Also, small children often eat soil
or household materials that may be
contaminated, such as paint chips containing
lead. Probably the most common type of
exposure is drinking contaminated water.

 Dermal exposure - a substance can come into direct contact with and be absorbed by our skin.

Exposures can be either acute or chronic. An acute exposure is a single exposure to a hazardous
substance for a short time. Health symptoms may appear immediately after exposure; for example, the
death of a fly when covered with bug spray or a burn on your arm when exposed to a strong acid such as
from a leaking battery.

Chronic exposure occurs over a much longer period of time, usually with
repeated exposures in smaller amounts. For example, people who lived near
Love Canal, a leaking hazardous waste dump, did not notice the health effects
of their chronic exposure for several years. Chronic health effects are typically
illnesses or injuries that take a long time to develop, such as cancer, liver
failure, or slowed growth and development. One reason chronic exposure to
even tiny amounts of hazardous substances can lead to harm is bioaccumulation. Some substances are
absorbed and stay in our bodies rather than being excreted. They accumulate and cause harm over time.

TVET Program: crop production and marketing level IV

TTLM : AGR CPM 409 0311: Page 15
Author: M.T.