Introduction

Mechanics of materials
The field of strength of materials, also called mechanics of materials, typically refers to
various methods of calculating the stresses and strains in structural members, such as
beams, columns, and shafts.
The strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic
deformation. The field of strength of materials deals with forces and deformations that result
from their acting on a material. A load applied to a mechanical member will induce internal
forces within the member called stresses when those forces are expressed on a unit basis.
The stresses acting on the material cause deformation of the material in various manners
including breaking them completely. Deformation of the material is called strain when those
deformations too are placed on a unit basis.
Introduction In engineering practice
The machine parts are subjected to various forces which may be due to either one or more
of the following:
1. Energy transmitted,
2. Weight of machine,
3. Frictional resistances,
4. Inertia of reciprocating parts,
5. Change of temperature, and
6. Lack of balance of moving parts.
Load
A load may be defined as the combined effect of external forces acting on a body. The loads
may be classified as:
1. Dead or steady load. A load is said to be a dead or steady load, when it does not
change in magnitude or direction
2. Live or variable load. A load is said to be a live or variable load, when it changes
continually.
3. Suddenly applied or shock loads. A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock
load, when it is suddenly applied or removed.
4. Impact load. A load is said to be an impact load, when it is applied with some initial
velocity
The other way of classification is:
1. Tensile loads,
2. Compressive loads,
3. Torsional or twisting loads,
4. Bending loads, and
5. Shearing loads.
The load may also be a ‘point (or concentrated) or ‘distributed.’
1. Point load.
A point load or concentrated load is one which is considered to act at a point. In actual
practice, the load has to be distributed over a small area, because, such small knife-edge
contacts are generally neither possible, nor desirable.
2. Distributed load.
A distributed load is one which is distributed or spread in same manner over the length of the
beam. If the spread is uniform, (i.e... all the uniform rate, say w kN∨N /meter run ) it is said to
be uniformly distributed load and is abbreviated as u.d.l. If the spread is not at uniform rate, it
is said to be non-uniformly distributed load, Triangular and trapezoidal distributed loads fall
under this category.
Stress
When a body is acted upon by some load or external force, it undergoes deformation (i.e.
change in shape or dimensions) which increases gradually. During deformation, the material
of the body resists the tendency of the load to deform the body, and when the load influence
is taken over by the internal resistance of the material of the body, it becomes stable. This
internal resistance which the body offers to meet with the load is called stress.
Stress can be considered either as total stress or unit stress. Total stress represents the
total resistance to an external effect and is expressed in N∨kN∨MN .

Unit stress represents the resistance developed by a unit area of cross-section, and is
expressed in N /mm2 ∨kN /mm2 ∨MN /mm2 .For the remainder of this text, the word stress
wilt be used to signify unit stress.
Types of Stress
The various types of stresses may be classified as:
1. Simple or direct stress
i. Tension
ii. Compression
iii. Shear.
2. Indirect stress
i. Bending
ii. Torsion.
3. Combined stress. Any possible combination of types 1 and 2.
SIMPLE STRESS
Simple stress is often called direct stress because it develops under direct loading
conditions. That is, simple tension and simple compression.
Simple Tension or Compression occur when the applied force, called load, is in line with the
axis of the member (axial loading) (Figs. 1.1 and 1.2),

Simple shear occurs, when equal, parallel, and opposite forces tend to cause a surface to
slide relative to the adjacent surface (Fig, 1.3).
Stress is force per unit area and given by
Force
Stress=
Area
Or

P
σ=
A
Where σ =¿Stress, in N /mm2
P=¿Load developed in N
A=Cross-sectional Area in m2

STRAIN
Any clement in a material subjected to stress is said to be strained. The strain (ε ) is the
deformation produced by stress.
Strain is the ratio between change in Length and original length of the body. Mathematically
it is given by,
Change∈Length
Strain=
Original Length
δL
( ε )= Types of Strain
L
The various types of strains are explained below:

1. Tensile Strain (ε t)

It is the ratio between change in length and original length when a body is subjected to
tensile stress.
A piece of material, with uniform cross-section, subjected to a uniform axial tensile stress,
will increase its length froml ¿(l+δl), (Fig. 1, 4) and the increment of length (δl) is the actual
deformation of the material. The fractional deformation or the tensile strain is given by

Fig.1.4
δl
ε t=
l

2. Compressive Strain (ε c)
It is the ratio between change in length and original length when a body is subjected to
compressive stress.
Under compressive forces, a similar piece of material would be reduced in length (Fig. 1.5)
from l ¿(l−δl). the fractional deformation again gives the strain (ε c)

Fig 1.5
δl
ε c=
l
3. Shear Strain (ε s)

In case of a shearing load, a shear strain will be produced which is measured by the angle
through which the body distorts.
In Fig. 1.6 is shown a rectangular block LMNP fixed at one face and subjected to force F.
After application of force, it distorts through an angle φ and occupies newer position LM'N'P.

Fig 1.6

The shear strain (ε S) is given by

MM ' NN '
ε S= = =tan φ=φ
ML NP
Since φ is very small
 4. Volumetric Strain (ε v )

It is defined as the ratio between change in volume and original volume of the body, and is
denoted byε v

δV
ε v=
V
The strains which disappear with the removal of load are termed as elastic strains and the
body which regains its original position on the removal of force is called an elastic body.
The body is said to be plastic if the strains exist even after the removal of external force.
There is always a limiting value of load up to which the strain totally disappears on the
removal of load—the stress corresponding to this load is called elastic limit.
Robert Hooke discovered experimentally that within elastic limit, stress varies directly as
strain i.e.
Stress ∝ Strain Or,

Stress
=aConstant
Strain
This constant is termed as Modulus of elasticity E.
σ
=E∨σ =εE
ε

Elastic Constants
1. Young’s Modulus
It is the ratio between tensile stress and tensile strain or compressive stress and
compressive strain. It is denoted by E. It is the same as modulus of elasticity.
σt σc
E= ∨
εt εc
2. Modulus of Rigidity
It is defined as the ratio of shear stress τ to shear strain and is denoted by G. It is also called
shear modulus of elasticity.
τ
G=
εs

3. Bulk or Volume Modulus of Elasticity

It may be defined as the ratio of normal stress (on each face of a solid cube) to volumetric
strain and is denoted by the letter K.
σn
K=
εs
Example 1.1.
A square steel rod 20 mm x 20 mm in section is to carry an axial load
(compressive) of100 kN . Calculate the shortening in a length of 50 mm
8 2
. E=2.14 ×10 kN /m
Solution. Given P=100 kN , l=50 mm∨0.05 m, E=2.14 ×10 8 kN /mm2=2.14 × 1011 N /m 2

Area of the steel

−4 2
A=0.02× 0.02=4 ×10 m
Stress in steel is given by,
3
P 100 ×10 6 2
σ= = =250× 10 N / m
A 4 ×10−4

Strain in steel will be given by

6
σ 250 ×10
ε= = =0.001168
E 2.14 ×1011
Shortening in a length of steel will be given by
∆ l=l × ε=0.001168× 0.05=0.0000584 m∨0.0584 mm Ans

POISSON'S RATIO
If a body is subjected to a load, its length changes; ratio of this change in length to the
original length is known as linear or primary strain. Due to this load, the dimensions of the
body change; in all directions at right angles to its line of application the strains thus
produced are called lateral or secondary or transverse strains and are of nature opposite to
that of primary strains. For example, if the load is tensile, there will be an increase in length
and a corresponding decrease in cross-sectional area of the body. In this case, linear or
primary strain will be tensile and secondary or lateral or transverse strain compressive.
The ratio of lateral strain to linear strain is known as Poisson's ratio.
I.e. Poisson's ratio

Lateral Strain 1
μ= =
Linear Strain m
Where m is a constant and its value varies between 3 and 4 for different materials.
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE ELASTIC MODULII
Relations exist between the elastic constants for any specific material and these relations
hold good for all materials within the elastic range. The relations result from the fact that the
application of any particular type of stress necessarily produces other types of stress at other
places in the material. Further, each of the stresses produces its corresponding strain and all
the strains produced must be consistent.
Relation between E and G
Refer to Fig. 1.29. LMST is a solid cube subjected to a shearing force F. Let t be the shear
stress produced in the faces MS and LT due to this shearing force. The complementary
shear stress consequently produced in the faces ML and ST is also t. Due to the shearing
load, the cube is distorted to LM'S'T, and as such, the edge M moves to M’ ,S to S' and the
diagonal LS to L'S

Fig.1.7
SS '
Shear strain=φ=
ST
τ
Also , shear strain=
G
SS ' τ
∴ = … … … (i)
ST G
On the diagonal LS’, draw a perpendicular SN from S.
NS ' NS '
Now diagonal strain= = … ..(ii)
ln LS
 ' SS '
N S =SS ' cos 45 °=
√2
[∠ LS ' T is assumed¿ be equal¿∠ LST since SS ' is very small.]

¿ LS=ST √ 2

Putting the value of LS in (ii) we get

NS ' SS ' SS '
Diagonal strain= = =
LS √ 2 ST × √2 2 ST
SS ' τ
But =
ST G

τ σn
∴ Diagonal Strain= = ....(iii )
2G 2G
Whereσ n is the normal stress due to shear stressτ . the net strain in the direction of
diagonal LS.
σn σ n
¿ +
E mE
{Since the diagonals LS and MT have normal tensile and compressive stress σ n ,
respectively.]

¿
σn
E
1
[ ]
1+ … … .(iv)
m

Comparing equations (iii) and (iv)

σ n σn
=
2G E
1+
1
m [ ]
∴ E=2 G 1+
[ ] 1
m
… …(v)

Relation between E and K

If the solid cube in question is subjected toσ n, (normal compressive stress) on all the faces,
the
σn
The direct strain∈ each axis= (Compressive )
E
σn
¿ Lateral strain∈theother axis= (Tensile)
mE
∴ Net compressive strain in each axis,
¿
σn σn
− −
σn σn
E mE mE E
= 1−
2
m [ ]
Volumetric strain (ε v ) in this case will be.

ε v =3 × Linear Strain=3 ×
σn
E [ ]
1−
2
m
σn
But ε v =
K
σn
K
=3 ×
σn
E
1− [ ]
2
m

∴ E=3 K 1−
[ ] 2
m
…(vi)

Relation between E, G and K

The relation between E, G and K can be established by eliminating m from the equations (v)
and (vi) as follows
From equation (v)

E=2G 1+
[ ] 1
m
E 1 1 E E−2G
=1+ ∨ = −1=
2G m m 2G 2G
2G
m= … … … … .(vii)
E−2G
From equation (VI)

E=3 K 1−
[ ] 2
m
E 2 2 E 3 K −E
=1− ∨ =1− =
3K m m 3K 3K
6K
m= … … … … .( viii)
3 K−E
Equating Equations (vii) and (viii)
2G 6K
=
E−2 G 3 K −E
¿ 2 G ( 3 K−E )=6 K ( E−2G )
6 GK −2 EG=6 EK −12 GK
6 EK +2 EG=18GK ∨2 E ( 3 K +G )=18 KG
 9 KG
∴ E= … … … …(ix)
3 K +G

Example 1.2
For a given material, Young’s modulus is 110 GN /m2 and shear modulus is
42 GN /m . Find the Bulk modulus and lateral contraction of a round bar of
2

37.5 mm diameter and 2.4 m length when stretched 2.5 mm.

Solution.
2 2
Given E=110GN /m , G=42GN /m , d=37.5 mm=0.0375m , l=2.4 m=, ∆l=2.5 mm=0.0025m
Bulk Modulus, K
We know that the relation between E and G is given as

E=2G 1+
[ ] 1
m

[ ]
110=2× 42 1+
1
m
110 1
=1+
84 m
1
¿ 1.31=1+
m
1
∴ =0.31
m
We know that the relation between E and K is given as,

[ ]
E=3 K 1−
2
m

110=3 K [ 1−2(0.31) ] =1.14 K

110
∴ K= =96.5 GN /m2 Ans
1.14
Lateral Contraction, ∆ d
∆l 0.0025
Linear strain ε= = =0.00104
l 2.4
1 Lateral strain
Poisson’ s Ratio , =
m Linear Strain
Lateral strain=0.31× 0.00104=0.0003224
∆ d=0.0003224 ×37.5=0.0121 mm Ans

Stresses Induced In Compound Ties or Struts

Frequently ties consist of two materials, fastened together to prevent uneven
straining of the two materials. In these cases, it is interesting to calculate the
distribution of the load between the materials. It will be assumed that the two
materials also are symmetrically distributed about the axis of the bar. As with a
cylindrical rod encased in a tube (Fig. 1.32).

Fig.1.8

If an axial load P is applied to the bar.

Total loads in the bar is given by
P=P1 + P2

Where P1∧P2=loads shared by Rod 1∧2 .

∴ P=σ 1 A1 +σ 2 A2 … …(i)

Where,σ 1∧σ 2 are the stresses induced and A1∧ A 2 are the cross-sectional areas of
the materials.
The strains produced , ε 1 ,∧ε 2 are equal.

i .e ε 1=ε 2

σ 1 σ2 σ1 E1
∴ = ∨ = … … .(ii)
E1 E 2 σ 2 E 2

Example 1.3

A concrete column of cross-sectional area 400 mm x 400 mm is

reinforced by four longitudinal 50 mm diameter round steel bars placed
at each comer, if the column carries a compressive load of 300 kN ,
determine:
(i)Loads carried'.
(ii)The compressive stress produced in the concrete and steel bars.
Young's modulus of elasticity of steel is 15 times that of concrete.
Solution. Refer to fig.1.9

Fig.1.9
Cross-sectional area of the column,
2
¿ 0.4 × 0.4=0.16 m
Area of steel bars,
π π
A s= d s ×4= × ¿
4 4

∴Area of concrete,
2
Ac =0.16−0.00785=0.1521 m

Since the steel bars and concrete shorten by the same amount under
the compressive load,
∴ Strain∈ steel bars=Strain∈concrete
ε s=ε c

σ s Es Es
= ∨σ s = ×σ c =15 σ c
σc Ec Ec

∴ σ s =15 σ c … … … … … … … … .(i)
Also, load shared by steel bars + load shared by concrete = 300000 N
300,000=P s + Pc =σ s A s +σ c Ac =15 σ c A s+ σ c A c

300,000=15 σ c ( 0.00785 )+ σ c ( 0.1521 ) =0.26985 σ c

Compressive stress in concrete

300,000 6 2 2
σ c= =1.11×10 N /m =1.11 MN /m Ans
0.26985
Compressive stress in Steel,
2
∴ σ s =15 σ c =15 ×1.11=16.65 MN / m Ans
Load carried by steel bars,
6
Ps =σ s A s=16.65 ×10 ×0.00785=131 kN Ans
Load carried by Concrete,
6
Pc =σ c A c =1.11× 10 × 0.1521=169 kN Ans
Example 1.4
A copper rod of 40 mm diameter is surrounded tightly by a cast-iron tube
of 80 mm external diameter, the ends being firmly fastened together.
When put to a compressive load of 30 kN , what load will be shared by
each? Also determine the amount by which the compound bar shortens
if it is 2 m long.
2
Take : Ec .i=175 GN / m
2
¿ Ec =75 GN /m
Solution. Refer to Fig.1.10

Fig.1.10
Diameter of the copper Rod=40 mm=0.04 m

Area of the copper Rod,

 π
∴ A c = ×(0.04)2=0.001257 m 2
4
External Diameter of theCast iron tube=80 mm=0.08 m

Area of the Cast iron tube,

π
∴ A i .c = ( 0.08 −0.04 ) =0.00377 m
2 2 2
4

We know that,
Strain∈Cast Iron tube=strain∈copper rod
σ i . c Ec .i 175
= = =2.33
σc Ec 75

∴ σ i .c =2.33 σ c … .(i)

Also, total load = Load shared by cast-iron tube + load shared by copper
rod.
P=Pi . c + P c =σ i . c A i .c +σ c Ac =2.33 σ c A i. c + σ c A c

30,000=2.33 σ c ( 0.00377 )+ σ c ( 0.001257 )=0.0100411 σ c

30,000 2
∴ σ c= =2987.7 KN / m
0.0100411
2
∴ σ i .c =2.33 σ c =2.33 ×2987.7=6961.3 kN /m

Load Shared by Copper Rod,

Pc =σ c A c =2987.7 ×0.001257=3.76 kN Ans

Load Shared by Cast Iron Tube,

Pi .c =σ i .c A i .c =6961.3 × 0.00377=26.24 kN Ans

Shortening of Compound Bar

Strain in Cast iron,
σ i .c 6961.3× 103
ε i. c = = 9
=0.0000398
Ec .i 175 ×10

Shortening of compound bar,

∆ l=l × ε i .c =2 × 0.0000398=0.0000796 m

∴ ∆ l=0.0796 mm Ans
Example 1.5
A compound bar consists of a central steel strip 40 mm wide and 5 mm
thick placed between two strips of brass each 40 mm wide and x mm
thick. The strips are firmly fixed together to form a compound bar of
rectangular section 40 mm wide and (2 x+5 mm) thick. Determine:
(i).The thickness of the brass strips which will make the apparent
modulus of elasticity of the compound bar equal to 160 ×103 MN /m2
(ii).The maximum axial pull the bar can then carry if the stress is not to
exceed 160 MN /m2 in either the brass or the steel.
Take: E s=207 GN /m2 and Eb =114 GN /nr .

Solution. Let P=Load on the compound (in MN)

σ S=Stress in steel strip (in MN / m2)

σ b=Stress in Brass strip (in MN /m2)

Thickness of Brass Strip, x:

Strain in steel=strain in Brass
σ S E s 207
∴ = = =1.816
σ b Eb 114

σ S=1.816 σ b …(i)

Also, total load = Load on steel + load on brass

P=P s + Pb=σ s A s +σ b A b

¿ 1.816 σ b A s+ σ b A b …(ii)
Area of steel strip
−6 2
A s=0.04 × 0.005=200 ×10 m

Area of brass strip

Ab =2(0.04 × 0.001 x )=80 x × 10−6 m2

P=1.816 σ b ( 200 ×10−6 ) + σ b ( 80 x × 10−6 )

¿ σ b ( 363.2+80 x ) × 10−6

Area of the composite section

40 2 x +5 −6
A= × =40 ( 2 x+ 5 ) × 10
1000 1000

¿ ( 80 x+ 200 ) × 10−6 m 2

Apparent Young’s modulus,

3 2
E=160× 10 MN /m
−6
P σ b ( 363.2+ 80 x ) ×10
Strain ε= =
EA ( 80 x+ 200 ) × 10−6 ×160 ×103

This must be equal to strain of brass or steel.

Strain of Brass,
σb σb
ε b= =
Eb 114 ×103
−6
σ b (363.2+ 80 x ) ×10 σb
−6 3
= 3
( 80 x +200 ) ×10 × 160 ×10 114 ×10
3 3
σ b ( 363.2+80 x ) × 114 ×10 =σ b × ( 80 x +200 ) ×160 ×10

114 ( 363.2+80 x )=160 ( 80 x+ 200 )

41,404.8+ 9,120 x=12,800 x +32,000
9,404.8
3,680 x=9,404.8∨x= =2.55 mm
3,680
Hence thickness of the brass x=2.55 mm Ans

The maximum axial pull the bar

Since σ S=1.816 σ b and since the stress in either brass or steel should not exceed
2
160 MN /m

Let σ S=160 MN /m2

Then,
160
σ b= =88.1 MN /m2
1.816

Load in the bar,

P=88.1×10 6 ( 363.2+80 × 2.55 ) × 10−6=49.97 ×103 N
¿ 49.97 kN Ans

THERMAL STRESSES AND STRAINS

If the temperature of a body is lowered or raised its dimensions will decrease or
increase correspondingly. If these changes, however, are checked the stresses thus
developed in the body are called temperature stresses and corresponding strains are
called temperature strains.
Let l =Length of a bar of uniform cross-section
t 1= Initial temperature of the bar

t 2 = Final temperature of the bar

α =Co-efficient of linear expansion

The extension in the bar due to rise in temperature will be
¿ α ( t 2−t 1 ) l

If this elongation in the bar is prevented by some external force or by

fixing the bar ends, the temperature strain thus produced will be given by
α ( t 2−t 1 ) l
Temperature strain= =α ( t 2−t 1 ) (Compressive)…(i)
l
∴ Temperature stress developed=α ( t 2−t 1) E ( Compressive ) … ..(ii)

If, however, the temperature of the bar is lowered, the temperature strain and stress
will be tensile in nature.

Example 1.6
A steel rod 15 m long is at a temperature of 15°C. Find the free
expansion of the length when the temperature is raised to 65°C. Find the
temperature stress produced when:
(i) The expansion of the rod is prevented;
(ii) The rod is permitted to expand by 6 mm.
Takeα =12 x 10−6 per ° C , and E=200GN / m2
Solution.
Free expansion of the rod
¿ α ( t 2−t 1 ) l
−6
¿ 15 ×12 x 10 ( 65−15 )=0.009 m∨9 mm ans

Temperature stress when the expansion of the rod is prevented:

Temperature stress developed=α ( t 2−t 1 ) E

¿ 12 x 10−6 ( 65−15 ) 200 ×10 9=120 ×106 N / m 2

 2
¿ 120 MN /m Ans

Temperature stress when the expansion of the rod permitted to expand

by 6 mm.
The amount ∈which expansionis permitted =9−6=3 mm
Amount of Expansion 3
Strain ε= = =0.000 2
original Length 15,000
9 6 2
Thermal Stress=εE=0.0002×200 × 10 =40× 10 N /m
2
¿ 40 MN / m Ans