Theory of Structural Stability( CET-308 )

UNIT-1

Criteria for Design of Structures

What are the requirements of structural design?

The main structural design requirements are stability, strength, and serviceability,
but it doesn’t stop there.

Here’s a quick list of things you must consider when designing a building or
structure.

1. Stability to prevent sliding, overturning, or buckling of the structure, or

parts of it, under the action of environmental and live loads.
2. Strength to safely resist the stresses induced by loads in the various
structural members. The building shouldn’t crumble under its own weight.
3. Serviceability to ensure satisfactory performance under service load
conditions. This implies providing adequate stiffness and reinforcements to
contain deflections, crack widths, and vibrations within acceptable limits.
4. Aesthetics depending on the project, looks, and a visible internal structure,
may also be a priority.
5. Economy means that being able to satisfy requirements 1 to 3 within the
budget is critical. Knowledge of various materials, their price range, and
their applications is essential here.

Get started

How to do structural calculations

As a structural engineer, your first job is to figure out the potential loads and
stresses the finished structure will go through.

3 main types of loads impact your calculations: live, dead, and environmental
loads.

 Live loads come from the occupants, furniture, vehicles, and equipment.
 Dead loads are caused by the weight of the building itself.
 Environmental loads are inflicted by the forces of nature, such as wind,
earthquakes, and snow. The expected lateral load and required strength vary
greatly based on location.

I
mage Source
Your local building code will highlight the appropriate load — particularly the
third category — but you still have to do the calculations.

When you’re calculating the dead loads, everything, including the load-bearing
elements themselves, must be included.
Even for a simple concrete building, you must include:

 The self-weight of columns times the number of floors

 The self-weight of beams per running meter
 The load of walls per running meter
 The total load of slab

These numbers vary greatly based on the type of materials used. For example, steel
weighs over 8,000 kg per cubic meter. That’s easily a ton or 1 kN of force per
floor, even for a standard steel column.

Crunching all these numbers is the first stage of every large construction project.

Essentially, once you have figured out all the loads, you calculate the number of
load-bearing walls, beams, what materials are appropriate for the project, and
more.

Of course, if you add any extra load-bearing structural members, you need to
calculate that added self-weight as well.

You then have to reconcile all this information with the architect’s design and the
client’s budget.

It’s not an easy job. Usually, it’s done in close collaboration with an architect and a
surveyor.

Thankfully, you can use specialized construction software to handle most of the
calculations and modeling. With software like Clearcalcs, you can apply standards-
based calculations to your project based on your location, building type, and more.

But the software doesn’t handle everything. You still need to make the design
based on this data. That’s the hard part. You’re the structural design engineer, after
all.

The results of these calculations are most visible in designs where you see the
skeleton. Think bridges, where you can see struts and braces for wind and other
loads with your naked eye.
 STABILITY DEFINITION
Change in geometry of a structure or structural
component under compression – resulting in loss
of ability to resist loading is defined as instability
in the book.
Instability can lead to catastrophic failure  must
be accounted in design. Instability is a strength-
related limit state.
Why did we define instability instead of stability?
Seem strange!
Stability is not easy to define.
Every structure is in equilibrium – static or dynamic. If it
 Structure is in stable equilibrium when small perturbations do not cause
is not inmovements
large equilibrium, the body
like a mechanism. will be
Structure in motion
vibrates or a
about it equilibrium
position.
mechanism.
 Structure is in unstable equilibrium when small perturbations produce large
A mechanism
movements – and cannot resist
the structure loads
never and
returns to itsisoriginal
of noequilibrium
use to the
position.
civil engineer.
 Structure is in neutral equilibrium when we cant decide whether it is in
stable or unstable equilibrium. Small perturbation cause large movements –
Stability qualifies the state of equilibrium of a structure.
but the structure can be brought back to its original equilibrium position with
Whether
no work.it is in stable or unstable equilibrium.
 Thus, stability talks about the equilibrium state of the structure.
 The definition of stability had nothing to do with a change in the geometry
of the structure under compression – seems strange!
STABILITY DEFINITION
 BUCKLING

P< P=Pcr P>Pcr

Pcr P

P P P
d
 BUCKLING Vs. STABILITY
Thus, there are two topics we will be interested in
this course
Buckling – Sudden change in deformation from state-1
to state-2
Stability of equilibrium – As the loads acting on the
structure are increased, when does the equilibrium
state become unstable?
The equilibrium state becomes unstable due to:
Large deformations of the structure
Inelasticity of the structural materials

We will look at both of these topics for

Columns
Beams
Beam-Columns
Structural Frames
 BUCKLING Vs. STABILITY
Change in geometry of structure under
compression – that results in its ability to resist
loads – called instability.
Not true – this is called buckling.
Buckling is a phenomenon that can occur for
structures under compressive loads.
The structure deforms and is in stable equilibrium in
state-1.
As the load increases, the structure suddenly changes
to deformation state-2 at some critical load Pcr.
The structure buckles from state-1 to state-2, where
state-2 is orthogonal (has nothing to do, or
independent) with state-1.
Criteria for Design of Structures:Strength, and Stiffness
What has buckling to do with stability?
Stiffness and Strength are basic terms in structural engineering. One might
The question is - Is the equilibrium in state-2 stable or
feel they are similar but they have certain differences. And these differences
unstable?
are key in understanding these terms.
Usually, state-2 after buckling is either neutral or
It is safe to assume that Stiffness and Strength mostly govern Structural
unstable All
Engineering. equilibrium
of Structural Engineering can be taught, in one way or
another, based on Stiffness. Hence, understanding these terms is very
essential for a Structural Engineer.
 Stiffness And Strength
In general, all the textbooks define Stiffness as the resistance to deformation.
This is absolutely true. But this doesn’t define stiffness completely. On the
other hand, strength is the ability of the material to take the load or support it
without failure.

In other words, Strength measures how much stress the material can handle
before permanent deformation occurs, whereas the stiffness measures the
resistance to elastic deformation. We shall see each term in detail to
understand better.

What Is Stiffness
We talked in large about Young’s Modulus and Area Moment of Inertia in
our previous posts. Together, these terms make up Stiffness. These are the
stiffness terms of material and cross-section area respectively.

Stiffness governs loading taken by a Structural Element i.e., Force flow in a

structure. Although it is not the only parameter that governs it.

To understand this point, let us imagine a building. We all know that

building, like any structure, is a combination of different structural and non-
structural components/elements.

External loads acting on a building has to be transferred to the soil via these
structural elements.

Imagine two columns of the same material (Concrete of the same grade) in
that building. As the material is the same, it’s Young’s Modulus (E) is same.
Assume the cross-sectional area of these two columns is different. Hence,
Area Moment of Inertia (I) will be different.

Now the load taken by these columns are NOT the same. As the Stiffness of
one column is different than the other. The column with higher stiffness takes
up more load than the column with lower stiffness.
In other words, forces/loads taken by a structural element depends on their
stiffness. Remember, it is not the only parameter. For example, Support
conditions also govern the force flow and stiffness also depends on support
conditions.

How Is Stiffness Calculated

Now, we can redefine stiffness as the ability of a material to distribute a load
and resist deformation. From this, we can get understand that stiffness
depends on Forces and Deformations.

If we draw a curve for force and deformation, the initial slope of this curve is
Stiffness. Remember, Young’s modulus is the initial slope of Stress and
Strain Curve.

Mathematically, we can say that Stiffness is force per unit deformation. It is

denoted as K.

This is true for an elastic body with a Single Degree of Freedom (DOF).
Types Of Stiffness
Depending on the type of deformation, stiffness can be classified as different
types.

Axial Stiffness
When you pull (or push) a member along its axis, it creates deformation.
Resistance towards axial deformation due to the applied tension (or
compression) is called Axial Stiffness.

Mathematically, K = AE/L where AE is called as Axial Rigidity.

Rotational Stiffness
When a moment is applied to a member, it creates a rotation. The ability of a
material to resist rotation caused by applied Moment is called Rotational
Stiffness and it is given by K=M/θ.

Lateral Stiffness
The ability of a body to resist lateral deflection when a lateral force is
applied. This is also called as Storey Stiffness, wherein the lateral deflection
is storey drift and lateral force is storey shear.

Torsional Stiffness
The moment applied about the longitudinal axis of the member creates
Torsion. Torsion, in turn, creates twisting of the member.

The ratio of applied Torsional moment to the angle of twist is called

Torsional Stiffness. K= GJ/L. G is Shear Modulus and J is Polar MOI. GJ is
called as Torsional Rigidity

Bending Stiffness
The resistance of a member against bending. For beams, flexural rigidity is
considered as bending stiffness.

Shear Stiffness
The ratio of Shear force to Shear deformation.

Rigidity is a structural property that integrates both material property

and Geometric/Sectional Property. Rigidity is the ability of a material
to not bend when a force is applied.

You might have heard about Strong Column – Weak Beam concept in
Frames. As a structural engineer, you should ensure that columns are
stronger than beams. This can be possible by increasing the stiffness
of a column.

In-Plane And Out-Plane Stiffness

Unlike Young’s modulus, stiffness varies along the planes as Moment of
Inertia varies. This can be better understood by an example.

Consider a Wall. It is easy to topple the wall by pushing the wall on its
largest face as shown. But try doing it on the other face.
When you are pushing a wall on its largest face, you are actually pushing it
out of the plane of a wall. The stiffness corresponding to this out-plane is
called Out-Plane Stiffness.

When you are pushing on the smallest face, it is In-Plane. Wall can fail in
shear in this but it is not easy to topple the wall. And the stiffness
corresponding to this is called In-Plane Stiffness.

From this, we can understand that Walls have More In-Plane stiffness than
Out-Plane stiffness. Hence all Shear walls are to be placed so that the lateral
loads can be In-Plane.

This way you can increase the stiffness of Shear Wall, thereby reducing loads
taken by your building. In case of severe Earthquakes or any other lateral
loads, your shear wall would fail first and building can get away with small
deformations.
,Classical Concept of Stability of Discrete and Continuous
Systems
What is the stability of a discrete system?
For discrete time systems stability depends on the magnitude of the
eigenvalues of Ad , not the sign of the real part. Eigenvalues inside the unit
circle = stability. The choice of a state-space model for a given system is not
unique.
SSSSSASS
Linear and nonlinear behaviour.
Linear structure behavior is when the physical change in the structure
varies in a linear manner with the amount of force being applied. That
is, the movement of the structure is proportional to the force. Non-
linear behavior is when the structure change is not proportional to the
amount of force being applied.
 UNIT-2
Stability of Columns
Models of the stability of columns could be classified into two groups:
a) models of global stability (based on the resistance of the entire
cross-section) and b) models of local distortional stability (resistance
of plates of the cross section).
Design Criteria Including strength (stresses) and servicability (including
deflections), another requirement is that the structure or structural member be
stable. Stability is the ability of the structure to support a specified load
without undergoing unacceptable (or sudden) deformations. Physics Recall
that things like to be or prefer to be in their lowest energy state (potential
energy). Examples include water in a water tank. The energy it took to put
the water up there is stored until it is released and can flow due to gravity.
Stable Equilibrium When energy is added to an object in the form of a push
or disturbance, the object will return to it’s original position. Things don’t
change in the end. Unstable Equilibrium When energy is added to an object,
the object will move and get more “disturbed”. Things change rapidly .
Neutral Equilibrium When energy is added to an object, the object will move
some then stop.. Things change.

Axial and Flexural Buckling

In structural engineering, buckling is the sudden change in shape
(deformation) of a structural component under load, such as the bowing of
a column under compression or the wrinkling of a plate under shear. If a
structure is subjected to a gradually increasing load, when the load reaches a
critical level, a member may suddenly change shape and the structure and
component is said to have buckled.

Buckling may occur even though the stresses that develop in the structure are
well below those needed to cause failure in the material of which the
structure is composed. Further loading may cause significant and somewhat
unpredictable deformations, possibly leading to complete loss of the
member's load-carrying capacity. However, if the deformations that occur
after buckling do not cause the complete collapse of that member, the
member will continue to support the load that caused it to buckle. If the
buckled member is part of a larger assemblage of components such as a
building, any load applied to the buckled part of the structure beyond that
which caused the member to buckle will be redistributed within the structure.
Some aircraft are designed for thin skin panels to continue carrying load even
in the buckled state.

A member subjected to pure compression, such as a column, can fail under

axial load in either of two modes. One is characterized by excessive axial
deformation and the second by flexural buckling or excessive lateral
deformation.

Buckling of a column refers to its sudden failure under compressive loads,

resulting in a lateral deflection or bending. When the applied load exceeds the
critical buckling load, the column's stability is compromised, leading to a
potentially catastrophic collapse. Understanding and designing columns to
resist buckling is crucial in engineering and structural applications.

Calculation of Column Buckling

Euler's formula offers a suitable equation to determine the critical stress,
which is the average stress at which a column undergoes buckling. We will
delve into Euler's formula and explore other essential factors in subsequent
sections.

The formula is as follows:

σcr=π2EI/(L/r)2

Where:

Σcr = denotes the critical stress, representing the average stress at which the
column buckles.
L refers to the unsupported length of the column.

E signifies Young's modulus of the material.

L/r denotes the factor of length, which reflects the end conditions of the
column.

Column End Conditions

Fig: Column end conditions

In each of the illustrations in the figure above, different end conditions of

columns are demonstrated, showcasing their respective effective length
factors (K).

The first figure depicts a column with one end fixed and the other end free,
resulting in a K value of 2.

The second scenario presents a column with both ends pinned, leading to a K
value of 1.

The third illustration exhibits a column with one end fixed and the other end
pinned, yielding a K value of 0.7.
Lastly, the fourth figure showcases a column with both ends fixed, resulting
in a K value of 0.65.

The effective length factor (K) is a crucial parameter that depends on the
specific end conditions of the column. Each of these illustrations aids in
understanding how K varies based on the column's end condition. For a
pinned-pinned column, the effective length (Leff����) is calculated
using the following formula:

Leff����=KL

Where:

Leff���� denotes the effective length of the column,

L represents the actual unsupported length of the column.

Modes of Buckling
There are various modes of buckling that can occur in columns:

Flexural-Torsional Buckling

This mode involves a combination of twisting and bending in response to

compression within the column. It is commonly observed when the column is
subjected to bending loads, causing it to buckle due to the combined effect of
torsion and flexure.

Crippling

In this mode, specific sections of the column, such as flange plates or

channels, bear more load at the corners. As additional load is applied, the
flanges can buckle locally, leading to the overall failure of the section.
Crippling is characterised by the simultaneous failure of the entire section.

Dynamic Buckling
Dynamic buckling occurs when a column is subjected to sudden loading and
unloading. Under these conditions, the column can sustain higher loads
compared to static loading scenarios. This phenomenon is commonly
observed in long columns that lack adequate support or bracing.

Lateral Bracing of Columns

There are many situations where it is necessary to determine the charac-

teristics required of lateral bracing in order to counteract buckling of columns
or beams, or to decide whether a given bracing system is adequate to provide
the required lateral support.
What is a lateral bracing?

Lateral bracing is the term we use to refer to any pieces on a bridge that help
keep the sides (trusses) from twisting. It also helps keep the top chords of the
bridge from bending or deforming in or out.

What is Bracing? Bracings are structural components or assemblies that are

intended to prevent buckling or reduce the effective unsupported length of
columns, truss chords, towers and other members or structures loaded in
compression.

A Brace is a support perpendicular to the main member, and only has to be

rated for a fraction of the load the main member can carry. In this photo you
will see the concrete floors act as bracing for the concrete columns. You
could say the columns have an unbraced length of 2.5 meters.

What is the purpose of bracing?

A bracing system is a structural element to resist lateral forces like wind,
seismic, and other loads that can cause the building to sway or collapse. A
well-designed bracing construction can improve a building's ability to
withstand these forces and minimize damage to the structure and its
occupants.
As far as structural bracing types are concerned, these are given below:

Single Diagonals:

 Uses a single diagonal member to stabilize the frame.

 Must be resistant to tension and compression.

Cross-Bracing:

 Uses two diagonal members crossing each other.

 Resistant to tension.
 Can cause interference with window openings and more bending in
floor beams.

K-Bracing:

 Connects to columns at mid-height.

 Allows for more flexibility in the façade and results in less bending in
floor beams.
 Not recommended in seismic regions due to the potential for column
failure.

V-Bracing:

 Two diagonal members form a V-shape.

 Can considerably lessen the buckling capacity of the compression
brace.
 Used in seismic regions with centric bracing structures.

Eccentric Single Diagonals:

  Can be used to brace a frame.

What Is The Purpose Of Bracing

Construction?

Bracing serves several functions: buckling control, load distribution, and

dimensional control.

Buckling Control of the Main Beams

One of the primary reasons for using bracing in a steel-concrete composite

bridge is to prevent buckling in the main beams during construction. Wet
concrete can place significant stress on the steel beams, which causes the
compression flange to buckle toward the minor axis. Bracing can provide
lateral/torsional restraint to the compression flanges, preventing lateral
torsional buckling. A small amount of steel bracing can pointedly increase
the bending resistance of the main beams.

Load Distribution

Bracing can also be used to distribute vertical bending effects between the
main beams, ensuring lateral effects (wind and collision loading) are shared
among all beams. This sharing is particularly important at lines of support,
where lateral loads are often resisted at one fixed or guided bearing. Bracing
construction can help share loading between the beams, preventing a single
beam from carrying the entire load, especially in steel composite bridges
during construction.
Bracing systems can provide the radial component of the force that results
from the curved flange’s changing direction in bridges curved in plan. The
additional vertical bending effects in the connected beams resist an effective
couple of forces at tension and compression flanges.

Combined Axial
Combined Axial and Flexural strengths create a three-dimensional interaction
failure surface. In addition to axial compression and biaxial bending, the
formulation allows for axial tension and biaxial bending considerations.

Pn and Mn are calculated in accordance with Axial strength or Combined

Flexural and Axial Strength per ACI 318-19 with ideCAD title. Combined
Axial and Flexural strengths create a three-dimensional interaction failure
surface. In addition to axial compression and biaxial bending, the formulation
allows for axial tension and biaxial bending considerations. An interaction
surface of a column is shown below.
Pn means nominal axial compressive strength, and Mn means nominal
flexural strength. Mn takes different values for each axial force level.
Therefore, a three-dimensional interaction failure surface is formed in the
picture above. Nominal flexural strength Mn is calculated according to the
assumptions described in Flexural Strength per ACI 318-19 with
ideCAD title. Flexural design strength ϕMn is obtained by
calculating Mn and strength reduction factor ϕ at each axial force level.
While finding the flexural design strength, combined with axial force ϕMn, it
should be found in which control zone the cross-section is. When the section
is tension controlled, a ϕ factor for tension control is used. The ϕ factor for
compression is used when the section is compression controlled.
As described in the title of Axial strength or Combined Flexural and Axial
Strength per ACI 318-19 with ideCAD, for nonprestressed concrete members
nominal axial strength Po and the maximum design compressive
strength ϕPn,max values are calculated as given below;

Nominal flexural strength Mn with zero compression is calculated as

described in the title of Flexural Strength per ACI 318-19 with ideCAD.
Similarly, with the same design assumptions, combined nominal flexural and
axial strength Mn and Pn are calculated as shown below.

From the equation of equilibrium:

Nominal flexural strength Mn:

Flexural and Torsion Buckling.

Flexural-torsional buckling is a compression member instability involving a
combination of member bending and twisting as well as any local buckling of
slender elements. In this behavioral sense, it resembles lateral-torsional
buckling of unbraced beams.

UNIT-3
Stability of Frames
Frame stability can be defined as the effect of displaced vertical loads that are
no longer concentric with their normal positions. This effect usually manifest
in the form of lateral displacement which can either be caused by externally
applied load such as wind, or due to the out of plumb of the frame by some
degree.
Member Buckling versus Global Buckling
Let´s clarify global and local buckling. What is the difference? What are the
decisive factors? How to avoid the potentially dangerous stability-sensitive
designs?
The design code says that first-order analysis may be used for the structure if
the increase of the relevant internal forces or moments or any other change of
structural behavior caused by deformations can be neglected.
To evaluate whether this increase can or can't be neglected the critical
buckling factor αcr can be used. We can neglect the global buckling for
members, (including the connection) in cases where the buckling factor is
higher than 15 (in case of plastic design) or higher than 10 (in case the stress
on plates is on elastic branch).

Local buckling applies to individual plates (stiffeners, column web), and the
corresponding limiting buckling factors are set according to design codes and
research experiments. The effects of local buckling are considered to be
neglectable when the buckling factor is:
≥ 2 - in case of a 4-sided supported plate
≥ 3 - in case of a 3-sided supported plate
≥ 4 - in case of a 2-sided (neighboring) supported plate
≥ 15 - in case of a 2-sided (opposite) supported plate
Slenderness Ratio of Frame Members.
A slenderness ratio greater than 200 tells us the member is “long”, and
buckling from compressive forces should be considered. Members with
slenderness ratios between those two values are considered “intermediate”,
where engineering judgment should be used.
The allowable slenderness ratio of a member is the limit of the ratio between
the effective length and the radius of rotation. The actual slenderness ratio of
a member must be less than or equal to the allowable slenderness ratio.
7.2.2 the slenderness ratio of solid web member shall be determined by the
following formula according to its instability mode:
For members whose section centroid coincides with shear center:
When calculating the bending buckling, the slenderness ratio is calculated as
follows:

λx=loxix (7.2.2-1)

λy=loyiy (7.2.2-1)

lox and loy = the effective lengths of members to the section

principal axis X and Y respectively, in
accordance with section 7.4 of this
specification;

ix and iy = the radius of rotation of the member section to

the principal axis X and Y respectively.
When calculating torsional buckling, the slenderness ratio shall be calculated
according to the following formula. If the width thickness ratio of biaxially
symmetric cross-section plate does not exceed 15εk, torsional buckling may
not be calculated.

λz=√I0It/25.7+Iω/l2ω (7.2.2-3)

I0, It, = polar moment of inertia (MM4), free torsion

and Iω constant (MM4) and sectorial moment of inertia
(MM6) of the shear center of the member's gross
section, respectively. For the cross
section, Iω=0 can be approximately taken;

lω = the effective length of torsional buckling, if both

ends are hinged and the end section can be warped
freely, the geometric length l is taken; if both ends
are clamped and the warpage of end section is
completely constrained, it is taken as 0.5l.

Members with uniaxial symmetry section:

The slenderness ratio should be determined by formula (7.2.2-1) and formula
(7.2.2-2) when calculating the bending buckling around the asymmetric
principal axis. The slenderness ratio should be determined according to the
following formula when calculating the bending torsional buckling around
the symmetric principal axis:

λyz=1√2[(λ2y+λ2z) (7.2.2-
+√(λ2y+λ2z)2−4(1−y2si20)λ2yλ2z] 4)
 ys = the distance from the centroid of the section to the
shear center;

i0 = the polar radius of rotation of the cross-section of the

shear center, for uniaxially symmetric
section, i2o=i2x+i2y

λ = the equivalent slenderness ratio of torsional buckling is

z determined by formula (7.2.2-3).

When the effective length of the equal leg single angle steel axial
compression member is equal, the bending torsion buckling can be omitted.
The single angle strut of tower shall comply with the relevant provisions in
section 7.6 of this specification.
The equivalent slenderness ratio λyz of T-section members with double angle
steel combination around the axis of symmetry can be determined by the
following simplified formula:

Double angle steel combined T-section (Figure 7.2.2.-1)

b = the leg width of equal angle;

b = the long leg width of unequal angle;

1
 b = the short leg width of unequal angle;
2

Equal double angle steel [Fig. 7.2.2-1 (a)]

When λz≥λy

λyz=λy[1+0.16(λzλy)2] (7.2.2-5)

When λz<λy

λyz=λz[1+0.16(λyλz)2] (7.2.2-6)

λz=3.9bt (7.2.2-7)

Unequal double angle steel with parallel long legs [Fig. 7.2.2-1 (b)]:
When λz≥λy

λyz=λy[1+0.25(λzλy)2] (7.2.2-8)

When λz<λy

λyz=λz[1+0.25(λyλz)2] (7.2.2-9)

λz=5.1b2t (7.2.2-10)

Unequal double angle steel with parallel short legs [Fig. 7.2.2-1 (c)]:
When λz≥λy

λyz=λy[1+0.06(λzλy)2] (7.2.2-11)
When λz<λy

λyz=λz[1+0.06(λyλz)2] (7.2.2-12)

λz=3.7b1t (7.2.2-13)

The members without symmetrical axis and the shear center and centroid do
not coincide are not considered in the current program, and are treated as
(7.2.2-1) and (7.2.2-2)
The conversion slenderness ratio of axially compressed members with
unequal angle steel can be determined according to the following simplified
formula (Fig. 7.2.2-2)
When λz≥λy

λxyz=λv[1+0.06(λzλv)2] (7.2.2-20)

When λz<λy

λxyz=λv[1+0.06(λvλz)2] (7.2.2-21)

λv=4.21b1t (7.2.2-22)

Unequal angle steel (Figure 7.2.2-2)

V axis is the weak axis of angle steel, b1 is the long leg width of angle steel.
The allowable slenderness ratio is the allowable slenderness ratio of
compression member and tension member. You should select the correct
value according to the provisions in 7.4.6 and 7.4.7 of the specification. The
default values of the program are: allowable slenderness ratio of 150 under
compression and 300 under tension. The slenderness ratio of components
mainly includes the following situations:
Non-seismic:
The slenderness ratio of compression members should not exceed the
allowable values given in Table 7.4.6

1. Allowable values of slenderness ratio for compression members (Table

7.4.6)

Nomenclature of members Allowable

values

Columns, members of trusses and monitors. 150

Lacing of columns, column bracings beneath crane girders or 150

crane trusses

Bracings 200

Members used to reduce the slenderness ratio of compression 200

members

Notes:
A slenderness ratio of 200 may be allowed for compression web members in
trusses (including space trusses) when they are stressed to or under 50% of
their capacities.
For single angle compression members, the least radius of gyration shall be
used for calculation of slenderness ratio, but the radius of gyration about the
axis parallel to the leg may be used for calculation of the out-of-plane
slenderness ratio in the case of cross diagonals interconnected at the crossing
point.
For trusses with span length equal to or larger than 60m, the allowable
slenderness ratio should be taken as 100 for compression chords and end
posts, and 150 (when subjected to static or indirect dynamic load), or 120
(when subjected to direct dynamic load) for other web members in
compression.
In case member section is governed by allowable slenderness ratio, the effect
of twisting may be neglected in calculating the slenderness ratio.
The slenderness ratio of tension members should not exceed the allowable
values given in table 7.4.7.

2. Allowable values of slenderness ratio for tension members (Table 7.4.7)

Nomenclature of Structures subject to static or indirect Structures

members dynamic loading subject to
direct
dynamic
Common chord that Mill loading
buildings provides buildings
out of with heavy
plane duty crane
support for
web

Members of Trusses 350 250 250 250

Column bracings beneath 300 - 200 -

crane girders or crane
trusses

Other tension members, 400 - 350 -

2. Allowable values of slenderness ratio for tension members (Table 7.4.7)

Nomenclature of Structures subject to static or indirect Structures

members dynamic loading subject to
direct
dynamic
Common chord that Mill loading
buildings provides buildings
out of with heavy
plane duty crane
support for
web

bracings and ties (except

pretensioned round bars)

Notes:
For structures subject to static loading, slenderness ratio of tension members
may be checked only in vertical planes.
For structures subject to direct or indirect dynamic loading, the slenderness
ratio of a single angle tension member is calculated similarly to Note 2 of
Table 7.4.6.
The slenderness ratio of bottom chord of crane trusses for medium and heavy
duty cranes should not exceed 200.
In mill buildings equipped with soaking pit cranes and stripper cranes or rigid
claw cranes, the slenderness ratio of the bracings (except Item No.2 in the
Table) should not exceed 300.
When tension members change into compression ones under the combined
action of dead and wind loads, their slenderness ratio should not exceed 250.
For trusses with span length equal to or larger than 60m, the slenderness ratio
of tension chords and tension web members should not exceed 300 (when
subjected to static or indirect dynamic loading) or 250 (when subjected to
direct dynamic loading)

UNIT-4
Stability of Beams: lateral torsion buckling
One of the special type of general buckling is the lateral torsional stability. It
occurs when the beam is transversely loaded in the plane of the main stiffness
of cross section and by the same time the transverse deflation along the beam
length is not prevented.
What is lateral torsional buckling of beams?

Lateral torsional buckling (LTB) is the deformation of an unrestrained beam

due to the applied loads away from its longitudinal axis – both lateral
displacement and twisting. Unrestrained steel beams are beams whose
compression flange is free to move (or displace) in the lateral direction and
also rotate.
If we apply this theory to a simply supported beam then the compression
flange is the top flange. As this flange deflects laterally the tension flange
tries to keep the beam straight and creates ‘restoring’ forces due to the lateral
bending of the beam. However, these forces alone cannot keep the beam
straight. The resistance of the beam to LTB is determined by the restoring
forces and the lateral component of tensile forces in the tension flange.
The interaction of the compression and tension flanges forces an unrestrained
beam to twist. The resistance to this twist is dependent on the torsional
resistance of the beam section. Beams with large flange thicknesses, for
example, have a greater torsional resistance than those of lesser flange
thicknesses for any given depth. There are other sections that also offer
greater resistance (RHS/SHS) and these are often used in situations where
there is a need for large(ish) spans to carry the vertical load (e.g. openings
involving bi-fold doors) which are prone to out of plane force effects.

What factors influence LTB?

There are three main factors:
Location of the applied load
The bending moment distribution
End support conditions
Location of the applied loads
The effect of LTB is governed by the distance between the location of the
applied and the shear center of the beam section. The section is more prone
to LTB is the load is applied above the shear center. The effect is less if the
load is applied along the shear center and if applied below then the beam has
little chance to undergo LTB.
[Aside] The shear center is a point on the beam section where the applied
loads do not cause its twisting. It is dependent on the cross-section. The
shear center and center of gravity on a symmetrical section are the same.
They may not coincide on an unsymmetrical section. There is a bit of
mathematics involved in computing the shear center for any given section but
luckily engineers use software and have tables that they can refer to!
The bending moment distribution
A section with a uniform bending moment along its length has less buckling
resistance compared to a different bending moment distribution.
End support conditions
The LTB resistance of a beam section increases as the end supports become
more restrained. Consider a beam resting on a padstone compared to the
beam cast into a concrete wall. The latter has more restraint at the ends than
the former. One is free to rotate and one cannot.
Design considerations
Providing effective lateral restraint can benefit the size of the beam
considerably. Restraint can be fully achieved by the composite action of a
concrete deck. Partial restraint can be achieved using intermediate beams.
Bracing - of sufficient size and suitably located - can also be used.
This is all well and good for member design but what happens when it comes
to connection design?
The actual reactions remain the same irrespective of the LTB restraint, but
the member has additional fixity because of this restraint. If we ignored this,
then the connection design would be an overestimate.

Stability of Plates: axial flexural buckling

What is the buckling Behaviour of plates?

Buckling of thin plates occurs when a plate moves out of plane under
compressive load, causing it to bend in two directions. The buckling
behaviour of thin plates is significantly different from the buckling behaviour
of columns.
What is the buckling strength of a plate?
The load at this critical point defines the buckling strength of the
plate. Increases in load beyond the load at the initiation of buckling increase
the buckling deformations until collapse occurs. Thus, the load at collapse
defines the postbuckling or crippling strength of the plate.
D = Eh3/12(1 – v2) is the flexural rigidity of the plate per unit length; E is the
modulus of elasticity; h is the thickness of the plate, and v is Poisson's ratio.
The factor k depends on the aspect ratio a/b of the plate and m, the number of
half-waves into which the plate buckles in the x-direction.

Analysis of Plates in Axial Compression

This page provides the chapters on the analysis of plates in axial compression
from the "Stress Analysis Manual," Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory,

6.1 Introduction to Analysis of Plates

This chapter covers the analysis of plates as commonly used in aircraft and
missile structures. In general, such plates are classified as thin; that is,
deflections are small in comparison with the plate thickness. These plates are
subjected to compression, bending, and shear-producing loads. Critical values
of these loads produce a wrinkling or buckling of the plate. Such buckling
produces unwanted aerodynamic effects on the surface of the airplane. It also
may result in the redistribution of loads to other structural members, causing
critical stresses to develop. Thus, it is essential that the initial buckling stress
of the plate be known. In addition, if the buckling stress is above the
proportional limit, the panel will experience ultimate failure very soon after
buckling.
The critical buckling of a plate depends upon the type of loading, the plate
dimensions, the material, the temperature, and the conditions of edge support.
This chapter considers the various loadings of both flat and curved plates,
with and without stiffeners. Single loadings are considered first followed by a
discussion of combined loadings. Examples are given to show the use of the
analysis methods presented.

6.2 Nomenclature for Analysis of Plates

a = plate length

Ast = stiffener area

b = plate width

bef = effective panel width

e = strain

E = modulus of elasticity

Es = secant modulus

Et = tangent modulus

Es, Et = secant and tangent moduli for clad plates

f = ratio of cladding thickness to total plate thickness

F = stress

F0.7, F0.85 = secant yield stress at 0.7E and 0.85E

Fcr = critical normal stress

Fcy = compressive yield stress

Ff = crippling stress

Fpl = stress at proportional limit

FR = free (refers to edge fixity)

g = number of cuts plus number of flanges (Section 6.3.3)

k = buckling coefficient

kc = compressive buckling coefficient

L' = effective column length

n = shape parameter, number of half waves in

buckled plate

P = total concentrated load

ss = simply supported

t = thickness

ts = skin thickness

tw = web thickness

W = total load, potential energy

β = ratio of cladding yield stress to core stress

ϵ = ratio of rotational rigidity of plate edge

stiffeners

η = plasticity reduction factor

η = cladding reduction factor

λ = buckle half wavelength

ν = inelastic Poisson's ratio

νe = elastic Poisson's ratio

νp = plastic Poisson's ratio

ρ = radius of gyration

6.3 Axial Compression of Flat Plates

The compressive buckling stress of a rectangular flat plate is given by
Equation (6-1).
Fcr=η η¯¯¯ k π2E12(1−ν2e)(tb)2���=� �¯ � �2�12(1−��2)
(��)2
(6-1)
The relation is applicable to various types of loadings in both the elastic and
the inelastic ranges and for various conditions of edge fixity.
The case of unstiffened plates is treated first and then stiffened plates are
discussed.
The edge constraints which are considered vary from simply supported to
fixed. A simply supported edge is constrained to remain straight at all loads
up to and including the buckling load, but is free to rotate about the center
line of the edge. A fixed edge is constrained to remain straight and to resist
all rotation. These two conditions define the limits of torsional restraint and
are represented by ϵ = 0 for simply supported edges and ϵ = ∞ for fixed
edges.
Plates are frequently loaded so that the stresses are beyond the proportional
limit of the material. If such is the case, the critical buckling stress is reduced
by the factor η, which accounts for changes in k, E, and ν. This allows the
values of k, E, and ν to always be the elastic values.
The second reduction factor in Equation (6-1) is the cladding factor η. In
order to obtain desirable corrosion resistance, the surface of some aluminum
alloys are coated or clad with a material of lower strength, but of better
corrosion resistance. The resultant panel may have lower mechanical
properties than the basic core material and allowance must be made. Values
for the factor η are given in the appropriate sections.

shear flexural buckling

Shear Buckling of Flat Plates

Nomenclature

a = plate length

b = plate width

E = modulus of elasticity

Es = secant modulus

Et = tangent modulus

f = ratio of cladding thickness to total plate thickness

F0.7, F0.85 = secant yield stress at 0.7E and 0.85E

Fcrs = critical shear stress

Fpl = stress at proportional limit

ks = shear buckling coefficient

n = shape parameter, number of half waves in buckled plate

ss = simply supported

t = thickness

W = total load, potential energy

β = ratio of cladding yield stress to core stress

ϵ = ratio of rotational rigidity of plate edge stiffeners

η = plasticity reduction factor

η = cladding reduction factor

λ = buckle half wavelength

ν = inelastic Poisson's ratio

νe = elastic Poisson's ratio

6.5 Shear Buckling of Flat Plates

The critical shear-buckling stress of flat plates may be found from Equation
(6-27)

Fcrs=η η¯¯¯ ks π2 E/12(1−νe)2(t/b)2

(6-27)
Figure 6-27 presents the shear coefficient ks, as a function of the size
ratio a/b for clamped and hinged edges. For infinitely long plates, Figure 6-28
presents ks as a function of λ/b. Figure 6-29(a) presents ks∞ for long plates as
a function of edge restraint, and Figure 6-29(b) gives ks∞ as a function
of b/a, thus allowing the determination of ks.
The nondimensional chart in Figure 6-30 allows the calculation of inelastic
shear buckling stresses if the secant yield stress, F0.7, and n the shape
parameter is known (Table 6-11).
The plasticity-reduction factor η and the clodding factor η can be obtained
from Equations (6-28), (6-29), and (6-30).

η=Es/E(1−νe 2/1−ν2)

(6-28)
η=1+3fβ1+3f for Fc1<Fcrs<Fpl�=1+3��1+3� for ��1<����<���
(6-29)
η=11+3f[1+3f(Es¯¯¯¯¯¯Es)]+{[1+3f(Es¯¯¯¯¯¯Es)][14+34(EtEs)

+W]}1/21+[14+34(EtEs)]1/2

(6-30)
for Fcrs > Fpl
buckling under combined loads

Nomenclature

a = plate length

b = plate width

c = core thickness, signifies clamped edge

C = compressive buckling coefficient for curved plates

E = modulus of elasticity
F = stress

Fcr = critical normal stress

Fcrs = critical shear stress

Fcy = compressive yield stress

kc = compressive buckling coefficient

K = sandwich panel form factor

R = stress ratio

t = thickness

Zb = length range parameter b2(1 - νe2)1/2/ rt

η = plasticity reduction factor

η = cladding reduction factor

ν = inelastic Poisson's ratio

6.8 Plates Under Combined Loadings

In general, the loadings on aircraft elements are a combination of two or
more simple loadings. Design of such elements must consider the interaction
of such loadings and a possible reduction of the allowable values of the
simple stresses when combined loads are present. The method using stress
ratios, R, has been used extensively in aircraft structural design. The
ratio R is the ratio of the stress in the panel at buckling under combined
loading to the buckling stress under the simple loading. In general, failure
occurs when Equation (6-36) is satisfied. The exponents x and y must be
determined experimentally and depend upon the structural element and the
loading condition.
R x1+R y2=1�1 �+�2 �=1
(6-36)

6.8.1 Flat Plates Under Combined Loadings

Table 6-12 gives the combined loading condition for flat plates. Figures 6-36
and 6-37 give interaction curves for several loading and support conditions. It
is noted that the curves present conditions of triple combinations.
 UNIT-5
Introduction to Inelastic Buckling and Dynamic Stability
What is an inelastic buckling?
Intermediate Columns

In between, for a column with intermediate length, buckling occurs after the
stress in the column exceeds the proportional limit of the column material
and before the stress reaches the ultimate strength. This kind of situation is
called inelastic buckling.
What is the concept of dynamic stability?

Dynamic stability can be defined as the energy balance between the supplied
power and the consumed power at a given point.
What is elastic and inelastic buckling?

According to the width to thickness ratio of the plate, it may undergo elastic
or inelastic buckling. In the plates with low width to thickness ratio, the
inelastic buckling may occur, while the elastic buckling is more probable in
the plates with high width to thickness ratio.