a.

Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal Solution)

= Is the process necessary for reducing the silver halides to form the image.

Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main developing agents

b. Stop bath = normally composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic acid that serves as a means to
prevent contamination between the developer and the acid fixer.
c. Fixation = Is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or removed from the emulsion
surface and making the image more permanent.
Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main fixing agent that dissolves unexposed silver halides.

Other chemicals used:

Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as neutralizer

Sodium Sulfate = serves as the preservative

Potassium Bromide = restrainer or hardener

Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder = serves as accelerator

Dodging = is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of the negative during enlarging.

Cropping = is the process of omitting an object during the process of enlarging and printing.

Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the image towards the side through skillful adjustment on the dodging board.

Dye toning = is the process designed in changing the color tone of the photograph.

Burning-In = refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of the negative used for purposes of making a balance
exposure.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Ballistics is the science of the motion of the projectile and the condition that affects their motion. It is a science in itself
for it is an orderly arranged knowledge, which is a product of series of experimentation, observation and testing. Ballistics is not
an exact science rather it is applied physics or applied science, which is subject to changes and improvement depending upon
the demands of the modern civilization.

Motion refers to the mobility or movement of the projectile from the time it leaves the shell empty, it leaves the gun
muzzle and until it reach its target or fall in the ground.

A projectile is any metallic on non-metallic ball which is propelled from a firearm. Its motion can be categories into three
general types: Direct motion, Rotatory motion and Translation motion.

3 Types of Motion
1. Direct Motion = is the forward motion of the bullet or shots out of the shell by the action of the expansive force of gases
from a burning gunpowder.
2. Rotatory motion = is the action of the bullet passing through a rifled bore barrel firearm which is either twisted to the left
or to the right.

3. Translational = is the action of bullet once it hits a target and subsequently ricocheted.

ORIGIN OF THE WORD BALLISTICS

The word Ballistics was derived from two Greek words. The word “ballo” and the word “ballein” which literally mean,
“to throw”.

The term also said to have been derived from the Roman war machine called “Ballista”, a gigantic catapult that was
used to furl missiles or large object at a distance like stone, dead animal or even dead person.

The study of Ballistics in the early age is divided into (3) three Divisions: Internal Ballistics, Exterior or External Ballistics
and Terminal Ballistics. From the time the gun was fired until it reach the target and have its maximum effect. At present ballistics

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is branches into four (4) and this is due to its subsequent used in solving problems in connection with the administration of justice
particularly cases involving firearms and ammunition which is termed as Forensic Ballistics.
BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS

1. Interior (Internal) Ballistics = it treats of the motion of the projectile while it is still inside the firearm (chamber /barrel) which
extends from the breech to the muzzle. The conditions attributed to internal ballistics are as follows:

a. Firing pin hitting the primer

b. Ignition of the priming mixture

The priming mixture (composing of the KCLO3, sulfur and carbon) located either at the cavity rim or at the center of
the primer upon the striking effect of the firing pin will ignite and such action is known as “Percussion action”.

c. Combustion of the gun powder/powder charge or propellant.

d. Expansion of heated gas.

e. Pressure developed

f. Energy generated

g. Recoil of the gun

Is the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement of the bullet upon explosion. The
backward or rearward movement of the gun in relation to the forward movement of the bullet.

Jump is another portion of the recoil action characterized as the backward and upward movement of that takes
place before the bullet leaves the muzzle.

h. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel

It is the relative speed of the bullet per unit of time while it is still inside the barrel expressed in feet per second.

i. Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel

j. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet

2. Exterior (external) Ballistics = treats of the attributes or movement of the projectile after leaving the gun muzzle.

a. Muzzle Blast

Is the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun.

b. Muzzle energy

Energy generated at the muzzle point measured in foot-pound.

c. Trajectory

Refers to the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time it leaves the muzzle until it hits the target. It is
also described as the actual curve path taken by a bullet during its.

d. Range

It refers to the imaginary straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target.

d.1. Accurate Range= the distance within which the shooter or gunner has control of his shots.

d.2. Effective Range = the distance within which when the bullet was fired it is still capable of inflicting
fatal injury.

d.3. Maximum Range= the distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm. The farthest
distance the bullet could travel.
e. Velocity - Refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit of time usually express is feet per second
(ft/sec.)
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 f. Pull of Gravity

It is the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth surface due to its weight.
g. Air Resistance

Refers to the force of the air encounter by the bullet in its flight.

3. Terminal Ballistics= is that branch of Ballistics which deals with the effects of the impact of the projectile on the target.

a. Terminal Accuracy

It refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target.

b. Terminal Energy

Is the energy or force of the projectile when it strikes the target same as striking energy.

c. Terminal Velocity

Is the speed of the bullet upon striking the target.

d. Terminal Penetration

Is the depth of entry of the bullet in the target.

4. Forensic Ballistics

This branch of ballistics is the product of the application of the ballistics to law. The idea comes with the used of the
word forensic. The word Forensic was derived from the Latin word “forum” meaning a “market place” where people gathered
for public disputation or public discussion. When used in connection with the word ballistics or other natural science, it suggests
a relationship to the courts of justice or legal proceedings.
Forensic Ballistics is defined as the study of the motion of the projectile as applied to law or simply the science of firearm
identification by means of the ammunition fired through them.

Scope of Forensic Ballistics

1. Field Investigation

2. Ballistics Technical Examination of the Exhibits

3. Legal Proceeding

The Evolution of Firearms

MAN BEHIND FIREARMS
1. John M. Browning - Wizard of the modern firearms and pioneered the breech loading single shot rifled which was
adopted by Winchester.
2. Samuel Colt - Patented the first practical revolver and maker of the Colt Peace Maker, a famous revolver in the history.
3. Alexander John Forsyth - Father of the percussion powder.
4. Major Uziel Gal - An Israeli army who designed UZI (Israel) in the year 1950.
5. Col. Calvin H. Goddard - Father of modern Ballistics.
6. John C. Garand - Designed and invented the Semi automatic U.S. Rifle Cal. 30. M1 garand.
7. George Hyde - A well-known expert in the field of SMG, (also known as grease gun) developed in 1941. M3A1 (USA).
8. Michael Kalashnikov - Designed the AK (Automat Kalashnikova) 47 (Soviet Union) adopted by the Russian Army in the
year 1951.
9. Horace Smith - Founded the great firm of Smith and Wesson and pioneered in making breech loading rifles.
10. Eugene Stoner - Designed the U.S. M16 Armalite under licensed by Colt Company from July 1959 onwards.
11. L.C. Smith - Developed shotgun bearing his name now the Ithaca gun Company.
12. John T. Thompson - Developed in the course of WW1 the Thompson M1A1 and model of 1928 A1 (USA). Pioneered the
making of Thompson sub-machine gun.
13. Daniel B. Wesson - Associates of Horace Smith in the making of Revolver.
14. David “Carbine” Williams - Maker of the first known Carbine.
15. Oliver Winchester - One of the earliest rifle and pistol maker.

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 IMPORTANT DATES IN THE EVOLUTION OF FIREARMS
1242 A.D. Roger Bacon published the “ De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae” (On the Marvelous Power of Arts and
Nature), which noted Black powder formula.

1498 Introduction of the rifling and sights became better and breech loaders were attempted although never
succeeded yet even multi shots arms due to lack of good ignition system.

1500’s The development of the Wheel Lock, operates in the same principle as the modern day cigarette lighter. At
mid of 1500’s “snaphaunce” was developed.

1575 Paper Cartridge was developed. Ball and powder charged were wrapped in chemically treated paper to allow
the carrying of numerous pre-measured charges or pre loaded rounds.

1750 The development of Breech-loading firearms leading to the making of FERGUSON Rifle of Major Patrick
Ferguson, COLLIER Rifle, which is a flint lock repeating rifle operated on a revolving principle and, the HALL
Rifle patented in 1811 by Col. John Hall and was the 1st breechloader adopted by the U.S. Army.

1805 The Percussion System. Alexander John Forsyth discovered a compound that would ignite upon blow that
would ignite the powder charge. In 1840, it replaces the flintlock ignition and was adopted in 1838 by the British
and in 1842 by the American.

1835 The first real cartridge was developed “The Flobert Cap” same as the BB and was considered the forerunner
of .22 short cartridge.

1835 Samuel Colt patented the first revolver and marketed in 1872, a breech loading revolver.

1836 Pin fire Cartridge, was developed by Le Faucheux. A much real pin fire cartridge was also developed in the
same year by Houiller.

1845 Rim fire cartridge, Flobert developed the BB (bullet breech) cap, which was considered the forerunner of the
.22 cal cartridge. In the same year, New Havens Arms Company owned by Oliver F. Winchester, through the
effort of Tyler Henry developed a .44 cal rim fire cartridge for Henry Rifle.

1846 Smokeless powder was discovered. It was used in shotgun first in the year 1864 by Capt. Eschultze of Prussian
Army and in Rifle by the year 1884 by M. Vieille of France.

1873 Colt Peace Maker, model 1873, .45 cal. The most famous revolver in history and legend was manufactured.

1884 Automatic Machine Gun. Hiram Maxim developed the first fully automatic gun.

FIREARMS
Legal Definition of Firearm
Firearms or arms as herein used, includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotgun, pistol, revolvers, and all other deadly
weapons, to which a bullet, ball, shot, shell, or other missiles maybe discharge by means of gun powder or other explosives. This
term also includes air rifle, except such of being of small caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be
considered a complete firearm for all purposes hereof. (Sec 877 Revised Administrative Code/ Sec. 290 national Internal Revenue
Code).

Technical Definition
Firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectile by means of the expansive force gases coming from
burning gunpowder. (FBI manual of Firearms Identification).

B. Classification of Firearms
A. Two General Classification of Firearms
(According to Interior Barrel Construction)
1.Smooth Bore Firearms = Firearms that have no rifling (lands and grooves) inside their gun barrel.

Examples: Shotguns and Musket

2. Rifled Bore Firearms = Firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel.

Examples: Pistols, Revolvers, and other modern weapons.

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B. Main Types of Firearms
(According to the Caliber of the projectile propelled)

1. Artillery = Refers to those type of firearms that propels projectile with more than one inch diameter.

Examples: Cannons, Mortars and Bazookas:

2. Small Arms = Are firearms that propels projectile with less than one inch diameter and it can be handled, moved and operated
by one man.

Examples: Machine gun, shoulder arms and handguns.

2.1 Machine guns

Machine gun is a type of firearm that is primarily designed for military use. Even in investigation of shooting
cases done in the city, it is not usual or common to encounter this type of firearm having been used. It can be grouped
in three general types:

Sub Machine Gun

Is a light, portable form of machine gun, utilizing a pistol size ammunition, having a shoulder stock that may or may
not be folded and designed to be fired with both hands.

Shoulder Arms

Shoulder Arms are those types of firearm that were normally fired from the shoulder.

Rifles= A shoulder weapon designed to fire a projectile with more accuracy through a long rifled bore barrel, usually more than
22 inches.

Carbine = A short barrel rifle, with its barrel rifle, measuring not longer than 22 inches. It fires a single projectile though a rifle-
bore either semi-automatic or fully automatic, for every press of the trigger.

Muskets = is an ancient smoothbore and muzzle loading military shoulder arms designed to fire a shots or a single round lead
ball. A more detailed discussion of musketeers can be found on chapter 8 in the discussion of ignition system.

Shotgun = A smooth bore and a breech loading shoulder arms designed to fire a number of lead pellets or a shots in one charge
(FBA Manual)

The barrel construction of shotgun may also be found in different bore construction.

A. cylinder bore type = which the bore size is the same through out the barrel
B. choke bored gun = designed with a diminishing or reducing bore diameter type towards the muzzle. This type is
designed to cause an effect to the travel of the shots. It makes the shots travel longer before it spreads.
C. “paradox gun”.= still in a very rear occasions another type of shotgun can be observed to be having rifling only a
few inch from its muzzle points.
2.3 Handguns = those type of firearms that are designed or intended to be fired using one hand.

Ex. Pistols and Revolvers

a. Pistol
In early firearm history, all handguns are generally called as pistols. There were three classes of pistols in the
period. The single shot pistol, the semi automatic and the revolving pistols now known as the revolver.

b. Revolver

Revolver is a type of firearm designed to position cartridge into position for firing with the aid of a rotating
cylinder serving as its chamber. There are two types of revolvers according to its mechanical firing action. T

Single action, a type of revolver that needs a manual cocking of the hammer before squeezing the trigger and
the other is Double action, a type of revolver that does not need manual cocking. Just press the trigger and it both
cocked and released the hammer causing a much faster firing.
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C. Types of Firearms
(According of Mechanical Construction)

1. Single shot firearms = types of firearms designed to fire only one shot every loading.

Examples: Single shot pistols, Revolvers and shotguns.

2. Repeating Arms = A type of firearms designed to fire several loads (shot) in one loading.

Examples: Automatic pistols revolvers rifles and shotguns.

3. Automatic F/A = type of firearms that constitutes a continuous firing in a single press of the trigger and while the trigger
is press.

Examples: Machine guns and rifles

4. Slide Action type = types of firearms in which loading take place by back and forth manipulation of the under/over
forearms of the gun.

Examples: Shotgun and pistols

5. Bolt Action Type = Type of firearms in which reloading takes place by manipulating the both back and forth.

Examples: Rifles, shotguns and machine guns.

6. Lever type (Break type) = loading takes place by lever action on the firearms.

Examples: Rifles and shotguns.

MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF GUN

1. Cane gun, knife pistols, cellphone gun, etc. = devices principally designed for other purpose to which a gun mechanism is
incorporated also called as Freakish gun.

3. Flare gun = designed for tracing or sending signals or locating enemy troops.
4. Freakish gun = a tool in which firearm mechanism is attached to prevent easy identification.
3. Gas gun = generally referring to all gun designed from firing tear gas.

4. Harpoon guns = refers to a barbed spear in hunting large fish.

5.Liberator = U.S. government made smooth bore gun used in Europe during war designed to fire an automatic colt pistol
cartridge caliber .45.
6. Multi –Barreled gun = refers to all types of gun containing a number of barrels.
7. Paradox gun = a type of gun which contains lands and grooves a few inch from the muzzle point.

8. Tools = are those devices which resembles a gun designed but are generally used for construction of furniture.

9. Traps = refers to gun used for trapping animals that are fired to woods.
10. Zip Gun = refers to all type of home made gun.

AMMUNITION

Legal Definition
Ammunition refers to loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbine, shotgun, revolvers and pistols from which a ball, shot
shell or other missiles maybe fired by means of gun powder or other explosive. The term also includes ammunition for air rifles
as mentioned elsewhere in the code. (Chapter VII, Sec.290 of NIRC as well as Sec 877 RAC)

Technical Definition

Ammunition refers to a group of cartridge or to a single cartridge. Cartridge is a complete unfired unit consisting of
bullet (ball), primer (cap), cartridge case (shell) and gunpowder (propellant).

Origin

The word cartridge was derived from the Latin word “Charta” meaning – a “paper” and also from the French word
“Cartouche” meaning – a rolled paper. This only indicates that the first type of cartridge was made up of a rolled paper. It was
about the turn of the 16th century that the term “cartridge” comes to use.
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A. General types of Ammunition (Fig. 6)

a. Dummy ( used as a model)

b. Drill Ammunition (without gun powder)

c. Black Ammunition (without bullet)

d. Live Ammunition

B. Classification of Cartridge

I. According to the Location of the Primer

a.Pin-Fire = is a type of cartridge in which the ignition cap (primer) is concealed inside the cartridge case and has
a pin resting upon it.
b. b. Rim fire = is a type of cartridge in which the priming mixture is located at the hallow rim of the case can be
fired if the cartridge is tuck by the firing pin on the rim of the case (cavity rim).
c. Center fire = t refers to a cartridge in which primer cup (ignition cap) is centrally placed in the base of the
cartridge case and the priming mixture is exploded by the impact of the firing pin and with the support of the
anvil.
II. According to Rim Diameter

a. Rimmed Case type.

b. Semi-Rimmed type

d. Rimless type
d. Rebated type = refers to the cartridge with rimless pattern, but which has a rim diameter smaller than the body
of the case

e. Belted type = a cartridge with a prominent raise belt around its body just in front of the extraction groove.

III. According Caliber

Calibers in cartridges in inches and their approximate equivalent in mm and use:

Inches MM.

Cal. .22 about 5.59 mm- used in revolver, pistol and rifles

Cal. .25 about 6.35 mm- used in pistols and rifles.

Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm- (mauser) – for carbines and other rifles

Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm (luger)

Cal. .32 about 7.65 mm for automatic pistols and revolvers

Cal. .380 about 9 mm- used for pistols

Cal. .357 used in magnum .357 revolvers

Cal. .45 about 11 mm – used in automatic pistols

Cal. .50 used in .50 cal. Machine gun

Shotgun Cartridge

It refers to a complete unit of unfired cartridge consisting of the pellets, primer, case, wads and gunpowder .

Gauge of Shotgun
Compared with other types of firearms, shotgun has very unique characteristics in terms of its diameter designation
both for its firearm and cartridge use. The unit of measurement used in shotgun is expressed in Gauge. This is determined by the
number of solid lead balls of pure lead, each with diameter of the barrel that can be prepared from one pound of lead. At present
the 10-gauge shotgun is considered with the biggest diameter while the .410 as the smallest one. Listed below are the equivalents
of diameter in gauge to inch.

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 Gauge Inch

10 .775 inch

12 .729 inch

16 .670 inch

20 .615 inch

28 .550 inch

.410 .410 inch

TYPES OF SHOTS

1. Soft or Drop Shots = made by pure or nearly pure lead, to which a small amount of arsenic has been added to make
it take on the form of a spherical drop as it falls down the shot tower. This type is easy to deformed or flattened, loose their
velocity quicker, low penetrating power and string out more.

2. Chilled or Hard Shot = is a type of shot with a small amount of antimony mixed with lead to increase hardness. It does
no deform easily, better patterns, less string and more uniform velocity and penetration.

3. Coated or Plated Shot = also called as “lubaloy” shot. A chilled shot coated with thin copper through electroplating
design for greater strength and elasticity, great resistance to deformation and leading and better pattern.

4. Buck Shot = a large size lead shot for used in shotgun

Bullets
The word “Bullet” was derived from French word “Boullette” which means a small ball. This term is generally used when
we are referring to projectile fired from any small arms, which has a variety of form, especially during the earlier history. In a
more technical sense, bullet refers to a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled from a firearm it is sometimes called as
shots or slugs.

Bullets have various types depending upon their specific nature and purpose. In general bullet can be classified as either
Lead or Jacketed.

General Types of Bullets

1. Lead Type – is a type of a bullet that is basically composed of lead metal. Its used was due to its density;
having a good weight is a small size and easy for casting.
2. Jacketed Type – Is a type of bullet consisting of the regular lead core, coated with a copper alloy in
order to prevent lead
fouling of the barrel and is generally used in pistols and other high power guns.

ACCORDING TO THEIR MAXIMUM EFFECT TO THEIR TARGETS

1. Ball Type – Is a type of bullet, which is intended for anti-personnel and general use.

2. Armor piercing – is a type of military bullet designed to penetrate light steel armor. Its mechanical construction makes
it capable of penetrating through some light vehicles.

3. Explosive Bullet - Is a small bullet containing a charge of explosive, which will detonate on impact.

4. Incendiary Bullet –Type of military bullet used to cause fire in a target, generally designed to use by aircraft armament
in order for the fuel tanks to ignite.

5. Tracer Bullet – a type of military bullet capable of leaving visible marks or traces while in flight giving the gunner
the chance to observe the strike of the shot or make adjustments in the event of a miss
Cartridge Case
Cartridge Case is the metallic or non-metallic tabular container usually of brass (70% copper and 30% zinc) designed to
unite the bullet, primer and the gunpowder into one unit. It is also known as shell or casing.

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 Functions of the Cartridge Case
1. It locates the bullet properly relative to the bore of the firearm.

2. It is used to carry the means of ignition.

3. It provides gas seals at the breech against an unwanted escape of propellant gas upon firing.
4. Serves as waterproof container for the propellant or powder charge.

5. Acts as the insulator between the propellant and the hot walls of the chamber in a rapid firing of firearms.
Parts of the Cartridge Case

1. Base= the bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head stamp marking on the base of the shell
containing the caliber, manufacturer and in some cases including the date, trade name, and batch number.

2. Rim= is the part of the cartridge designed to limit the forward movement of the cartridge to chamber.

3. Extracting grooves= is the circular groove near the rim of the shell designed for automatic withdrawal of the case
from the chamber.

4. Primer Pocket=is that part of the shell which provides the means for the primer to be put in the central position. Its
function is extended to: (a) hold the primer in place; (b) to provide means to prevent the escape of gas; (c) to provide solid
support for primer anvil.

5. Body= is the cylindrical part of the shell which house the gunpowder.

6. Shoulder= that part of the cartridge case which support the neck of the cartridge which is evident in a bottleneck
type.

7. Cannelure= is the cylindrical groove in the outer surface of the cartridge case designed to secure the shell to the
chamber as well as prevent bullet from being push down to the powder charge. In some instance it is even being utilized for
identification.

8. Neck= is that part of the shell which is actually occupied by the bullet. This is obvious in a bottleneck type of shell but
not with the straight type.

9. Crimp= is the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell designed for two purposes: One (1) is to hold the bullet and
prevent it from being pull out from the shell and Two (2) to offers resistance to the bullet out of the neck to ensure burning
of the gun powder.

10. Vent or Flash hole= is the hole at the bottom of the primer pocket as the passage way for the priming mixture to
impart an ignition to the propellant charge.

Primer
Primer (also called CAP) is the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire type, containing a highly sensitive
chemical compound that would easily ignite or bursts into flame when struck by the firing pin. It may either be Berdan or Boxer
type. It is also known as the percussion cup.

The Berdan is a type of primer construction, which was designed in 1860s by Colonel Hiram S. Berdan of the U.S Army
Ordinance Department.

The Boxer on the other hand, was developed by Col. Edward M. Boxer of the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich Arsenal in
the year 1866

Parts of the Primer

1. Primer Cup= Is the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming mixture, the disc and the anvil.

2. Priming Mixture= Is the highly sensitive chemical compound which ignites by the mechanical blow of the firing pin. It
is also called as percussion powder.

3. Anvil= Is that portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs the blow of the firing pin causing friction
that would initiates ignition.

4. Disc= Is a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order to protect it from moisture attack.

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Gun Powder
Gunpowder (also called as propellant or Power Charge) is that mixture of chemicals of various compositions designed
to propel the projectile by means of its expansive force of gas when burned.

Two of the most popular individual whose name is always attached to gunpowder discovery were Roger Bacon and
Berthold Schwartz. Let’s take a short description of how their names are always mentioned in the history.

Roger Bacon, (1242 A.D.) a Franciscan monk, who wrote the ---“De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae” (On the
Marvelous Power of Art and Nature), including an anagram.

Berthold Schwartz (whose real name was Constantin Anklitzen), a mysterious monk of Freiburg, who according to
legend that is supported by an engraving dated 1643, while experimenting on some powder in a cast iron vessel, he ignited a
charge and thus blew off the lid, and from this deduced the principle of containing a charge in a tube and propelling a shot
(Encyclopedia of ammunition).

The Black Powder

Black powder, the oldest known explosive, was initially made from saltpeter (75%), charcoal (15%) and sulfur (10%).

These problems in the used of black powder was later remedied with the introduction of the smokeless powder.
According to Harrison, Captain E. Schultze of the Prussian Army, made the 1st successful used of smokeless powder in shotgun
in the year 1864. (Although historically nitroglycerine compound was first discovered in 1846). The basic ingredient used for
smokeless powder is a nitrocellulose that was first produced by adding a nitric acid to cellulose fiber.

Later, M. Vieille of French developed the first smokeless powder for riffle in the year 1884 and named it “poudre B”
taken after Gen. Boulanger’s name. In 1887, Alfred Nobel invented a smokeless powder with nitroglycerine ( 40%0 and
nitrocellulose (60%) as the main composition and called it “Ballistite”. In Great Britain, they utilized picrid acid in addition to
cellulose powder which they called “Lyddite” and in germany TNT (Tri-nitrololeune ) was the one used, more powerful than picric
acid but much difficult to detonate. Also In the year 1889, Prof. Abel, a British War dept. Chemist developed “Cordite” a smokeless
powder with same composition as Nobel in the form of cords or sticks. And in early 1890’s smokeless powder had replaced black
powder and became uniformly used worldwide by the year 1900.

Firearms Characteristics
Stages in the manufacture of barrel
A. Drilling
B. Reaming
C. Rifling
This process necessary for the making of the helical groves inside the barrel and such can be performed in any of the
following methods:

1. Hook – cutter system (cutter)

2. Scrape – cutter system (scraper)

3. Broaching system – (broach)

4. Button – system (button)

D. Lapped
The Breech face
Just like any barrel of every firearm, the breech face also bears with it the same important.

Types of Characteristics in Firearms

A. Class Characteristics = are those properties or attributes of a firearms which can be determined even before the
manufacture of the gun. This is true for such characteristics are considered to be a manufacture’s designs or specifications
and security.

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS OF FIREARMS

1. Bore diameter (caliber or gauge) it is diameter to which the bore was reamed. The distance measured
between two opposite lands inside the bore in a hundredths or thousandths of an inch. In most express in
either caliber in inch or in millimeters.

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 2. Number of lands and grooves = the number of lands an grooves inside the barrel of a given firearm are always
the same or equal. It may run from 3 to 8, but the most in the modern firearm are five and six.

Lands = are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.

Grooves = are the depressed portion of the bore between the lands.

3. Width of the lands = is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun, grooves, width and number. The lands are
the remainders of the circumference after subtracting all the grooves width.

4. Width of the Grooves = is measured as the shortest distance between the two dies or edge of a grooves.

5. Direction of Twist = rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either twisted to the left or to the right which cause
bullet to rotate as it passes through the bore, in order to ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight.

6. Pitch of Rifling = it is the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves. It refers to the measure of the distance
advance by the rifling in order to make a complete turn inside the barrel.

7. Depth of the Grooves = the groove’s depth if measured on a radius of the bore. Grooves are usually few
thousandths of an inch deep, which equal to the height of the lands.

B. Individual Characteristics = are meant for those characteristics which are being determined only after the firearm
was already been manufactured. They are the product of machine imperfections and some later due to the used of the
firearms.

TYPES OF RIFLING
1. Steyer Type= is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right twist and the width of the lands grooves.
(4 RG=L)

2. Carbine Type = rifling having (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the grooves is two (2) times the width
of the lands (4RG2X).

3. Smith and Wesson = rifling having (5) lands and grooves, right hand twist , the width of the land and grooves are
equal. (5RG=L)

4. Colt = type of rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width of the grooves is twice (2) the width of
the lands. (6LG2X)

5. Browning = type of rifling having (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the grooves is twice the
width of the lands. (6RG2X)

6. Webley = Rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the groove is three time larger
than the boarder of the lands. (7RG3X)

7. Winchester = Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of the grooves is three time
larger the width of the lands.

Individual Characteristics in Firearms

Individual Characteristics in firearms are usually determined by the test firing which will give us both the test
bullet and the test shell that will show the individuality of its property based on the left marks on every bullet and shell
fired from it. Such marks are so minute that the use of the lens with high magnification is necessary to discover
individuality.

Marks found of Fired Bullets

1. Land Marks = marks left on a fired bullet caused by its contact to the elevated portion (lands) of the bore of the
firearm. It appears as slight depressions or scratches the cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.
2. Groove Marks = marks found on a fired bullet caused by the grooves of the barrel which is the same number as
that of the landmarks.

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 3. Skid Marks = Marks that are generally found on fired bullet from a revolver. It is more or less located at the
anterior portion of the fired bullet due to its forward movement from the chamber to the barrel of the gun before it
initially rotates.

4. Stripping Marks = marks found on those bullet fired from a “loose-fit” barrel wherein the rifling are already been
badly worn-out.

Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be cause by either chemical reaction brought about by rust (corrosion)
or through excessive use (erosion)

5. Shaving Marks = marks commonly found on bullet fired from a revolver cause by its forward movement to the
barrel that is poorly aligned to the cylinder.

6. Slippage Marks = marks found on fired bullets passing through either on oily or oversize barrel.

Marks found on Fired Shells

1. Firing Pin Mark = mark generally found at the base portion of the cartridge case more specifically near center of
the primer cup in a center fire cartridge or at the rim cavity of a rim-fire cartridge. Considered as one of the most
important marks for identification of firearms using fired shell.

2. Breech Face Mark = mark found at the base portion of the shell cause by backward movement to the breech face
of the block of the firearm.

3. Extractor Mark = mark mostly found at the extracting groove of the fired cartridge case. Cause by its withdrawal
from the chamber.

4. Ejector mark = mark generally found on cartridge case fired from an automatic firearms. It is located near the
rim of the case cause by the throwing of shell from the firearm to the area of shooting.

5. Shearing Mark = sometimes called “Secondary Firing Pin mark” found in the primer near the firing pin mark.

6. Magazine Lip Mark = marking found at the two sides of the rim cause by the magazine lips during the loading of
the cartridge into the magazine for firing.

7. Chamber Mark = mark mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge case cause by the irregularities of
nips inside the walls of the chamber.

In fired cartridge case either of the Firing pin mark and the Breech face marks can be used as basis for
identification, in the absence or none use of these two, both the ejector and extractor marks can be utilized as secondary
choice.

PROBLEMS IN FORENSIC BALLISTICS

1. Given a fired bullet to determine the caliber, type; make of firearm from which it was fired.

2. Given a fired shell to determine the caliber, type, and make of firearm from which it was fired.

3. Given a fired bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired bullet was fired from the suspected
firearm.

4. Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired bullet was fired from the suspected
firearm.

5. Given two or more fired bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from one and the same firearm.

6. Given two or more fired shell/cartridge case, to determine whether or not they were fired from one and the same
firearm.

Scientific Instrument Used in Firearms Identification

1. Analytical or Torsion Balance
2. Bullet Comparison Microscope

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 3. Bullet Recovery box
4. Chronograph
5. Caliper
6. CP-6 Comparison Projector
7. Electronic Gun maker
8. Helixometer
9. Micrometer
10. Onoscope
11. Shadowgraph
12. Stereoscopic Microscope
13. Taper Gauge
14. Torsion Balance

QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS EXAMINATION

Document
Any material that contains a mark symbol or sign, either visible, partially visible or invisible that may presently or
ultimately convey a meaning or a message to someone.
It is any written statement by which a right is established or an obligation extinguished. (People vs. Moreno, C.A., 38
O.G. 119)

Two Categories of Document

1. Questioned Document – Document to which an issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny. The focal point of the
examination and to which the document examiner relies as to the extent of the problem. (also referred to as disputed
document).
2. Standard Document – Document in which the origin is known can be proven and can legally be used as sample to compare
with other things is questioned.

Types of Standards
a. Collected/Procured Std. – Standard specimen executed in the regular course of man’s activity or that which are executed
on the day to day writing activity.
b. Requested/Dictated (Post litel motam std.) – a Standard document which are executed upon request, they are prepare
at one time.

Contemporary document = documents which are not more than five (5) years before or after.

Legal Classification of Documents:

1. Public Document = a document created, executed or issued by a public official in response to the exigencies of the
public service, or in the execution of which a public official intervened.
= is any instrument authorized by a notary public or a competent public official, with the solemnities
required by law ( Cacnio , et.al. vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 724).
2. Official Document = a document which is issued by a public official in the exercise of the functions of his office. Am
official document is also a public document as a larger classification.
3. Private Document = A deed or instrument executed by a private person without the intervention of a notary public
or other person legally authorized, by which documents, some disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or
set forth. (US Vs. Orera, 11 Phil 596) e.g. Theater Ticket.
4. Commercial Document = any document defined and regulated by the Code of Commerce ( People Vs. Co Beng, C.A.
40 OG 1913) or any other commercial law.

Classes of Questioned Documents:

1. Document with questioned Signature (most common).
2. Document containing fraudulent alteration (Any form of changes either an addition or deletion to the contents of a
document).
3. Holograph Document – a document that is completely written and signed by one person
4. Document questioned as to the material used in their production.
5. Documents questioned as to their age or date.
6. Documents involving typewriting
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