Republic of the Philippines

Province of Cotabato
Municipality of Makilala
MAKILALA INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
Conception, Makilala North Cotabato

FORENSIC BALLISTICS
Course Number: Forensic 6 Instructor: Eva Mae C.
Quiros
Course Title: Forensic Ballistics Mobile Number:
09466944106

Module No.: 1 Email Address:

Duration: 2 weeks evamaequiros@gmail.com

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINOLOGY

I. LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define ballistics
2. Discuss the process of interior, external, terminal, and forensic
ballistics
3. Identify the concept of interior, external, terminal, and forensic
ballistics
4. Recognize the scope of Forensic Ballistics

II. TOPICS/SUBJECT MATTER

 Definition and Origin of Ballistics
 Branches of Ballistics
 Scope of Forensic Ballistics

III. REFERRENCE
 Manlusoc, A.C. (2016). Forensic Ballistics
 IV. COURSE CONTENT

Introduction

The making of firearms has evolved from a simple hand cannon to highly
automatic and powerful fighting jets. In the beginning of human civilization, man studied
the making of firearms for purposes of protecting their tribes from possible invaders or
colonizers. The study of the motion of the projectile and all other conditions that could
influence its mobility has become the interest of gunsmith. Although cartridge has been
in existence during the 14th century, it was only in the mid of the 19th century that it
has began to show some advances.

France and England are two of the most powerful countries that have explored the
manufacture of more powerful and sophisticated firearms. History even shows that these
two countries were the makers of the first war vessel.

There is a common saying among gunsmiths and artillerymen stating that "A
firearm is not a gun, it's the ammunition". This is quite true in as much as a firearm is not
the one that gives power to itself. A firearm without ammunition is nothing but a piece of
tool. It is the ammunition that we load in the firearm that makes the gun powerful. For
example, when we load a .38 cartridge in a 357 magnum revolver and fire it; we did not
actually fire a magnum.357 revolver but merely a .38 revolver.

Originally, the study of Ballistics was divided into three divisions namely Interior,
Exterior and Terminal Ballistics. It was only in the 20th century when firearms evidence
became a subject of investigational interest in the form of fired bullets, cartridge cases,
and gunshot wounds. As a result, its study evolved into four (4) branches which now
includes Forensic Ballistics or the Science of Firearms Identification in addition to the
three previously mentioned.
 Firearms identification is one of the early forensic sciences that were given
recognition and acceptance by the courts as evidence that would aid the administration
of justice most especially in cases of shoot-out, suicides, murder, and rob-out among
others.

Among the forensic science (Criminalistics) subjects, it is the Forensic Ballistics,

which gains the highest interest among students. To the law enforcement agents, gun
collector, fiscals, and judges; the identification of firearms is their concern in bringing
justice to the victims of shooting incidents.

Most of the highly sensational cases committed here and in abroad involve the use
of firearms. A number of deaths and great loss of property involves the use of firearms
and explosives. Hence, future law enforcers need to be properly guided in dealing with
cases involving the use of firearms. This manual was prepared so as to give basic
knowledge of the principles and applications of the science of firearms identification.

CHAPTER 1

Ballistics and its Branches

Ballistics is the science of the motion of the projectile and the condition that
affects its motion. It is a science in itself for it is an orderly arranged knowledge, which is
a product of a series of experimentation, observation and testing. It is not an exact
science rather an applied physics. As such, it is subject to changes and improvement
depending upon the demands of the modern civilization. It is apt to describe ballistics as
an applied physics for it studies the motions of the projectile such as its velocity,
trajectory, approximate range, power, resistance to air and other circumstances that
affects its travel. Initially, the study of ballistics was not designed for firearms
identification rather it was earlier studied mainly for firearm manufacture, that is, for
industrial applications. Gun makers continuously study and innovate on how to
effectively propel a projectile through the use of firearms from an ordinary single shot to
an automatic one. It was only later that its significance in determining cases through the
identification of ammunition that ballistics was finally applied in the administration of
justice on cases involving firearms.
 Motion refers to the mobility or movement of the projectile from the time it leaves
the empty shell; it leaves the gun muzzle and until it reaches its target or falls on the
ground. A projectile is a generic term which refers to any metallic or non-metallic ball
that is propelled from a firearm. Technically, all projectile propels from a small arm is
called bullets with the exemption of a shotgun projectile which is referred to as shots or
pellets. To the policemen, the term bullets are commonly referred to as slugs. In artillery
firearms, projectiles that are too big and even designed for explosions are aptly called
missiles. Bullet motion can be categorized into three (3) general types: Direct motion,
Rotatory motion and Translational Motion.

Three (3) Types

of Motion in
Projectile

1. Direct Motion
is the forward
motion of the
bullet or shots

out of the shell by the action of the expansive force of gases from a burning gunpowder.

2. Rotatory motion is the action of the bullet passing through a rifled bore barrel
firearm which is either twisted to the left or to the right.

3. Translational is the action of bullet once it hits an object or the target and
subsequently ricocheted (changes in motion).

The word Ballistics is derived from two Greek words; the word "ballo" and the word
"ballein". Both of these Greek etymological roots literally mean "to throw".

The term was also said to have been derived from the Roman war machine called
"Ballista", a gigantic catapult that was used to hurl missiles or large objects like stones,
dead animals, or even dead persons at a distance.
 Figure 1. An illustration of a Ballista

Branches of Ballistics

The study of Ballistics was initially divided into (3) three Divisions: Internal Ballistics,
Exterior or External Ballistics and Terminal Ballistics. These encompass the time from
which the bullet is fired from the gun until it reaches the target and has its maximum
effect.

Due to the current application of Ballistics in solving cases involving the use of firearms
and ammunition, a fourth branch has emerged, namely, Forensic Ballistics.

At present, these branches are divided as follows:

1.Interior (Internal) Ballistics is that branch of ballistics which treats of the motion of
the projectile while it is still inside the firearm (chamber /barrel) which extends from the
breech to the muzzle.

The conditions attributed to internal ballistics are as follows:

(FICEPERVRE)

a. Firing pin hitting the primer

Upon the squeeze of the trigger, the hammer will be released which causes the
firing pin to be pushed and hit the base portion of the cartridge where the primer is
located.

b. Ignition of the priming mixture (Percussion action)

 The priming mixture (composing of the KCLO3, sulfur and carbon) located either at
the cavity rim or at the center of the primer upon the striking effect of the firing pin will
ignite and such action is known as "Percussion Action".

c. Combustion of the gun powder/powder charge or propellant.

After the ignition of the priming mixture, the ignition is imparted to the gunpowder
by passing through the vent or flash hole, thus burning the gunpowder and converting it
into an expanded hot gas.

d. Expansion of heated gas.

Once burned, the charged powder is converted into a heated gas, and due to a
more elastic property of gases, its particles will spread and fill the entire container
(cartridge case/shell).

e. Pressure developed

The outward push of the gases from the burned powder creates pressure due to
the large amount of gas expanding within the shell, causing the bullet to be pushed out
of the shell.

f. Energy generated

Energy is the capacity to do work. The potential energy serves as the propellant of
the expanded gases, inasmuch as the pressure that is developed has that degree of
energy to force the projectile out of the shell. It is the measure of force in foot-pound
necessary for an action.

g. Recoil of the Gun

This is the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement
of the bullet upon explosion. The backward or rearward movement of the gun in relation
to the forward movement of the bullet may be divided into two divisions: The first,
which occurs while the bullet is still inside the barrel and which is relatively
small in intensity; and the second, which occurs just after the bullet leaves the
muzzle of the gun and this is a more violent backward impulse when the hot
gasses rush up and out of the muzzle and set against the gun.

Jump is another portion of the recoil action that is characterized as the upward
and backward movement of the gun that happens just before the bullet leaves the
muzzle.

h. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel

It is the relative speed of the bullet per unit of time while it is still inside the barrel or at
which it leaves the gun muzzle.

i. Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel

 It refers to the twist of the bullet caused by the cylindrical grooved portion of the
barrel of most firearms. In some instances, this condition may not be possible especially
when the bullet passes through a smooth bore barrel.

j.Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet

Once the bullet has passed through the barrel of any firearm be it rifled (with
cylindrical groove cut) or a smoothbore, whatever imperfections or scratches the interior
barrel of the gun has will be impressed and left on the cylindrical surface of the bullet
serving as its thumbprint. This becomes one of the most valuable marks that would
serve as its individuality.

Projectile – refers to the object that is propelled or fired from the firearm such as
bullet, shots or slug
Cartridge – Complete unit of ammunition that includes bullet, primer, gunpowder,
and primer
Ammunition - A broader term that includes cartridges or other types of
ammunition such as shotgun shells, artillery shells, rockets or grenade.

2. Exterior (external) Ballistics-treats of the attributes or movement of the projectile

after leaving the gun muzzle. It is extended from the muzzle of the gun to the target or
any attributes to the motion of the projectile while it is in its flight and before reaching
the target.

a. Muzzle Blast

It refers to the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun brought by chemical
reaction between the expanded gases and the air outside. Given that most propellant is
composed of compounds of nitrates, it produces the accompanying loud once these are
burned and mixed with the air where oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and other gaseous
maters are present.

b. Muzzle Energy

Energy generated at the muzzle point measured in foot-pound. This is attributed to the
hot gas liberating at the muzzle point.

c. Trajectory

This refers to the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time it leaves the
muzzle until it hits the target. It is also described as the actual curved path taken by a
bullet during its flight. A trajectory has three (3) stages when the bullet is fired to its
maximum range. These are: 1. Horizontal Straight Line - The straight travel or the stage
at which the bullet travels straight or maintains its accurate path (gyroscopic action); 2.
Parabola-like flight - the curving of the bullet in flight due to the gradual loss of energy,
and 3. Vertical Drop - the drop of the bullet to the ground due to its weight upon
reaching the maximum distance of its travel, where it hits nothing. The trajectory plays
an important role in the investigation of shooting incidents as it provides a reference for
the possible position of the shooter in relation to the target. This is associated with the
point of entry and exit of the bullet.

Additional Notes:

 Gyroscopic Action: The stabilizing effect of a projectile’s spin that helps

maintain its orientation and resist unwanted changes in its trajectory,
keeping it stable and on a straight path during flight.

 Yaw (Tumbling): The unstable, side-to-side rotational motion of a projectile as it

deviates from its intended flight path. It occurs when the projectile loses stability
and starts to veer left or right instead of traveling straight.

Firearm Malfunction
 Misfire - Failure of the ammunition to explode after the trigger is pulled.
 Hangfire - Delayed explosion of the ammunition after the trigger is pulled.

d. Range

The range refers to the imaginary straight distance from the muzzle of the gun to the
target.

 Accurate Range - the distance within which the shooter or gunner has control
of his shots.

 Effective Range - the distance within which a bullet is still capable of inflicting
injury after it has been fired.

 Maximum Range - the distance that a projectile can be propelled from a

firearm. The farthest distance the bullet could travel.

e. Velocity

This refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit of time, and
it is usually expressed in feet per second (ft/sec.) and measured through the use of a
chronograph machine. The velocity of a bullet fired upward has an equal velocity
downward due to the principle of the gravitational pull. They only differ in direction and
transformation. A bullet fired upward has its maximum velocity upon leaving the muzzle
and little by little loses its power and velocity as it moves upward. While the bullet that
falls downward after reaching its maximum heights has an increasing velocity as it goes
downward.

f. Pull of Gravity

This is the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth surface due to its
weight. This is based on the principle that anything that goes up must goes down.

g. Air Resistance

It is the force of the air encountered by the bullet in its flight. A slow moving object
occupies smaller space at a given time while a fast moving object occupies larger space
in just a short time. Thus, since bullet travels fast it encounters more air than a running
man.

3. Terminal Ballistics - is that branch of Ballistics that deals with the effects of the
projectile's impact on the target.

a. Terminal Accuracy

It refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target. A bullet grouping that is
bigger has a lesser chance to produce substantial damage, hence lowering its chance to
be lethal. On the other hand, the smaller the size of the bullet grouping on the target,
the more accurate and effective the shot become.

b. Terminal Energy

It is the energy or force of the projectile when it strikes the target. A bullet of a
smaller caliber has lesser energy though it penetrates greatly into the target.

c. Terminal velocity

It is the speed of the bullet once it strikes the target and penetrates it.

d. Terminal Penetration

It is the depth of the bullet's entry into the target.

4. Forensic Ballistics

This branch of ballistics is the product of the application of ballistics to law. The
idea comes with the use of the word forensic. The word Forensic was derived from the
Latin word "forum" meaning a "marketplace" where people gathered for public
disputation or public discussion.

When used in connection with the word ballistics or other natural science, it suggests a
relationship to the courts of justice or legal proceedings. Forensic Ballistics is defined as
the study of the motion of the projectile as applied to law or simply the science of
firearm identification by means of the ammunition fired through them.

SCOPE OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS

1. Field Investigation

This is the work of the first officer on the case on the field. It is primarily a routine job of
an investigating officer. Such work includes recognition, collection, markings,
preservation, packing, and transmittal of ballistics exhibits. At present, in cases of highly
sensational offense, the investigator on case seeks the assistance of the Scene of the
Crime Operation Unit (SOCO). It will be the SOCO members who will facilitate the
processing of the crime scene although everything that transpires and all that is
undertaken by the SOCO shall properly be coordinated with the investigator on case who
makes the necessary note-taking. A more comprehensive discussion of this phase will be
discussed in the later chapter of this manual.

2. Ballistics Technical Examination of the Exhibits

This phase involves the participation of the firearms identification examiner. Its scope
covers the marking of evidence, test-firing (to obtain test bullet and test shell in case a
suspected firearm is recovered), examination of ballistics exhibits using a caliper, bullet
comparison microscope and other scientific instruments, preparation of comparative
chart and reports on the findings and conclusions as regards to the examination
undertaken.

3. Legal Proceeding

This is the last and yet one of the most critical parts in the field of firearm identification.
Here the examiner has to go to court and testify as an expert witness regarding the
ballistics examination and report that he/she has prepared. It is also in this stage that
the qualification, competence and expertise of the examiner is determined and tested.