Forensic Ballistics

Introduction
The making of firearms has evolved from a simple hand cannon to highly automatic and
powerful fighting jets. In the beginning of human civilization, man studied the making of firearms for
purposes of protecting their tribes from possible invaders or colonizers. The study of the motion of
the projectile and all other conditions that could influence its mobility has become the interest of
gunsmith. Although cartridge has been in existence during the 14th century, it was only in the mid of
the 19th century that it has began to show some advances.
France and England are two of the most powerful countries that have explored the
manufacture of more powerful and sophisticated firearms. History even shows that these two
countries were the makers of the first war vessel. There is a common saying among gunsmiths and
artillerymen stating that ----"A firearm is not a gun, it's the ammunition. This is quite true in as much
as a firearm is not the one that gives power to itself. A firearm without ammunition is nothing but a
piece of tool. It is the ammunition that we load in the firearm that makes the gun powerful. For
example, when we load a .38 cartridge in a .357 magnum revolver and fire it; we did not actually fire
a magnum .357 revolver but merely a .38 revolver.
Originally, the study of Ballistics was divided into three divisions namely Interior, Exterior
and Terminal Ballistics. It was only in the 20th century when firearms evidence became a subject of
investigational interest in the form of fired bullets, cartridge cases, and gunshot wounds. As a result,
its study evolved into four (4) branches which now includes Forensic Ballistics or the Science of
Firearms Identification in addition to the three previously mentioned.
Firearms identification is one of the early forensic sciences that were given recognition and
acceptance by the courts as evidence that would aid the administration of justice most especially in
cases of shoot-out, suicides, murder, and rob-out among others.
Among the forensic science (Criminalistics) subjects, it is the Forensic Ballistics, which gains
the highest interest among students. To the law enforcement agents, gun collector, fiscals, and
judges; the identification of firearms is their concern in bringing justice to the victims of shooting
incidents.
Most of the highly sensational cases committed here and in abroad involve the use of
firearms. A number of deaths and great loss of property involves the use of firearms and explosives.
Hence, future law enforcers need to be properly guided in dealing with cases involving the use of
firearms. This manual was prepared so as to give basic knowledge of the principles and applications
of the science of firearms identification.
Chapter 1
Ballistics and its Branches
Ballistics is the science of the motion of the projectile and the condition that affects its
motion. It is a science in itself for it is an orderly arranged knowledge, which is a product of a series
of experimentation, observation and testing. It is not an exact science rather an applied physics. As
such, it is subject to changes and improvement depending upon the demands of the modern
civilization. It is apt to describe ballistics as an applied physics for it studies the motions of the
projectile such as its velocity, trajectory, approximate range, power, resistance to air and other
circumstances that affects its travel. Initially, the study of ballistics was not designed for firearms
identification rather it was earlier studied mainly for firearm manufacture, that is, for industrial
applications. Gun makers continuously study and innovate on how to effectively propel a projectile
through the use of firearms from an ordinary single shot to an automatic one. It was only later that its
significance in determining cases through the identification of ammunition that ballistics was finally
applied in the administration of justice on cases involving firearms.
Motion refers to the mobility or movement of the projectile from the time it leaves the empty
shell; it leaves the gun muzzle and until it reaches its target or falls on the ground. A projectile is a
generic term which refers to any metallic or non-metallic ball that is propelled from a firearm.
Technically, all projectile propels from a small arm is called bullets with the exemption of a shotgun
projectile which is referred to as shots or pellets. To the policemen, the term bullets are commonly
referred to as slugs. In artillery firearms, projectiles that are too big and even designed for explosions
are aptly called missiles. Bullet motion can be categorized into three (3) general types: Direct
motion, Rotatory motion and Translational Motion.
Three (3) Types of Motion in Projectile
1. Direct Motion - is the forward motion of the bullet or shots out of the shell by the action of the
expansive force of gases from a burning gunpowder.
2. Rotatory motion - is the action of the bullet passing through a rifled bore barrel firearm which is
either twisted to the left or to the right.
3. Translational = is the action of bullet once it hits an object or the target and subsequently
ricocheted (changes in motion).
The word Ballistics is derived from two Greek words; the word "ballo" and the word
"ballein". Both of these Greek etymological roots literally mean "to throw". The term was also said
to have been derived from the Roman war machine called "Ballista", a gigantic catapult that was
used to hurl missiles or large objects like stones, dead animals or even dead persons at a distance.
Branches of Ballistics
The study of Ballistics was initially divided into (3) three Divisions: Internal Ballistics,
Exterior or External Ballistics and Terminal Ballistics. These encompass the time from which the
bullet is fired from the gun until it reaches the target and has its maximum effect.
Due to the current application of Ballistics in solving cases involving the use of firearms and
ammunitions, a fourth branch has emerged, namely, Forensic Ballistics.
At present, these branches are divided as follows:
1. Interior (Internal) Ballistics = is that branch of ballistics which treats of the motion of the
projectile while it is still inside the firearm (chamber /barrel) which extends from the breech to the
muzzle. The conditions attributed to internal ballistics are as follows:
a. Firing pin hitting the primer
Upon the squeeze of the trigger, the hammer will be released which causes the firing
pin to be pushed and hit the base portion of the cartridge where the primer is located.
b. Ignition of the priming mixture (Percussion action)
The priming mixture (composing of the KCLO3, sulfur and carbon) located either at
the cavity rim or at the center of the primer upon the striking effect of the firing pin will
ignite and such action is known as "Percussion Action".
c. Combustion of the gun powder/powder charge or propellant.
After the ignition of the priming mixture, the ignition is imparted to the gunpowder
by passing through the vent or flash hole, thus burning the gun powder and converts it into an
expanded hot gas.
d. Expansion of heated gas.
 Once burned, the charged powder is converted into a heated gas, and due to a more
elastic property of gases, its particles will spread and fill the entire container (cartridge
case/shell).
e. Pressure developed
The outward push of the gases to the burned powder pressure is developed due to the
great amount of gas that is expanding within the shell causing the withdrawal of the bullet
from the shell.
f. Energy generated
Energy is the capacity to do work. The potential energy serves as the propellant of the
expanded gases, inasmuch as the pressure that is developed has that degree of energy to force
the projectile out of the shell. It is the measure of force in foot-pound necessary for an action.
g. Recoil of the Gun
This is the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement of
the bullet upon explosion. The backward or rearward movement of the gun in relation to the
forward movement of the bullet may be divided into two divisions: The first, which occurs
while the bullet is still inside the barrel and which is relatively small in intensity; and the
second, which occurs just after the bullet leaves the muzzle of the gun and this is a more
violent backward impulse when the hot gasses rush up and out of the muzzle and set against
the gun. Another reason and which is of greatest influence in the recoil of the gun is the firing
mechanism of the gun. These mechanisms are generally categorized as: the blow back type,
the gas operated, and the recoil operated, or a combination of gas and recoil operated. Among
this firing mechanism, the blow back type has the lesser recoil and this can be observed in
firing a pistol.
Jump is another portion of the recoil action that is characterized as the backward and
upward movement takes place before the bullet leaves the muzzle.
h. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel
It is the relative speed of the bullet per unit of time while is still inside the barrel or at
which it leaves the gun muzzle.
i.Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel
It refers to the twist of the bullet caused by the cylindrical grooved portion of the
barrel of most firearms. In some instance, this condition may not be possible especially when
the bullet passes through a smooth bore barrel.
j. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet
Once the bullet has passed through the barrel of any firearm be rifled (with
cylindrical groove cut) or a smooth bore, whatever imperfections or scratches the interior
barrel of the gun has will be impressed and left on the cylindrical surface of the bullet serving
as its thumbprint. This becomes one of the most valuable marks that would serve as its
individuality.
2. Exterior (external) Ballistics - treats of the attributes or movement the projectile after leaving the
gun muzzle. is extended from the muzzle the gun to the target or any attributes to the motion of the
projectile while is in its flight and before reaching the target.
a. Muzzle Blast
It refers to the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun brought by chemical
reaction between the expanded gases and the air outside. Given that most propellant is
composed of compounds of nitrates, it produces the accompanying loud once these are
burned and mixed with the air where oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and other gaseous me maters
are present.
b. Muzzle Energy
Energy generated at the muzzle point measured in foot-pound. This is attributed to
the hot gas liberating at the mill to muzzle point.
c. Trajectory
This refers to the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time it leaves the
muzzle until it hits the target. It is also described as the actual curve path taken by a bullet
during its flight. A trajectory has three (3) stages when bullet is fired to its maximum range.
These are: The straight travel or the stage at which the bullet travel straight or maintain its
accurate travel (gyroscopic action), the curving of the bullet in flight due to the gradual loss
of its energy, and the drop of the bullet to the ground due to its weight and upon reaching the
maximum distance of its travel and it hits nothing. The trajectory plays an important role in
the investigation of shooting incidents for it gives reference to the possible position of the
shooter in relation to the target This is associated to the point of entry and exit of the bullet.

d. Range - The range refers to the imaginary straight distance from the muzzle of the gun to the
target.
  Accurate Range - the distance within which the shooter or gunner has control of his
shots.
 Effective Range - the distance within which a bullet is still capable of inflicting injury
after it has been fired.
 Maximum Range - the distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm. The
farthest distance the bullet could travel.
e. Velocity - This refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit of time, and it is
usually expressed in feet per second (ft/sec.) and measured through the use of a chronograph
machine. The velocity of a bullet fired upward has an equal velocity downward due to the principle
of the gravitational pull. They only differ in direction and transformation. A bullet fired upward has
its maximum velocity upon leaving the muzzle and little by little loses its power and velocity as it
moves upward. While the bullet that falls downward after reaching its maximum heights has an
increasing velocity as it goes downward.
f. Pull of Gravity - This is the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth surface due to its
weight. This is based on the principle that anything that goes up must goes down.
g. Air Resistance - It is the force of the air encountered by the bullet in its flight. A slow
moving object occupies smaller space at a given time while a fast moving object occupies larger
space in just a short time. Thus, since bullet travels fast it encounters more air than a running man.
3. Terminal Ballistics - is that branch of Ballistics that deals with the effects of the projectile's
impact on the target.
a. Terminal Accuracy
It refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target. A bullet grouping that is
bigger has a lesser chance to produce substantial damage, hence lowering its chance to be
lethal. On the other hand, the smaller the size of the bullet grouping on the target, the more
accurate and effective the shot become.
b. Terminal Energy
It is the energy or force of the projectile when it strikes the target. A bullet of a
smaller caliber has lesser energy though it penetrates greatly into the target.
c. Terminal velocity
It is the speed of the bullet once it strikes the target and penetrates it.
d. Terminal Penetration
It is the depth of the bullet's entry into the target.
4. Forensic Ballistics
This branch of ballistics is the product the application of the ballistics to law. The idea comes
with the use of the word forensic. The word Forensic was derived from the Latin word "forum"
meaning a "market place" where people gathered for public disputation or public discussion.
When used in connection with the word ballistics or other natural science, it suggests a
relationship to the courts of justice or legal proceedings. Forensic Ballistics is defined as the study of
the motion of the projectile as applied to law or simply the science of firearm identification by means
of the ammunition fired through them.
SCOPE OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS
1. Field Investigation
This is the work of the first officer on the case on the field. It is primarily a routine job of an
investigating officer. Such work includes recognition, collection, markings, preservation, packing
and transmittal of ballistics exhibits. At present, in cases of highly sensational offense, the
investigator on case seeks the assistance of the Scene of the Crime Operation Unit (SOCO). It will be
the SOCO members who will facilitate the processing of the crime scene although everything that
transpires and all that is undertaken by the SOCO shall properly be coordinated with the investigator
on case who makes the necessary note taking. A more comprehensive discussion of this phase will be
discussed in the later chapter of this manual.
2. Ballistics Technical Examination of the Exhibits
This phase involves the participation of the firearms identification examiner. Its scope covers
the marking of evidences, test-firing (to obtain test bullet and test shell in case a suspected firearm is
recovered), examination of ballistics exhibits using caliper, bullet comparison microscope and other
scientific instruments, preparation of comparative chart and reports on the findings and conclusions
as regards to the examination undertaken.
3. Legal Proceeding
This is the last and yet one of the most critical part in the field of firearm identification. Here
the examiner has to go to court and testify as an expert witness regarding the ballistics examination
and report that he/she has prepared. It is also in this stage that the qualification and competence and
expertise of the examiner is determined and tested.

Chapter 2
The Evolution of Firearms
MAN BEHIND FIREARMS
John M. Browning - Wizard of the modern firearms and pioneered the breech loading single shot
rifle that was adopted by Winchester.

John M. Browning and His gun

Samuel Colt - Patented the first practical revolver and maker of the Colt Peace Maker, one of the
most famous revolvers in history.
 The Peace Maker
Alexander John Forsyth - Father of the percussion powder. He successfully invented the priming
mixture and caused the integration of the primer, bullet, gunpowder and shell into one unit.

Major Uziel Gal - An Israeli army who designed the UZI (Israel) in the year 1950. Figure 6 Uzi
firearm.

Uzi Firearm
Col. Calvin H. Goddard - Father of modern Ballistics. He is the man who first utilized the bullet
comparison microscope to prove the identity of a fired bullet through comparison with a test bullet.
John C. Garand - Designed and invented the Semi-automatic U.S. Rifle Cal. 30 M1 garand.

Caliber 30 M-1 Garand

George Hyde-A well-known expert in the field of SMG, (also known as grease gun) developed in
1941. M3A1 (USA).

Sub-Machine Gun
Michael Kalashnikov - Designed the AK (Automat Kalashnikova) 47 (Soviet Union) adopted by the
Russian Army in the year 1951.

Automat Kalashinokova Caliber.47

George Luger - Designed the Luger MP08 (Germany).
John Wolfe Marlin - Founder of the Marlin Firearms company.
Peter Paul Mauser - Invented and designed the Mauser M1912 (Germany).
James Wolfe Rifley- Stimulated the development of the model 1855 rifle-musket.
Eliphalet Remington - One of the early rifle makers.
Elisha King Root - Designed the machinery for making Colt firearms.
Horace Smith - Founded the great firm of Smith and Wesson and pioneered the making of breech
loading rifles.
Eugene Stoner - Designed the U.S. M16 Armalite under licensed by Colt Company from July 1959
onwards.

Rifles
L.C. Smith - Developed the shotgun bearing his name and is now known as the Ithaca gun
Company.
John T. Thompson - Developed in the course of WW1 the Thompson M1A1 and the 1928 model of
the A1 (USA). He pioneered the making of the Thompson sub-machine gun.

Thompson firearms
Daniel B. Wesson - the partner of Horace Smith in the making of the famous revolver bearing their
names.
David "Carbine" Williams - Maker of the first known Carbine.
Oliver Winchester - One of the earliest rifle and pistol makers.
IMPORTANT DATES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF FIREARMS
1242 A.D.
Roger Bacon published the "De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae" (On the Marvelous Power of
Arts and Nature), which noted the black powder formula.
1200
Roman Candle. A hallow tube, strengthened with wire or shrunken rawhide, and loaded with
alternate charges of powder and balls of tallow wrapped in cloth. It is ignited at the muzzle. It is said
that the Chinese used the Roman Candle as early as the mid-1200's.
1326 AD
The oldest authenticated illustration of gun powderused to hurl projectile in cannons was
demonstrated in Walter de Millemete's manuscript. In the same period "the metrical life of Robert the
Bruce" by John Barbour also indicates the use of cannon by Edward III at Crecy, although this is not
completely authenticated.
1343 AD
Cannon locks were used in the military as depicted in the Italian Frescoes by Neri.
1390
Codex Germanicus 600- Translates directions for preparation of gun powder. This provides
instructions on how to load the gun and discharge them.
1450
The evolution of the Match Lock ignition.
1450-1500
Serpentine Lock was used to modify the conventional match lock, using the S-shaped instead of C-
shaped piece with the bottom portion serving the trigger.
1469
A drawing from an English manuscript shows a "ribauldegium", a multi charged cannon lock
weapon.
1498
More improved rifling and sights were introduced, and breech loaders were attempted although they
never succeeded. Nevertheless, even multi-shot arms did not also succeed due to the absence of a
good ignition system.
1500's
The development of the Wheel lock, which operates in the same principle as the modern day
cigarette lighter. In the mid- 1500's, "snaphaunce" was developed.
1575
Paper Cartridge was developed. Ball and powder charged were wrapped in chemically treated
paper to allow the carrying of numerous pre-measured charges or pre-loaded rounds.
1750
The development of Breech-loading firearms leading to the making of the Ferguson Rifle of Major
Patrick Ferguson; the development of the COLLIER Rifle, which is a flint lock repeating rifle
operated on a revolving principle and, as well as the HALL Rifle patented in 1811 by Co. John Hall
and was the 1" breechloader adopted by the U.S. Army.
1805
The Percussion System Alexander John Forsyth discovered a compound that would ignite when it is
blown, thus igniting the powder charge. In 1840, it replaced the flintlock ignition and was adopted in
1838 by the British and in 1842 by the Americans.
1835
The first real cartridge was developed "The Flobert Cap" same as the BB and was considered the
forerunner of the 22 short cartridge.
1835
Samuel Colt patented the first revolver and marketed in 1872, it is a breech loading revolver.
1836
The Pin fire Cartridge was developed by Le Faucheux. A much real pin fire cartridge was also
developed in the same year by Houiller.
1845
Rim fire cartridge, Flobert developed the BB (bullet breech) cap, which was considered the
forerunner of the 22 cal cartridge. In the same year, New Havens Arms Company owned by Oliver F
Winchester, through the effort of Tyler Henry developed a 44 cal rim fire cartridge for Henry Rifle.
1846
The Smokeless powder was discovered. It was used first in the shotgun in the year 1864 by Capt.
Schultze of the Prussian Army and in Rifle by the year 1884 by M. Vieille of France.
1857
The first patent on a center fire cartridge was issued in France. The Snider conversation and the
Morse cartridge were also developed.
1873
Colt Peace Maker, model 1873, .45 cal. the most famous revolver in history and legend was
manufactured.
1884
Hiram Maxim developed the first fully automatic machine gun.
1937
M1 Garand was adopted by the American.
1960
Bill Ruger produced his Ruger Single Shot, which was followed by Clerke's design and Christian
Sharp's dropping block system, one of the earliest and most successful of the breech loading
designs. The Christian Sharp's design is where the term "sharpshooters" was derived.