Regulation 2017 Academic year: 2021-2022

IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ECE
EC8701 - ANTENNAS AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING
UNIT V MICROWAVE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
STUDY MATERIAL

Impedance transformation, Impedance Matching, Microwave Filter Design, RF and Microwave

Amplifier Design, Microwave Power amplifier Design, Low Noise Amplifier Design, Microwave Mixer
Design, Microwave Oscillator Design

5.1 IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION

5.1.1 Broadband Matching - Quarter-wave impedance Transformers

• Quarter-wave transformers are primarily used as intermediate matching sections when it is

required to connect to waveguiding systems of different characteristics impedance. To obtain
good match over a broad band of frequencies multiple quarter –wave section is commonly
used
𝜋
• Consider a line of electrical wave length 𝛽𝑙 = 2 of characteristics impedance 𝑍2 is connected
to a load impedance 𝑍3 as shown in Fig. 5.1.

Figure 5.1 – Quarter wave transformer

• The effective input impedance of line is given as

𝑍3+𝑗𝑍2 tan 𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍2 .𝑍 5.1
2 +𝑗𝑍3 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑙

𝑍2
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍2 5.2
3

The 𝑍𝑖𝑛 is matched to the generator of impedance 𝑍1 = 𝑍𝑖𝑛 , therefore

𝑍2= √𝑍𝑖𝑛 𝑍3 5.3

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𝑍2= √𝑍1 𝑍3 5.4

• By inserting a section of transmission line of length l =λ/4 with characteristic impedance

√𝑍1 𝑍3 , generator impedance 𝑍1 can be matched to load impedance 𝑍3 . The matching section is
known as quarter-wave transformer as shown in Fig. 5.2.

Figure 5.2 - Single section quarter-wave transformer.

• A multi-section quarter-wave transformer can provide better impedance matching with

characteristic impedance equal to square root of either side sections.

Figure 5.3 – Multi-section quarter-wave transformer.

5.1.2 Frequency Response of Quarter - Transformer

• A single section quarter-wave transformer can provide perfect matching at single frequency
response of a quarter-wave transformer its electrical length is considered at some other
frequency
Let electrical length = 𝛽𝑙=𝜃
Let impedance = 𝑍1
Load impedance = 𝑍3
Line characteristic impedance = 𝑍2

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Then the reflection coefficient

𝑍 −𝑍
Γ =𝑍𝑖𝑛 +𝑍1 5.5
𝑖𝑛 1

|𝑍𝐿 −𝑍1 |
|𝛤| = 5.6
[(𝑍𝐿 +𝑍1 )2 +4𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃𝑍1 𝑍𝐿 ]1/2

1
|𝛤| = 2 1/2
5.7
2√𝑍1 𝑍𝐿
[1+( 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝜃) ]
𝑍𝐿 −𝑍1

|𝑍𝐿 −𝑍1 |
|𝛤| = |𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃| 5.8
2√𝑍1 𝑍𝐿

For 𝜃 = 0

|𝑍𝐿 −𝑍1 |
|𝛤| = 5.9
2√𝑍1 𝑍𝐿
For 𝜃 = 𝜋/2

|𝛤| = 0 5.10

• A plot of |Γ| versus 𝜃 is shows in Fig 5.4 this is essentially a plot of |r| versus frequency.

Figure 5.4 – Response of single section quarter-wave transformer

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• The variation of |Γ| with frequency (or 𝜃) is periodic due to periodic variation of input
impedance with frequency i.e., the impedance repeats its value every time the electrical length
of transformer changes by 𝜋.

• If |𝑟𝑚 | is the maximum value of reflection coefficient that can be tolerated. The useful
bandwidth of transformer is corresponding to range ∆𝜃. Because of rapidly varying |r| on
𝜋
either side of 𝜃 = 2 , the useful bandwidth is small.

For |𝛤| = |𝛤𝑚 |

2|𝛤𝑚 |√(𝑍1 𝑍𝐿 )
𝜃𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 | | 5.11
(𝑍𝐿 −𝑍1 )√(1−|𝛤𝑚 |)2

For TEM wave,

𝑓 𝜋
𝜃 = 𝛽𝑙 = (𝑓 ) (2 ) 5.12
0

𝜋
Where 𝑓0 is the frequency for which 𝜃 = 2
In this case the bandwidth of single section transformer is
∆𝑓 = 2 (𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑚 ) 5.13

2𝑓0
∆𝑓 = 2 (𝑓0 − 𝜃𝑚 ) 5.14
𝜋

The fraction bandwidth is given as

∆𝑓 4 2|𝛤𝑚 |√𝑍1 𝑍𝐿
= 2 − 𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 | | 5.15
𝑓0 (𝑍𝐿 −𝑍1 )√(1−|𝛤𝑚 |2

5.1.3 Realization of waveguide impedance transformer

• Waveguide impedance transformer of both elecrtic and magnetic plane can be designed. Fig.
5.5 shows realization of waveguide transformers for H-plane .
• For H-plane quarter-wave waveguid transformer, the waveguid walldimeter

𝑏
𝑏2 = √𝑏1 5.16
3

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Figure 5.5 - Quarter-wave waveguide transformer.

For E- plane waveguide transformer

(𝑎1 𝑎3 )
𝑎2 = 𝜆𝑔2 √(𝜆 5.17
𝑔1 𝜆𝑔3 )

Where 𝜆𝑔1 , 𝜆𝑔2 , 𝜆𝑔3 are guide wavelengths of transformers.

5.2 IMPEDANCE MATCHING

5.2.1 Impedance Matching Device

• The design of impedance matching networks is an important part of microwave

engineering. A microwave system comprises of transmission lines and devices, each
has their own characteristic impedances. In order to transfer maximum power to the
subsequent circuits, impedance matching is must otherwise reflection from load will
occur and power will be waste, reducing transmission efficiency.
• In a mismatch impedance the reactive component should be cancelled and the real
part should be transformed to 𝑧0

5.2.2 Condition for Impedance Matching

• Consider a uniform lossless transmission line having characteristic impedance 𝑍0 .

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Figure 5.6- transmission line

Sending end Parameters Load end parameters

V(0)=Vs V(l) = 𝑉𝑟

I(0) = 𝑰𝒔 I(l)=𝑰𝒓

Table 1.1- Sending end parameters VS; Load end parameters

• For terminating impedance, 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 +jxL

𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟 cos 𝛽𝑙 +j𝐼𝑟 𝑍0 sin 𝛽𝑙 5.18

𝑉
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟 cos 𝛽𝑙 + j𝑍𝑟 sin 𝛽𝑙 5.19
0

𝑍0𝑋𝐿 𝑍0 𝑅𝐿
|𝑉𝑠 | = |𝑉𝑟 |[(cos 𝛽𝑙 + sin 𝛽𝑙)2 + ( sin 𝛽𝑙)2 ]1/2 5.20
𝑍𝐿2 𝑍𝐿2

𝑋𝐿 𝑅
|𝐼𝑠 | = |𝐼𝑠 |[(cos 𝛽𝑙 + sin 𝛽𝑙)2 + ( 𝑍𝐿 sin 𝛽𝑙)2 ]1/2 5.21
𝑍0 0

• When 𝑋𝐿 = 0 and 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0 ; if these values are substituted in above expressions, then it

is concluded that the line is matched to produce uniform magnitudes of voltage and current
throughout the line.

• This shows that the reactive component of the mismatched should be cancelled by a suitable
element and the real part of the mismatched impedance should be transformed to 𝑍0 .

5.2.3 Narrowband Matching

Impedance matching over to narrowband of frequencies can be implemented by inserting

reactive elements between two mismatched impedances.

The narrowband impedance matching shunt reactive elements e.g. – tuning screw, reactive
irises and stub matching.
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5.2.4 Waveguide Irises /Window

• Irises are fixed or adjustable projections from the walls of wave guide. Irises are also known
as windows or diaphragms. Irises offers inductive, capacitive reactance across the rectangular
guide. Fig. 5.7 shows various types of irises available in rectangular waveguide.
• When a dominant wave is incident on such structure, higher order waves are excited in order
to satisfy boundary condition of zero tangential electric field on irises. These higher order
modes die down at a distance less than 𝛌/4 and store reactive energy.
• Depending on the type of energy inductive or capacitive characteristics may be obtained,
when magnetic energy is stored resulting in inductive characteristics and when electric
energy is stored results in capacitive characteristics.
• The normalized susceptance of the irises is varying with the iris’s dimensions.
• The reactive impedances are used to cancel the opposite reactance in the mismatched load.
Hence, they can be used as impedance matching element.

(a)

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(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 5.7 - Types of Irises in Rectangular Waveguide

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5.2.5 Tuning Screws

• In some microwaves applications variable susceptance is required. Tuning screws are used
for having adjustable susceptance. A screw is inserted into the top or bottom of the waveguide
i.e., parallel to E-field. A screw of length less than quarter wavelength produces an effective
capacitive susceptance. The value of susceptance increases with depth of penetration. Fig. 5.8
shows tuning screw arrangement in waveguide.

Fig 5.8 - Tuning Screw

• When the depth of penetration is approximately a quarter wavelength the screw produces
series resonant and further insertion causes the susceptance to become inductive. The
sharpness of resonance is an inverse function of screw diameter. The dimension is of
waveguide is too small to allow the use of screws to produce a wide range of inductive
susceptance.
• A curve of normalized screw susceptance versus depth of insertion is shown in the Fig. 5.9.

Figure 5.9 - Normalized screw susceptance as a function of insertion distance

• The disadvantage of screw tuning is the requirement of a slot in the wall of the waveguide.

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5.2.6. Stub Matching in Lossless Lines

For a lossless line of length l can have a wide range of inductive and capacitive reactance. The
impedance of an open circuit line is given as a function of cot 𝛽𝑙 and the impedance of short circuit
line is given as a Function of tan 𝛽𝑙. Fig.5.10 shows variation of reactance for open circuited and
short-circuited line

• By choosing proper length of open circuit and short circuit any value of reactance can be
obtained. The short circuit sections of transmission lines, when used as reactive elements for
impedance matching it is referred as stub matching. The principles involved are general in
nature and may be applied to any transmission system by substituting suitable shunt or series
reactive elements for the transmission-line stubs.

Figure 5.10 Reactance for OC and SC line

5.2.7. Single Stub Matching

• Series Stub
• Let a pure conductive load 𝑌̅𝐿 = 𝐺̅ is to match by using single stub, then the stub impedance is
in parallel with load impedance as shown in Fig. 5.11.

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Figure 5.11 Single Stub matching

• At some point a distance 𝑑0 from the load, the normalized input admittance is,

̅̅̅̅
𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 1 + j𝐵̅ 5.22

At this point a stub with normalized input susceptance –j 𝐵̅ is connected across the line to give,

̅̅̅̅
𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 1 + j𝐵̅ - j𝐵̅ = 1 (matched condition) 5.23

• The stub can be open circuited or short-circuited section of line. The short-circuited stub is
most commonly used version of two-wire lines, co-axial line and waveguide because of ease in
adjustment and better mechanical rigidity.

• The position of 𝑑0 is given as

𝜆 𝐺̅ −1
𝑑0 = 4𝜋 cos −1 [̅̅̅̅̅̅ ] Assuming pure conductive load 5.24
𝐺+1

The required length 𝑙0 of a short circuit stub to give an input susceptance -j𝐵̅ is given by

𝜆 √𝐺̅
𝑙0 = tan−1 5.25
2𝜋 1−𝐺̅

Where the sign of √𝐺̅ is chosen so as to give correct sign for 𝐵̅.
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
If 0<𝑑0 <4 then positive square root is used and if 4<𝑑0 <2 is chosen, negative square root is used.

• When load 𝑌̅𝐿 is complex, then firstly the position of voltage minima from load is located. At
this point the reflection coefficient is a negative real quality and the input admittance is pure
real.

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1−⌈ 1+𝜌
𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 1+⌈ = 1−𝜌 = S 5.26

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 S is standing wave ratio on the line.

• Let 𝑑0 be the distance from this voltage minima to the point where ̅̅̅̅
𝑌𝑖𝑛 = 1 +j𝐵̅ . Fig 5.12
shows location of stub relating to voltage minima.

• The expression for 𝑑0 and 𝑙0 can be found by replacing 𝐺̅ by S in expression

𝜆 𝑆−1
𝑑0 = 4𝜋 cos −1 𝑆+1 5.27

𝜆 √𝑆
𝑙0 = 2𝜋 tan−1 𝑆−1 5.28

Figure 5.12 – stub relating to voltage minima

• The shunt stub is most suitable for co-axial lines as it is easy to construct.
1
• At the position of a voltage minimum, input impedance 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑆. At some position 𝑑0 from this
point 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 1+jx. By connecting a stub with a normalized input impedance of ∓jx in series
with the line at this point, the resultant input impedance is reduced to unity and match
condition can be obtained. The series stub matching is shown in Fig 5.13.
• The position of 𝑑0 for series stub is given as
𝜆 1−𝑠
𝑑0 = 4𝜋 cos −1 1+𝑠 5.29
• The length of series stub 𝑙0 is given as
𝜆 1−𝑠
𝑙0 = 2𝜋 tan−1 5.30
√𝑆

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Figure 5.13 - Series stub matching

• The series stub is difficult to build as compared to shunt stub or coaxial lines but it is
convenient for waveguide and strip line circuits.
Disadvantages of single stub
• For every load a new stub position is required.
• Also, the exact position of stub is practically difficult to find.

5.2.8 Double Stub Matching

• Double stub matching network is shown in Fig 5.14

Figure 5.14 - Double stub matching

• Smith chart is used for designing double stub for a given load impedance and VSWR. Stub 1
adds susceptance and the stub 2 cancels the susceptance and provides matching.
• Limitation of double stub system is that it cannot match all impedance i.e., matching
conditions cannot be satisfied.

5.3 MICROWAVE FILTER DESIGN

5.3.1 FILTER DESIGN BY THE INSERTION LOSS METHOD

Characterization by Power Loss Ratio: In the insertion loss method, a filter response is defined by
its insertion loss, or power loss ratio, PLR is given by,

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𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑃 1

𝑃𝐿𝑅 = = 𝑃 𝑖𝑛𝑐 = 1−|Γ(ω)|2 5.31
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

Observe that this quantity is the reciprocal of |S12|2 if both load and source are matched. The
insertion loss (IL) in dB is

IL = 10 log PLR. 5.32

we know that |𝛤(𝜔)2 is an even function of ω; therefore, it can be expressed as a polynomial in ω2.
Thus, we can write
𝑀(ω2 )
|Γ(ω)|2 = 5.33
𝑀(ω2 )−𝑁(ω2 )

where M and N are real polynomials in ω2. Substituting this form in (2.30) gives the following:
𝑀(ω2 )
𝑃𝐿𝑅 = 1 + 5.34
𝑁(ω2 )

For a filter to be physically realizable its power loss ratio must be of the form in (5.34). Notice that
specifying the power loss ratio simultaneously constrains the magnitude of the reflection coefficient,
|_(ω)|. We now discuss some practical filter responses. Maximally flat: This characteristic is also
called the binomial or Butterworth response, and is optimum in the sense that it provides the flattest
possible passband response for a given filter complexity, or order. For a low-pass filter, it is specified
by
𝑀 2𝑁
𝑃𝐿𝑅 = 1 + 𝐾 2 ( ) 5.35
𝜔𝑐

where N is the order of the filter and ωc is the cutoff frequency.

Equal ripple: If a Chebyshev polynomial is used to specify the insertion loss of an Nth order low-pass
filter as PLR.
𝜔
𝑃𝐿𝑅 = 1 + 𝐾 2 𝑇𝑁2 (𝜔 ) 5.36
𝑐

then a sharper cutoff will result, although the passband response will have ripples of amplitude1 +
k2, as shown in Figure 5.15, since TN (x) oscillates between ±1 for |x|21. Thus,

Figure 5.15 Maximally flat and equal-ripple low-pass filter responses (N = 3).
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1
k2 determines the passband ripple level. For large x, 𝑇𝑁 (𝑥) ≃ 2 (2𝑥)𝑁 , so for ω>>ωc the insertion loss
becomes
𝐾2 2𝜔 2𝑁
𝑃𝐿𝑅 ≃ (𝜔 ) 5.37
4 𝑐

which also increases at the rate of 20N dB/decade. However, the insertion loss for the Chebyshev
case is (22N)/4 greater than the binomial response at any given frequency where ω>>ωc.

A linear phase characteristic can be achieved with the following phase response:
𝜔 2𝑁
𝜙(𝜔) = 𝐴𝜔 [1 + 𝑝 (𝜔 ) ] 5.38
𝑐

where φ(ω) is the phase of the voltage transfer function of the filter, and p is a constant. A related
quantity is the group delay, defined as
𝑑𝜙 𝜔 2𝑁
𝜏𝑑 = 𝑑𝜔 = 𝐴 [1 + 𝑝(2𝑁 + 1) (𝜔 ) ] 5.39
𝑐

Figure 5.16 The process of filter design by the insertion loss method.

For arbitrary frequency, impedance, and type (low-pass, high-pass, bandpass, or band stop). The
low-pass prototypes are then scaled to the desired frequency and impedance, and the lumped-
element components replaced with distributed circuit elements for implementation at microwave
frequencies. This design process is illustrated in Figure 5.16.
5.4 RF AND MICROWAVE AMPLIFIER DESIGN

5.4.1. Amplifier Power Relations - RF Source:

The source and load impedance. The amplifier circuit is than reduced and shown in Fig.5.18. A
general single-stage amplifier with two matching networks at input and output is shown in Fig. 5.17.
Assuming in terms of power flow relations, the two matching networks are included in. A general
single-stage amplifier with two matching networks at input and output is shown in Fig. 5.17.

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Assuming in terms of power flow relations, the two matching networks are included in.

Figure 5.17. General amplifier system

Figure 5.18 Simplified diagram of single stage amplifier

Incident power:
• The incident power associated with 𝑏′1 is given by
1 𝑍 |𝑉 |2
0
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑐 = 2 . (𝑍 +𝑍 . 𝑠
5.40
𝑠 ) |1−Γ
0 in Γs |

• The actual input power 𝑃𝑖𝑛 is comprises of incident and reflected power waves.

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑐 (1 − |Γ𝑖𝑛 |2 ) 5.41

Available power:
Maximum power transfer condition exists when input impedance is complex conjugate
matched with source impedance i.e. 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍𝑠∗

The maximum power transfer condition can also be expressed can be also expressed in
terms of reflection coefficient as Γ𝑖𝑛 = Γs∗

The available power is given as-

𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 |Γ𝑖𝑛=Γ∗𝑠 5.42

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1 |𝑏 |2 1 − |Γ𝑖𝑛 |2
𝑃𝐴 = 2 . |1−Γ 𝑠 Γ |Γ = Γ𝑠∗ . (
|2 𝑖𝑛
) 5.43
in s

1 |𝑏 |2
𝑃𝐴 = 2 . 1−|Γ𝑠 2 5.44
𝑠|

From the expression it is conducted that available power is dependent on Γ𝑠 . 𝐼𝑓 Γ𝑖𝑛 = 0 and Γ𝑠 ≠ 0
then
|𝑏𝑠 |2
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑐 = 5.45
2

5.4.2 Transducer Power Gain

The gain of amplifier when placed between source and load is called transducer power gain
(𝐺𝑇 ). It is computed as
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑃 )
𝐺𝑇 =𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝑃
𝐿
5.46
𝐴)

The power delivered to the load is the resultant of the power incident at the load minus
power reflected from the load.

The transducer power gain is expressed as

(1−|Γ𝐿 |2 ).|𝑆21 |2 (1−|Γ𝑆 |2 ).

𝐺𝑇 = |1−Γ𝐿 Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 |2 . |1−𝑆11 Γ𝑠 |2
5.47

Unilateral Power Gain (𝑮𝑻𝑼 ) (|𝑺𝟏𝟐 |𝟐 = 𝟎)

The amplifier power gain when feedback effect of simplifier is neglected i.e.,𝑆12 = 0 , it is called
unilateral power gain.
(1−|Γ𝐿 |2 ).|𝑆21 |2 (1−|Γ𝑆 |2 ).
𝐺𝑇𝑈 = |1−Γ𝐿 S22 |2 . |1−𝑆11 Γ𝑠 |2
5.48

The unilateral transducer power gain 𝐺𝑇𝑈 is the forward gain in a feedback amplifier having its
reverse power gain set to zero (|𝑆12 |2 = 0) by adjusting lossless reciprocal feedback network
connected around the microwave amplifier.

1) Matched Transducer Power Gain (𝚪𝒔 = 𝚪𝒆 = 𝟎)

When both the input and output networks are perfectly matched to the source impedance and the
load impedance, respectively, the transducer power gain is given by-
𝐺𝑇𝑀 = |𝑆21 |2 5.49
2) Maximum Unilateral Transducer Power Gain
The maximum unilateral transducer power gain is obtained when
Γ𝑠 = 𝑆 ∗11 and Γ𝑒 = 𝑆 ∗ 22 5.50

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5.4.3. Additional Power Relations

Available Power Gain ( 𝑮𝑨 ):

The available power gain for load side matching (Γ𝐿 = Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡
∗
) is gives as-
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐺𝑇
G𝐴 = = ∗
⁄Γ = Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 5.51
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 L

|𝑆 |2 .(1−|Γ𝑠 |2 )
G𝐴 = (1−|Γ21 2 ).|1−𝑆 .Γ |2
5.52
𝑜𝑢𝑡 | 11 𝑠

Operating Power Gain(G)

The operating power gain or power gain is defined as the ratio of power delivered to load to the
power supplied to the amplifier.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
G =𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 5.53

𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
G = 𝑃 𝑖 = 𝑃𝐿 . 𝑃 𝐴 5.54
𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑖𝑛

𝑃
= G𝑇 . 𝑃 𝐴 5.55
𝑖𝑛

(1−|Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 |2 ) .|𝑆21 |2 .
G = (1−|Γ 2 2
5.56
𝑖𝑛 | ).|1−𝑆11 .Γ𝑠 |

Stability Considerations

The stability of an amplifier is a very important considerations in microwave circuit design. There
are two types of stability.

1) Conditional Stability
A network is conditionally stable if the real part of the input impedance 𝑧𝑖𝑛 and output impedance
𝑧𝑜𝑢𝑡 is greater than zero for some positive real source and load impedances at a specific at a specific
frequency.
2) Unconditional Stability
A network is unconditionally stable if the real part of input impedance 𝑧𝑖𝑛 and output impedance
𝑧𝑜𝑢𝑡 is greater than zero for some positive real source and load impedances at a specific at a specific
frequency.

5.4.4. Stability Circles

• An amplifier must be stable for specified range of frequencies. Usually, the amplifier tends to
oscillate depending on operating frequency and load (termination).

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1. If |Γ0 | >1 ; then return voltage increases in magnitude called positive feedback, which causes
instability.
2. If |Γ0 | < 1 ; causes diminished return voltage wave (negative feedback)
• For a two – port network, stability implies that the magnitudes of reflection coefficients are less
than unity.
|Γ𝐿 | < 1 and
|Γ𝑠 | < 1
Output Stability circle
The output stability circle equation is given by
(Γ𝐿𝑅 − 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑅 )2 + (Γ𝐿𝐼 − 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡𝐼 )2 = 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡
2
5.57

The circle radius is given by

|𝑆12 .𝑆21 |
𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ||𝑆 2 −|∆|2 | 5.58
22 |

Where ,
∆= 𝑆11 𝑆22 − 𝑆12 𝑆21 5.59

Figure 5.19 - Output Stability circle

Fig.5.19 Stability circle |Γ𝑖𝑛 | = 1 in the complexΓ𝐿 plane

Input stability circle

• The input stability circle equation is given by
(Γ𝑠 − 𝐶𝑖𝑛 ) + (Γ𝑠 𝐼 − 𝐶𝑖𝑛 𝐼 )2= 𝑟𝑖𝑛
𝑅 𝑅 2 2
5.60

Figure 5.20 - Input stability circle

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Fig.5.20. shows the Stability circle |Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 | = 1 in the complexΓ𝑠 plane

The circle radius is given as

|𝑆12 .𝑆21 |
𝑟𝑖𝑛 = ||𝑆 2 −|∆|2 |
5.61
11 |

Figure 5.21 - Output Stability circles denoting stable and unstable regions

Figure 5.22 - Input stability circles denoting stable and unstable regions

5.4.5. Unconditional Stability

• An amplifier when remains stable throughout the entire domain of the Smith chart at the
selected frequency and bias conditions. Such a situation is referred as Unconditional stability.
• This situation is applicable to both input and output ports. For |S11| < 1 and |S22 | < 1, the
stability circles will be completely outside |Γ𝑠 | = 1 and |Γ𝐿 | = 1 circles.
• The condition for stability is expressed in terms of stability factor k as –
1−|𝑆11 |2 − |𝑆22 |2 + | ∆ |2
K= > 1 5.62
2 |𝑆12 ||𝑆21 |

• The stability factor k is also called as Rollet factor. It applies for both input and output ports.
Inequality| ∆ |= | 𝑆11 𝑆22 − 𝑆12 𝑆21 | ≤ |𝑆21 𝑆22 |+|𝑆12 𝑆21 |
• For an unconditional stable design both conditions are to be fulfilled i.e.

| ∆ |< 1

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k>1

5.4.6. Stabilization Methods

• The BJT and FETs are unstable at operating frequency, it means |Γ𝑖𝑛 | > 1 and |Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 | > 1
𝑍 −𝑍
|Γ𝑖𝑛 | = |𝑍𝑖𝑛+ 𝑍0 |> 1; and
𝑖𝑛 0

𝑍 −𝑍
|Γ𝑜𝑢𝑡 | = |𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑍0|> 1
𝑜𝑢𝑡 0

Above expression indicates that

Re{ 𝑍𝑖𝑛 } < 0 and

Re {𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 } < 0

• A method to stabilize active device is to add a series resistance or a shunt conductance to the port.

5.4.7. Configuration at input Port

• Fig .5.23 shows stabilization input port through series resistance.
• This loading along with Re {𝑍𝑠 } must compensate the negative contribution of Re {𝑍𝑖𝑛 }. Therefore,
condition should be
′
Re { 𝑍𝑖𝑛 + 𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 𝑍𝑠 } > 0

Figure 5.23 - Stabilization of input port through series resistance

• The stabilization of input port through shunt conductance is shown in Fig.5.24

Figure 5.24 - Stabilization of input port through shunt conductance

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5.4.8. Configuration at output Port

• Similarly condition for stabilization of output port through series resistance and output
port configuration is shown below.
Re { 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
′
+ 𝑍𝐿 } > 0

Figure 5.25 - Stabilization of output port through series resistance

• Configuration for stabilization of output port through shunt conductance is shown in
Fig . 5.26.
• Condition : Re { 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡
′
+ 𝑌𝐿 } > 0

Figure 5.26 - Stabilization of output port through shunt conductance

5.4.9 Gain Considerations
Unilateral Design
• After ensuring stability, there is need to obtain a desired gain performance. If the transistors
feedback is neglected i.e., 𝑆12 = 0; the unilateral power gain can be expressed as
1−|Γ𝑠 |2 1−|Γ𝐿 |2
𝐺𝑇𝑈 = |1−𝑆 2
× |𝑆21 |2 × |1−Γ𝑠 𝑆11 |2
5.63
11 Γ𝑠 |

𝐺𝑇𝑈 = 𝐺𝑆 × 𝐺0 × 𝐺𝐿 5.64

• The corresponding circuit of unilateral power gain system is shown in Fig.5.27.

• If the gain are expressed in dBs then the equation can be written as
𝐺𝑇𝑈 (dB)= 𝐺𝑠 (dB) + 𝐺0 (dB) + 𝐺𝐿 (dB) 5.65

Where,

𝐺𝑠 is gain associated with input matching networks.

𝐺𝐿 is gain associated with output matching networks.
𝐺𝑜 is insertion loss of the transistor

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Figure 5.27. Unilateral Power gain system

Unilateral Figure of Merit

The unilateral figure of merit is given by

|𝑆 |.|𝑆 |.|𝑆 |.|𝑆11 |

U = ( 1−|𝑆
12 21 22
|2 .( |𝑆 2)
5.66
11 22 |

• From the expression it is clear that the unilateral figure of merit is frequency dependent. To justify
unilateral design approach the figure of merit should be as small as possible.

5.5 MICROWAVE POWER AMPLIFIER DESIGN

5.5.1 Characteristics of Power Amplifiers and Amplifier Classes

The power amplifier is usually the primary consumer of DC power in most hand-held wireless
devices, so amplifier efficiency is an important consideration. One measure of amplifier efficiency is
the ratio of RF output power to DC input power:
η = Pout/ PDC 5.67
This quantity is sometimes referred to as drain efficiency (or collector efficiency). One drawback of
this definition is that it does not account for the RF power delivered at the input to the amplifier.
Since most power amplifiers have relatively low gains, the efficiency of (5.65) tends to overrate the
actual efficiency. A better measure that includes the effect of input power is the power added
efficiency, defined as

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑃𝑖𝑛 1
𝜂𝑃𝐴𝐸 = 𝑃𝐴𝐸 = = (1 − 𝐺 ) 𝜂 5.68
𝑃𝐷𝐶

where G is the power gain of the amplifier. Another useful parameter for power amplifiers is the
compressed gain, G1, defined as the gain of the amplifier at the 1 dB compression point. Thus, if G0 is
the small-signal (linear) power gain, we have
G1(dB) = G0(dB) –1 5.69

5.5.2. Large-Signal Characterization of Transistors

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A transistor behaves linearly for signal powers well below the 1 dB compression point (IP1
dB), and so the small-signal scattering parameters should not depend on either the input power level
or the output termination impedance. However, for power levels comparable to or greater than IP1
dB, where the nonlinearity of the transistor becomes apparent, the measured scattering parameters
will depend on input power level and the output termination impedance (as well as frequency, bias
conditions, and temperature). Thus large-signal scattering parameters are not uniquely defined and
do not satisfy linearity, and cannot be used in place of small-signal parameters. (For device stability
calculations, however, small signal scattering parameters can generally be used with good results.) A
more useful way to characterize transistors under large-signal operating conditions is to measure
the gain and output power as a function of source and load impedances. One way of doing this is to
determine the large-signal source and load reflection coefficients, 𝛤SP and ΓLP, (or impedances, ZSP
and ZLP) that maximize power gain for a particular output power (often chosen as OP1 dB), and
versus frequency.

5.5.3. Design of Class A Power Amplifiers

In this section we will discuss the use of large-signal parameters for the design of class A amplifiers.
Since class A amplifiers are ideally linear, it is sometimes possible to use small signal scattering
parameters for design, but better results are usually obtained if large signal parameters are available.
As with small-signal amplifier design, the first step is to check the stability of the device. Since
instabilities begin at low signal levels, small-signal scattering parameters can be used for this
purpose. Stability is especially important for power amplifiers, as high-power oscillations can easily
damage active devices and related circuitry.

Figure 5.28 - Constant–output power contours versus load impedance for a typical power FET.
The transistor should be chosen on the basis of frequency range and power output, ideally with
about 20% more power capacity than is required by the design. Silicon bipolar transistors have

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higher power outputs than GaAs FETs at frequencies up to a few GHz, and are generally cheaper; GaN
HBTs are becoming very popular for high-power applications at RF and low microwave frequencies.
Good thermal contact of the transistor package to a heat sink is essential for any amplifier with more
than a few tenths of a watt power output. Input matching networks may be designed for maximum
power transfer (conjugate matching), while output matching networks are designed for maximum
output power (as derived from ΓL P). Low-loss matching elements are important for good efficiency,
particularly in the output stage, where currents are highest. Internally matched chip transistors are
sometimes available and have the advantage of reducing the effect of parasitic package reactance,
thus improving efficiency and bandwidth. A photograph of a GaN power amplifier chip is shown in
Figure 5.28.

Figure 5.29 - Photograph of a three-stage Ku-band GaN MMIC amplifier.

5.6. LOW NOISE AMPLIFIER DESIGN

5.6.1. Noise Figure Circles
• In RF amplifiers, the need for signal amplification at low noise level is necessary. But while
designing a low noise amplifier compromise in stability and gain is to be done.
• The noise figure of two- port amplifier in admittance and impedance form is given by expressions
𝑅𝑛 2
F = 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 + |𝑌𝑠 − 𝑌𝑜𝑝𝑡 | 5.70
𝐺𝑠
𝐺𝑛 2
F = 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 + |𝑍𝑠 − 𝑍𝑜𝑝𝑡 | 5.71
𝑅𝑠
Where,
𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 is minimum noise figure
1
𝑅𝑛 is equivalent noise resistance (𝑅𝑛 = 𝐺 )
𝑛
1
𝑌𝑜𝑝𝑡 is optimum source admittance (𝑌𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 𝑍 )
𝑜𝑝𝑡

• S- parameter representation is more suitable for high frequency designs.

• Replacing admittance by reflection coefficients and substituting for 𝐺𝑠 . The noise figure
expression is
2
4𝑅𝑛 |Γ𝑠 −Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 |
F = 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑍𝑜 (1−|Γ𝑠 |2 )| 1+Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 |2
5.72

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• In above equation if Γ𝑠 = Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 is substituted the lowest value of noise figure will be F= 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 .
Suppose source reflection coefficient Γ𝑠 relates to noise figure 𝐹𝑘 .The expression can be writtem as
2 2
|Γ𝑠 − Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 | = (1 − |Γ𝑠 |2 )| 1 + Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 | . ( 𝐹4𝑅
𝑘 −𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑛
) 5.73
⁄𝑍
𝑏
2
|Γ𝑠 − Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 | = (1 − |Γ𝑠 |2 ). Q𝑘 5.74
2 𝐹 −𝐹
Where, Q𝑘 = | 1 + Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 | . 𝑘 𝑚𝑖𝑛
4𝑅𝑛
⁄𝑍
𝑜
2
(1 + Q𝑘 ) |Γ𝑠 |2 − 2 R 𝑒 | 1+{ Γ𝑠 Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡
∗
} + |Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 | = Q𝑘 5.75
After simplification
2
Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 2 1 |Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 |
|Γ𝑠 − 1+𝑄 | = Q𝑘 [1+ 𝑄 (1+ 𝑄𝑘 )2
5.76
𝑘 𝑘
2 2
|Γ𝑠 − d𝐹𝑘 | = (Γ𝑠𝑅 − d𝐹𝑘 )2 + (Γ𝑠𝐼 − 𝑑𝐹𝐼 𝑥 ) = 𝑟𝐹2𝑘 5.77
• This is standard form of circle equation and can be displayed as part of smith chart.
Circle center location:
Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡
D𝐹𝑘 = 𝑑𝐹𝑅𝑥 + 𝑗𝑑𝐹𝐼 𝑥 = 1+𝑄 5.78
𝑘
Radius of circle :
2
√1−|Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 | 𝑄𝑘 +𝑄𝑘2
r𝐹𝑘 = 5.79
1+ 𝑄𝑘
• All constant noise circles located on line from origin to point Γ𝑜𝑝𝑡 .
• Larger the noise figure, the closer the center d𝐹𝑘 to the origin and larger radius r𝐹𝑘 .
5.6.2. Noise Figure for Multistage Amplifier
• Multistage amplifiers are needed to meet the requirement of high-power gain.
• Fig. 5.30 shows multistage amplifier representation.

Figure 5.30 - Multistage amplifier

Input noise to stage 1 = 𝑃𝑛1

Output noise to stage 1 = 𝑃𝑛2 = 𝐺𝐴 𝑃𝑛1 + 𝑃𝑛𝑖
Noise power at second amplifier:
𝑃𝑛3 = 𝐺𝐴2 (𝐺𝐴1 𝑃𝑛1 + 𝑃𝑛𝑖 ) + 𝑃𝑛𝑖2 5.80
Total noise figure:
𝑃𝑛3
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑃 𝐺𝐴1 𝐺𝐴2
5.81
𝑛1

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𝑃𝑛𝑖1 𝑃𝑛𝑖2
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 1 + 𝑃 + 5.82
𝑛1 𝐺𝐴1 𝑃𝑛1 𝐺𝐴1 𝐺𝐴2

Noise figure at first stage:

𝑃𝑛𝑖1
𝐹1 = 1 + 𝑃 5.83
𝑛1 𝐺𝐴1
Noise figure at second stage:
𝑃𝑛𝑖2
𝐹2 = 1 + 𝑃 5.84
𝑛1 𝐺𝐴2
Noise figure at third stage:
𝑃𝑛𝑖3
𝐹3 = 1 + 𝑃 5.85
𝑛1 𝐺𝐴3
Total noise figure for two stages:
𝐹2 −1
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐹1 + 5.86
𝐺𝐴1
Total noise figure for three stages:
𝐹2 −1 𝐹3 −1
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐹1 + +𝐺 5.87
𝐺𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐺𝐴2

5.7. MICROWAVE MIXER DESIGN

5.7.1. Mixers
A mixer is a three-port device that uses a nonlinear or time-varying element to achieve frequency
conversion.
5.7.2. Mixer Characteristics
The symbol and functional diagram for a mixer are shown in Figure 5.31. The mixer symbol is
intended to imply that the output is proportional to the product of the two input signals. We will
see that this is an idealized view of mixer operation, which in actuality produces a large variety of
harmonics and other undesired products of the input signals. Figure 5.31 a illustrates the
operation of frequency up-conversion, as occurs in a transmitter. A local oscillator (LO) signal at
the relatively high frequency 𝑓𝐿𝑂 is connected to one of the input ports of the mixer. The LO signal
can be represented as
υLO (t) = cos 2π fLO t. 5.88
A lower frequency baseband or intermediate frequency (IF) signal is applied to the other mixer
input. This signal typically contains the information or data to be transmitted, and can be
expressed for our purposes as

Figure 5.31-Frequency conversion using a mixer. (a) Up-conversion. (b) Down-conversion

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υIF (t) = cos 2π fIF t. 5.89

The output of the idealized mixer is given by the product of the LO and IF signals:

υRF (t) = KυLO (t)υIF (t) = K cos 2π fLO t cos 2π fIF t

K
= 2 [cos 2π(fLO − fIF )t + cos 2π(fLO + fIF )t], 5.90

where K is a constant accounting for the voltage conversion loss of the mixer. The RF output is seen to
consist of the sum and differences of the input signal frequencies:

fRF = fLO ±fIF 5.91

In this case an RF input signal of the form

υRF (t) = cos 2π fRF t. 5.92

is applied to the input of the mixer, along with the LO signal of (5.88). The output of the
mixer is

υIF (t) = KυRF (t)υLO (t) = K cos 2π fRF t cos 2π fLO t 5.93
K
= 2 [cos 2π(fRF − fLO )t + cos 2π(fRF + fLO )t]. 5.94

The desired IF output in a receiver is the difference frequency, fRF − fLO, which is easily selected by low-
pass filtering:
fIF = fRF − fLO . 5.95

Image frequency: In a receiver the RF input signal at frequency fRF is typically delivered from the
antenna, which may receive RF signals over a relatively wide band of frequencies. For a receiver with an
LO frequency fLO and IF frequency fIF, (5.95) gives the RF input frequency that will be down-converted
to the IF frequency as

fRF = fLO + fIF 5.96(a)

since the insertion of (5.94a) into (5.93) yields fIF (after low-pass filtering). Now consider the RF input
frequency given by
𝑓𝐼𝑀 = 𝑓𝐿𝑂 − 𝑓𝐼𝐹 5.96(b)

Insertion of (5.96 (b)) into (5.95) yields − fIF (after low-pass filtering).
Another implication of (5.95) and the fact that fIF may be negative is that there are two LO frequencies
that can be used for a given RF and IF frequency:

𝑓𝐿𝑂 = 𝑓𝑅𝐹 ± 𝑓𝐼𝐹 5.97

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since taking the difference frequency of fRF with these two LO frequencies gives ± fIF. These two
frequencies correspond to the upper and lower sidebands when a mixer is operated as an up-converter.
In practice, most receivers use a local oscillator set at the upper sideband, fLO = fRF + fIF, because this
requires a smaller LO tuning ratio when the receiver must select RF signals over a given band.
conversion loss, which is defined as the ratio of available RF input power to the available IF output
power, expressed in dB:
Available RF input power
𝐿𝑐 = 10 log Available IF output power ≥ 0 dB 5.98

Noise figure: Noise is generated in mixers by the diode or transistor elements, and by thermal sources
due to resistive losses. Noise figures of practical mixers range from 1 to 5 dB, with diode mixers
generally achieving lower noise figures than transistor mixers. The noise figure of a mixer depends on
whether its input is a single-sideband signal or a double side band signal. This is because the mixer will
down-convert noise at both sideband frequencies (since these have the same IF), but the power of a SSB
signal is one-half that of DSB signal (for the same amplitude). To derive the relation between the noise
figure for these two cases, first consider a DSB input signal of the form

υDSB (t) = A[cos (ωLO − ωIF )t + cos (ωLO + ωIF )t] 5.99

Upon mixing with an LO signal cos 𝜔𝐿𝑂 t and low-pass filtering, the down-converted IF signal will be.
AK AK
υIF (t) = cos (ωIF t) + cos (−ωIF t) = AKcos ωIF t 5.100
2 2

where K is a constant accounting for the conversion loss for each sideband. The average power of the
DSB input signal of (5.97) is
𝐴2 𝐴2
𝑆𝑖 = + 2 = 𝐴2 5.101
2

and the average power of the output IF signal is

2
A2 K
S0 = 5.102
2

For noise figure, the input noise power is defined as Ni =kT0B, where T0 = 290 K and B is the IF
bandwidth. The total output noise power is equal to the input noise plus Nodded, the noise power
added by the mixer, divided by the conversion loss (assuming a reference at the mixer input):
(KT0 B+Nadded )
N0 = 5.103
Lc

Then using the definition of noise figure gives the DSB noise figure of the mixer as
SN 2 Nadded
FDSB = Si N0 = K2 L (1 + ) 5.104
0 i c KT0 B
The corresponding analysis for the SSB case begins with a SSB input signal of the form
υSSB (t) = Acos (ωLO − ωIF )t. 5.105
Upon mixing with the LO signal cos ωLOt and low-pass filtering, the down-converted IF signal will be
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AK
υIF (t) = cos (ωIF t) 5.106
2
The average power of the SSB input signal of (6.104) is
A2
Si = 5.107
2
and the average power of the output IF signal is
2
𝐴2 𝐾
𝑆0 = 5.108
8
The input and output noise powers are the same as for the DSB case, so the noise figure for an SSB input
signal is
𝑆𝑁 4 𝑁𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝐹𝑆𝑆𝐵 = 𝑆𝑖 𝑁0 = 𝐾2 𝐿 (1 + 𝐾𝑇 ) 5.109
0 𝑖 𝐵 𝑐 0
Comparison with (6.103) shows that the noise figure of the SSB case is twice that of the DSB case:
𝐹𝑆𝑆𝐵 = 2𝐹𝐷𝑆𝐵 5.110

5.8. MICROWAVE OSCILLATOR DESIGN

In this section we focus on oscillator circuits that are useful at microwave frequencies, primarily
employing negative resistance diodes or transistors. Figure 13.6 shows the canonical RF circuit for a
one-port negative resistance oscillator, where Zin = Rin + j Xin is the input impedance of the active
device (e.g., a biased diode or transistor). In general, this impedance is current (or voltage) dependent,
as well as frequency dependent, which we indicate by writing Zin(I, jω) = Rin(I, jω) + j Xin(I, jω). The
device is terminated with a passive load impedance, ZL = RL + j XL .
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law gives
(ZL + Zin)I = 0. 5.111
If oscillation is occurring, such that the RF current I is nonzero, then the following two conditions must
be satisfied:
RL + Rin = 0, 5.112(a)
XL + Xin = 0. 5.112(b)
Since the load is passive, RL >0, and (5.112 (a)) implies that Rin <0. Thus, while a positive resistance
implies energy dissipation, a negative resistance implies an energy source. The condition of (5.112(b))
controls the frequency of oscillation. The condition in (5.111), that
ZL = −Zin for steady-state oscillation, implies that the reflection coefficients 𝛤𝐿 and 𝛤𝑖𝑛 are related as
𝑍 −𝑍 −𝑍 −𝑍 𝑍 +𝑍 1
Γ𝐿 = 𝑍𝐿+𝑍0 = −𝑍𝑖𝑛+𝑍0 = 𝑍𝑖𝑛−𝑍0 = Γ 5.113
𝐿 0 𝑖𝑛 0 𝑖𝑛 0 𝑖𝑛
If we let ZT (I, s) = Zin(I, s) + ZL (s), then we can write a Taylor series for ZT (I, s) about the stable
operating point I0, ω0 as
∂ZT ∂ZT
ZT (I, s) = ZT (I0 , s0 ) + | δs + | δI = 0 5.114
∂s s0 ,I0 ∂I s0 ,I0

since ZT (I, s) must still equal zero if oscillation is occurring. In (5.114), s0 = jω0 is the complex
frequency at the original operating point. Now use the fact that ZT (I0, s0) = 0, and that ∂ ZT /∂s = −j (∂
ZT /∂ω), to solve (5.114) for δs = δα + jδω:
∗
− ∂ZT ∂ZT ∂ZT
−j( )( )
δs = δα + jδω = ∂I
∂ZT | δI = ∂I
∂Z 2
∂ω
∂I. 5.115
∂s s0 ,I0 | T|
∂ω

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Figure 5.32 -Circuit for a one-port negative resistance oscillator.

If the transient caused by δ I and δω is to decay, we must have δα <0 when δ I >0. Equation (5.115) then
implies that
∂ZT ∂Z∗T
Im { } < 0, 5.116
∂I ∂ω
Or
∂RT ∂XT ∂XT ∂RT
− > 0. 5.117
∂I ∂ω ∂I ∂ω
This relation is sometimes known as Kurokawa’s condition. For a passive load, ∂ RL/∂ I = ∂ XL/∂ I = ∂
RL/∂ω = 0, so (5.117) reduces to
∂Rin ∂ ∂Xin ∂Rin
(XL + Xin ) − > 0. 5.118
∂I ∂ω ∂I ∂ω
As discussed above, we usually have that ∂ Rin/∂ I >0, so (5.118) can be satisfied if ∂(XL + Xin)/∂ω >>0.
This implies that a high-Q circuit will result in maximum oscillator stability.

Figure 5.33 -Load matching circuit for the one-port oscillator

5.8.1. Transistor Oscillators
In a transistor oscillator, a negative resistance one-port network is effectively created by terminating a
potentially unstable transistor with an impedance designed to drive the device in an unstable region.
The circuit model of a transistor oscillator is shown in Figure 5.34. For an oscillator, we require a device
with a high degree of instability. It is often necessary to choose RS so that RS + Rin <0. Otherwise,
oscillation may cease if increasing RF power increases Rin to the point where RS + Rin >0. In practice, a
value of
−𝑅𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑠 = 5.119
3
is often used. The reactive part of ZS is chosen to resonate the circuit,
Xs = −Xin 5.120

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Figure 5.34 - Circuit for a two-port transistor oscillator.

When oscillation occurs between the termination network and the transistor, oscillation will
simultaneously occur at the output port, which we can show as follows. For steady-state oscillation at
the input port, we must have 𝛤𝑠 𝛤𝑖𝑛 = 1, analogous to the condition of (5.113).
1 𝑆12 𝑆21 Γ𝐿 𝑆11 −ΔΓ𝐿
= Γ𝑖𝑛= 𝑆11 + = 5.121
Γ𝑠 1−𝑆22 Γ𝐿 1−𝑆22 Γ𝐿

where = S11S22 − S12S21. Solving for 𝛤𝐿 gives

1−S11 ΓS
ΓL= S 5.122
22 −ΔΓS

S12 S21 Γs S22 −ΔΓs

Γout= S22 + = , 5.123
1−S11 Γs 1−S11 Γs

which shows that 𝛤𝐿 𝛤𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1, and hence ZL = −Zout. Thus, the condition for oscillation at the load
network is satisfied. Note that it is preferable to use the large-signal scattering parameters of the
transistor in the above development.

PART-A
IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION
1. Compare single stub and double stub matching. 2 U
2. Enumerate the considerations in selecting a matching network 2 R
3. Define stub. Mention the types of stubs used in transmission lines. 2 R
4. Describe the role of quarter wave transformer in Impedance matching . 2 S
5. Design a single section quarter-wave matching transformer to match a 10 ohm load to 2 A
50 ohm line at f0 = 3 GHz. Determine the percent bandwidth for which the SWR ≤1.5.
6. Write short notes on Double stub matching network using ZY Smith chart. 2 U
7. Explain smith chart. 2 U
8. Analyze why impedance matching is required? What are other constraints required. 2 A
IMPEDANCE MATCHING

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9. Define impedance matching and explain the need for impedance matching. 2 S
10. Give any four reasons for the wide use of RF. 2 A
11. Name the two methods to measure impedance. 2 R
12. Formulate the expression for effective input impedance of a Quarter wave line. 2 S
13. Point out the uses of Smith chart for impedance matching. 2 A
14. Identify the applications of Microstrip line. 2 A
15. Identify the realization of stub in microwave circuit. 2 A
16. Discuss narrowband matching 2 U
17. Define input impedance. 2 R
18. List the different impedance matching techniques. 2 R
19. Classify microwave power with its range. 2 U
MICROWAVE FILTER DESIGN
20. Rewrite ideal filter network. 2 S
21. Relate the methods used for microwave filtering. 2 A
22. Validate the filter that has two stop bands. 2 S
23. Define power loss ratio. 2 R
24. Classify the types of low pass filter. 2 U
25. Define lossless network. 2 R
26. Design a low-pass composite filter with a cut-off frequency of 2 MHz and impedance of 2 A
75 Ω. Place the infinite attenuation pole at 2.05 MHz, and plot the frequency response
from 0 to 4 MHz.
RF AND MICROWAVE AMPLIFIER DESIGN
27. Discuss the parameters to evaluate the performance of an amplifier. 2 S
28. Recall termination and its application. 2 A
29. Define VSWR. 2 R
30. Justify non-linear distortion. 2 S
31. A GaAs MESFET has the following parameters: 2 A
𝑆11 = ∠ − 154°, 𝑆12 = 0.02 ∠40°, 𝑆21 = 2.04∠185° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆22 = 0.55 ∠30°. Calculate its
maximum stable power gain.
MICROWAVE POWER AMPLIFIER DESIGN
32. Distinguish between conditional and unconditional stability of amplifier. 2 U
33. Rewrite maximum available gain. 2 S
34. Identify some important parameters of amplifier. 2 A
35. Draw the VSWR circle for reflection coefficient 1. 2 A
36. Draw typical output stability and input stability circle. 2 A
37. Define stability. 2 R
38. Discuss unconditional stability. 2 U
LOW NOISE AMPLIFIER DESIGN
39. Define noise figure. 2 R
40. Generate unilateral power gain. 2 S

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41. Discuss output impedance. 2 U

42. Illustrate the applications of TWT. 2 A
43. Point out the applications of GaAs MESFET? 2 A
44. Define coupling factor (c). 2 R
45. Infer, why FET’s are preferred to bipolar transistor at high frequencies? 2 U
MICROWAVE MIXER DESIGN
46. Illustrate superheterodyne receiver and list out where it is applied. 2 A
47. List some of power detecting elements. 2 R
48. A single-ended FET mixer is to be designed for a wireless local area network receiver 2 A
operating at 2.4 GHz. The parameters of the FET are 𝑅𝑑 = 300 Ω, 𝑅𝑖 = 10 Ω, Cgs = 0.3 pF,
and g1 = 10 mS. Calculate the maximum possible conversion gain.
49. Assess the use of balanced mixer. 2 A
50. Outline Frequency conversion using a mixer. (a) Up-conversion. (b) Down-conversion. 2 S
51. Summarize the significance of VSWR measurements. 2 U
52. Classify some coupling parameters of directional coupler? 2 U
53. Describe other mixer characteristics of the microwave design. 2 R
54. Justify conversion loss. 2 S
MICROWAVE OSCILLATOR DESIGN
55. Define Negative resistance. 2 R
56. Discuss dielectric resonator oscillator. 2 U
57. A one-port oscillator uses a negative resistance diode having 𝛤𝑖𝑛 = 1.25∠40° (𝑍0 = 2 A
50𝛺) at its desired operating point, for f = 6 GHz. Design a load matching network for a
50 Ω load impedance.
58. Outline a two-port transistor oscillator. 2 A
59. Define crystal oscillator. 2 R
60. Formulate the input impedance of the active device. 2 S

PART B (16 Marks)

1. Explain in detail about the single stub matching. (Or) What is matching network? Why 16 U
is this required?
2. Discuss in detail about the double stub matching method. 16 S
3. For a λg/4 transformer, a load of 100Ω and an air-filled line of 50Ω is connected. The 16 A
signal frequency is 10GHz.Compute
i. Length and Impedance of matching transformer for rectangular waveguide.
ii. Length and Impedance of matching transformer for coaxial line
iii. Fractional Bandwidth for Гm=0.1
4. Explain in detail about microwave power amplifier. 16 S
5. Discuss in detail about low noise amplifier design. 16 R
(i)Noise Figure for Cascaded Stages.
(ii)Constant Noise-Figure Circles.

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6. Design all possible configurations of discrete two element matching network that 16 A
match the source impedance 𝑍𝑆 = (50 + 𝑗25)𝛺 to the load 𝑍𝐿 = (25 − 𝑗15)𝛺. Assume
the characteristics impedance of 75Ω at operating frequency 2GHz.
7. Discuss in detail about microwave filter design by image parameter method and 16 R
insertion loss method.
8. Explain in detail about microwave mixer design. 16 R
(i)Linear mixer operation.
(ii)Non-linear mixer operation.
9. Explain in detail about microwave oscillator design. 16 R
(i) Transistor oscillator.
(ii) Dielectric resonator oscillator.
10. A wireless local area network application requires a local oscillator operating at 2.4 16 A
GHz. Design a dielectric resonator oscillator using the series feedback circuit of Figure
with a bipolar transistor having the following scattering parameters (Z0 = 50Ω): S11 =
1.8 ∠130◦, S12 = 0.4 ∠45◦, S21 = 3.8 ∠36◦, and S22 = 0.7∠ −63◦. Determine the
required coupling coefficient for the dielectric resonator, and the required microstrip
matching network for the load. Plot the magnitude of 𝛤𝑚 versus ∆f/f0 for small
variations in frequency about the design value, assuming an unloaded resonator Q of
1000.

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