Engineering Laboratory Report

Whatever branch of engineering you are studying, many of your laboratories and laboratory based
assignments will require a written report. The purpose is to report what you did and what you learned from
an experiment.
Laboratory reports can vary in length and format. These range from a form to fill in and submit before
leaving the laboratory, to a formal written report. However, they all usually follow a similar basic structure.

Example: Typical Short Lab report structure

Measurement of the Fracture Toughness of Perspex

A. Student

Abstract
Perspex samples with sharp and blunt cracks were subjected to loads to determine fracture
toughness. Results clearly show a correlation between...

Objective
To determine the fracture toughness of Perspex.

Introduction / Background
Fracture toughness is a measure of the fracture resistance of a cracked material. The two types of
crack investigated here are shown in Figure 1. For a sharp crack to propagate...

Method
Six Perspex samples with artificial blunt cracks of various sizes were supplied. The samples were
secured into the micro-tester and the strain rate and maximum load parameters set to...

Results and Discussion

The six specimens were tested to three loads and the corresponding deflection calculated. The
average compliance at each crack length was calculated; these are plotted in Graph 1. The
calculated exponent is close to the quadratic relationship...

Conclusions
The experimental results show that fracture toughness decreases with increased crack length and
velocity...
Structure of a laboratory report
A laboratory report in engineering generally contains the following sections:

Title
The title precisely describes the purpose of the practical work. The majority of your practical work will
involve measurements, observations or the creation of some object of interest.

Example: Title

Determination of Modulus of Elasticity of Rubber.

Abstract
The abstract provides a brief overview or summary of the practical work, including key results and
conclusions.
Keep your abstract short, about one paragraph or 150 to 300 words. It must be clear enough that the reader
can understand the key points of the report without needing to read the rest of it. In general, the abstract
should answer six questions. Addressing each question should only require one to two sentences:
 Why was the experiment conducted? (Big-picture/real-world view.)
 What specific problem/research question was being addressed?
 What methods were used to solve the problem/answer the question?
 What results were obtained?
 What do these results mean?
 How do the results answer the overall question or improve our understanding of the problem?
Note that there is no need to include background information such as motivation or theory. Shorter lab
reports may not require an abstract so check you report guidelines first.
The example abstract below clearly states what the student did, how the student did it, what they found and
what it means in relation to their aim. Notice how brief each of these points is.

Example: Abstract

In this experiment a wind tunnel was used to measure the lift and drag forces on a 1:70 scale model
of an aeroplane in order to determine the optimal angle of attack. Angles of attack ranging from -8°
to 20° were tested at a wind speed of approximately 30 m/s. The typical pressure distribution
around an aerofoil at small angles of attack was found to be low on the upper surface and high on
the lower surface, creating an upward lift force. As the angle of attack increased, so too did the lift
force exert on the plane from the aerofoil wings. However, there is an optimal angle of attack after
which the lift will begin to decrease. This is because increasing the angle of attack also increases
the drag on the aerofoil. An 8° angle of attack was found to be optimal.
Objective
In any experiment, you aim to do something. For example, to verify, to investigate, to measure, to compare
or to test a hypothesis.
 Each objective should have a specific goal. Think about how you will know when you have achieved
your aim. This should be apparent from your aim statement.
 Write your objective using verbs (e.g. 'to determine', 'to investigate').
 Where there is a goal-and-means relationship, make sure this is clear. (E.g. to determine spring
constant using Hooke’s Law.)
 Each objective in your experiment should be written in a complete sentence.
 In the objective statement below, it is clear that the objective will be achieved when a value is
obtained for the resistivity of iron.

Example: Objective

The objective of the experiment is to determine the resistivity of iron by measuring the resistance of
a specimen of wire.

To determine the resistivity of iron by measuring the resistance of a specimen of wire.

If an experiment has more than one objective, list them in the logical order and make sure the relationship
between the objectives is made clear.
The example below has two objectives:
1. To measure the pressure distribution around a cylinder in a wind tunnel.
2. To calculate the forces on the cylinder based on the data obtained.

Example: Two objectives

The objective of this experiment is to conduct lift and drag measurements on a scale model
aeroplane and use the results to assess the behaviour of a full-scale aeroplane under three
hypothetical conditions.
Introduction or Background or Literature
The introduction or theoretical background or literature review section is where you introduce the topic and
purpose of your practical work and narrow down to your hypothesis, aims or the research question you
intend to address. To write an introduction section you need to concisely explain relevant theory and discuss
any relevant laws, equations or theorems. This is also where you should indicate the method/s you will use
for analysis, such as nodal analysis or numerical modelling. In longer reports you may need to support your
choice of method with academic literature. You can include any figures, tables or equations necessary to
explain the relevant theory. It should also set out any assumptions, and indicate how the data will be
processed.
Below is an example of an introduction defining the formula and associated terms for the calculation of
thermal efficiency.

Example: Calculations defined in an introduction

Solar lamps will be used to model the incident radiation received by solar heaters from the sun.
However, it is not possible to reproduce the uniform radiation flux at the surface of a real collector.
Therefore, the average radiation flux at the surface of the collector will be used in calculations.
Method or Methodology
The method section is where you describe what you actually did during the practical work. You need to
describe the actions you took during your practical work in a way that someone from your field has enough
information to replicate the process and achieve a similar result.
You must also include any unplanned changes to the original process which occurred during the execution of
the experiment. A great way to keep track of this is to use a lab notebook during the practical work to note
any changes you make.
A common mistake students make is copying the instructions their teachers provide directly into their
method section. You will generally be provided with a set of instructions to complete your practical work.
These instructions are NOT written in the style of a laboratory report. A typical set of instructions usually
includes:
1. How apparatus and equipment were set up (e.g. experimental set-up), usually including a diagram,
2. A list of materials used,
3. Steps used to collect the data,
4. Any experimental difficulties encountered and how they were resolved or worked around.
Below is an example of instructions provided to a student to carry out a third-year mechanical engineering
experiment.

Example: Lab instructions

1. Initiate the bicarbonate feed pump and adjust the flow rate to 230 mL/min. Wait until the
flow rate has stabilised before proceeding.
2. Admit cooling water to the condenser at maximum flow rate. The liquid seal will fill and
overflow, so that steam enters the reactor.
3. Increase steam pressure gradually until…
Phrases are used here to specifically instruct the student who may be performing the technique for the first
time. For example:
“Wait until the flow rate has stabilised before proceeding.”
Also note that language used is in the present tense in bullet points. The method section should be written in
the past tense as a cohesive paragraph.
Below is an example of how these lab instructions can be successfully paraphrased into a method in a
laboratory report.

Example: Method

The flow rate of the feed pump was set to 230 mL/min and cooling water was added to the
condenser at maximum flow rate. Once the steam had overflowed into the reactor, the pressure was
increased to….

1. Describe the materials used and/or the apparatus setup.

2. Include an image showing the relevant features of any object or material under investigation
 3. Include a diagram of the experimental setup, with each component clearly labelled
In the example below, the experiment required a particular apparatus setup. Notice how there is a small
amount of text describing the setup and two well labelled figures illustrating the apparatus setup.

Example: Experimental setup

The performance of a flat plate solar collector was analysed using a small-scale test rig. The rig was
as shown in Fig. 1, with the exception of the water pipes (see Fig. 2). Thermocouples were
connected to the collector as shown in Fig. 2, and attached at the inlet and outlet of the water pipes
to measure ambient temperature.

Fig. 1. Flat plate solar collector setup

Fig. 2. Wired joint
Results
The results section is where you present a summary of the data collected during your experiments. These
results are not just a copy of the raw data from your lab notebook. Rather, it may involve calculation,
analysis and the drawing up of tables and figures to present your data.

Calculations

When you take your raw data and perform some sort of mathematical operation to change it, it is good
practice to show the equations you used in your analysis as well as one worked example using each
equation. Very long calculations or calculations that you repeat multiple times are usually included in an
appendix (see below).
In some cases, if formulae are used, it is common to number them as equations. Equation 1 is written as Eq.
(1).
 Write Symbols as Roman Alphabets as italic (Radius as R, Length as L, Mass as m, Diameter as d).
 Write Symbols as Greek Alphabets as normal (Angle as , Density as  , Pi as , Stress as ).

Analysis or Error analysis

Error analysis is a type of calculation that indicates the accuracy of your results, usually done through
determining the level of uncertainty. The sources of error that you need to consider will vary between
experiments and disciplines, but you will usually need to factor in both random and systematic errors.
Any analysis and calculations of the errors or uncertainties in the experiment are included in the results
section unless otherwise specified. In some disciplines the analysis and uncertainty calculations are
presented under its own heading. Check the requirements given in your unit information or lab manual, or
ask your tutor if you are unsure where to place calculations.

Tables and Figures

Most numerical data are presented using tables or figures. These need to be clearly labelled following the
standard conventions for captions, and titles must tell the reader precisely what data is being presented.
If a measurement is stated in the title, in a column of a table or on the axis of a graph and it has units
associated with it, these must be included (usually in brackets).
The table below present a series of measurements collected during an experiment. Notice the units in every
column with the brackets. Some measurements such as pH or Cp do not have units.
The figure below is a graphical representation of two parameter, this figure is written as Fig. 11. Notice the
axes are labelled (use appropriate units in brackets) and the caption at the bottom of the figure clearly
describes what the figure is about.

Figures can also be a wide variety of images. The figure below is an image taken from a type of molecular
microscope. Notice the caption at the bottom of the figure clearly describing the figure and the specification
of the magnification of the microscope.
If you must use figures from another source, indicate in the citation whether you have modified it in any way
to avoid collusion or plagiarism.
You must refer to every figure and table in your text, so that the reader understands the content and
purpose of each. Explain clearly how you obtained final values, and tell the reader where to find raw data
and sample calculations.

Example: Results

To calculate the fracture toughness of Perspex the derivative of 2λ with respect to a is required.
Linearizing Graph 1 allows an expression between compliance and crack length to be modelled.
The linearized relation form of the relationship allows the power law relationship to be determined
as shown below.
Discussion
The discussion section is where you interpret and evaluate your results. To do this you need to summarise
your key results, summarise unexpected results, and explain how your results relate to your aims,
hypotheses or literature as stated at the start of the report. Here are some tips on writing discussion
sections:
1. Summarise key results
 Identify and describe any trends or patterns you have observed. If these are numerical trends
simply saying phrases such as ‘higher, lower, increased or decreased’ is vague. Instead give a
numeric value in addition to describing an increase or decrease. For example, “an average
increase of 510 mL/min”.
 Compare the experimental results with any predictions you made.
 Interpret what the results mean in relation to the aims, research question(s) or hypothesis.
2. Summarise key unexpected results
 Describe any results which were unexpected or didn’t match any predictions.
 Suggest explanations for unexpected results based on the theory and procedures within the
experiment.
 Evaluate how any sources of error might impact on the interpretation of your results in relation
to the objectives, research question(s) or hypothesis.
3. Discuss limitations
 Clarify how the limitations of the study might affect the accuracy and precision of the answers
to your aim, research question or hypothesis.
 Suggest how the experiment or analysis could have been improved.
 Explain how your results do or do not address your aim, research question or hypothesis, and
indicate future directions in research.

Note

When discussing your results, begin by directing the reader to the relevant table or graph.
1. Direct the reader to the relevant figure, table or graph. This is called a location statement.
It tells the reader where to look and what to focus on.
2. Then explain what the results mean in relation to the experimental aim.
Below are several examples of sentences that are appropriate for a discussion section. Examples 1 and 2
show you sentences which can be used to compare your data to the literature and then explain unusual
data. Example 3 shows you how to use these sentences to draw your readers attention to your results and
provide a recommendation.

Example 1: Discussion - Comparing experimental data with data in the literature

Varying the angle of attack in the positive direction increased the lift until the wind reached an
angle of attack of 10°, after which it decreased. This is consistent with the standard trend [1] or
(Tahir, 2022).
Example 2: Discussion - Comparing and contrasting experimental data and explain
unusual results

The values found for the pressure coefficients around the cylinder (Fig. 5) are consistent with the
accepted trend for laminar flow (Fig. 6). The sudden increase in the pressure coefficient at 190° is
due to the cylinder becoming dislodged from its position perpendicular to the flow.

Example 3: Discussion - The main features of a discussion

The example below, from an experiment measuring the saturation pressure of water, shows the
main features of a Discussion.
Conclusions
The conclusion section is where you summarise your report. A conclusion is usually one paragraph or 200 to
300 words. In this way a conclusion is very similar to an abstract but with more emphasis on the results and
discussion.
Students often make the mistake of thinking a conclusion section is identical to a discussion section. Your
conclusion should answer the question: So what? Focus on the significance and relevance of your results in
relation to the aim of your experiment.
A conclusion never introduces any new ideas or results. Rather, it provides a concise summary of those
which have already been presented in the report. When writing a conclusion, you should:
 briefly restate the purpose of the experiment (the question it was seeking to answer)
 Indicate to what extent the aims of the experiment were achieved.
 Summarise the main points of your findings including key values.
 Summarise important limitations and the cause of unexpected results.
 Recommend improvements to overcome experimental limitations.

Example: Conclusion

Experimental results showed a clear correlation between the collector efficiency of a solar water
heater and water mass flow rate. The most efficient of the two collector designs tested was the
formed fully soldered joint, due to the greater contact area between collector and pipe maximising
heat transfer to the fluid. The optimal efficiency point obtained for this design was at the highest
water mass flow tested, 0.095 kg/s, suggesting that the actual optimum may be higher. It is
therefore recommended that a higher range of flow rates be tested. The data also suggests that an
efficiency of over 80 % is achievable, and significantly greater than the currently accepted
maximum.
References
When in-text citations are incorporated into your lab report (typically in the introduction or discussion) you
must always have the full citations included in a separate reference list. The reference list is a separate
section that comes after your conclusion (and before any appendices).
Check your lab manual or unit information to determine which referencing style is preferred. Carefully follow
that referencing style for your in-text references and reference list. You can find examples and information
about common referencing styles in the In-text Citation using EndNote.

Appendices
An appendix (plural = appendices) contains material that is too detailed to include in the main report, such
as tables of raw data or detailed calculations.
Each appendix must be:
 given a number (or letter) and title
 referred to by number (or letter) at the relevant point in the text.

Example: Referring to an appendix

The calculated values are shown in Table 3 below. For detailed calculations, see Appendix 1.