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1.1 Abstract
summarizes four essential aspects of the report: a) the purpose of the
experiment (sometimes expressed as the purpose of the report) b) key findings,
c) significance and d) major conclusions. The abstract often also includes a
brief reference to theory or methodology. The information should clearly enable
readers to decide whether they need to read your whole report. The abstract
should be one paragraph of 100-200 words (the sample below is 191 words).
(See also Components of Documents / Abstracts and Executive Summaries)
This experiment examined the effect of line orientation and arrowhead
angle on a subject’s ability to perceive line length, thereby testing the
Müller-Lyer illusion. The Müller-Lyer illusion is the classic visual illustration of
the effect of the surrounding on the perceived length of a line. The test was to
determine the point of subjective equality by having subjects adjust line
segments to equal the length of a standard line. Twenty-three subjects were
tested in a repeated measures design with four different arrowhead angles and
four line orientations. Each condition was tested in six randomized trials. The
lines to be adjusted were tipped with outward pointing arrows of varying
degrees of pointedness, whereas the standard lines had inward pointing arrows
of the same degree. Results showed that line lengths were overestimated in all
cases. The size of error increased with decreasing arrowhead angles. For line
orientation, overestimation was greatest when the lines were horizontal. This
last is contrary to our expectations. Further, the two factors functioned
independently in their effects on subjects’ point of subjective equality. These
results have important implications for human factors design applications
such as graphical display

1.2 Introduction
more narrowly focused than the abstract. It states a) the objective of the
experiment and b) provides the reader with background to the experiment.
State the topic of your report clearly and concisely, in one or two sentences.
When determining the objective, be sure to identify the end goal of the
experiment itself, not the pedagogical goal of the experiment:
The objective of this experiment was to learn how to use the SEM.
(The Professor’s reason for having you do the lab, but not the objective of
the lab itself).
The objective of the experiment was to determine the composition of an
unknown sample using Scanning Electron Microscopy.
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(This is your key result) The purpose of this experiment was to identify
the specific element in a metal powder sample by determining its crystal
structure and atomic radius. These were determined using the Debye-Sherrer
(powder camera) method of X-ray diffraction.
A good introduction also provides whatever background theory, previous
research, or formulas the reader needs to know. Usually, an instructor does
not want you to repeat the lab manual, but to show your own comprehension
of the problem. For example, the introduction that followed the example above
might describe the Debye-Sherrer method, and explain that from the diffraction
angles the crystal structure can be found by applying Bragg’s law. If the
amount of introductory material seems to be a lot, consider adding
subheadings such as: Theoretical Principles or Background.
*Note on Verb Tense: Introductions often create difficulties for students who
struggle with keeping verb tenses straight. These two points should help you
navigate the introduction:
The experiment is already finished. Use the past tense when talking about the
experiment.
● “The objective of the experiment was…”
The report, the theory and permanent equipment still exist; therefore,
these get the present tense:
● “The purpose of this report is…”
● “Bragg’s Law for diffraction is…”
● “The scanning electron microscope produces micrographs …”

1.3 Methods and Materials

can usually be a simple list, but make sure it is accurate and complete.
In some cases, you can simply direct the reader to a lab manual or standard
procedure: “Equipment was set up as in CHE 276 manual.”
Table 1. Apparatus required for <experiment name>.

Sl. No Name of the Apparatus Rating Quantity

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1.4 Experimental Procedure
describes the process in chronological order. Using clear paragraph
structure, explain all steps in the order they actually happened, not as they
were supposed to happen. If your professor says you can simply state that you
followed the procedure in the manual, be sure you still document occasions
when you did not follow that exactly (e.g. “At step 4 we performed four
repetitions instead of three, and ignored the data from the second repetition”).
If you’ve done it right, another researcher should be able to duplicate your
experiment.
Table 2. Title of the second notice [note this is just a template].

Header 1 Header 2 Header 3 Header 4

1.5 Results
are usually dominated by calculations, tables and figures; however, you
still need to state all significant results explicitly in verbal form, for example:
Using the calculated lattice parameter gives, then, R = 0.1244 nm.
Graphics need to be clear, easily read, and well labeled (e.g. Figure 1:
Input Frequency and Capacitor Value). An important strategy for making your
results effective is to draw the reader’s attention to them with a sentence or
two, so the reader has a focus when reading the graph.

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Figure 1. Two-dimensional nanomaterials.

In most cases, providing a sample calculation is sufficient in the report.

Leave the remainder in an appendix. Likewise, your raw data can be placed in
an appendix. Refer to appendices as necessary, pointing out trends and
identifying special features.

Figure 2. (a) Crystal structure and (b) Brillouin zone of graphene structure.

1.6 Discussion
The most important part of your report, because here, you show that you
understand the experiment beyond the simple level of completing it. Explain.
Analyse. Interpret. Some people like to think of this as the “subjective” part of
the report. By that, they mean this is what is not readily observable. This part
of the lab focuses on a question of understanding “What is the significance or
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meaning of the results?” To answer this question, use both aspects of
discussion, a) Analysis and b) Interpretation.
a) Analysis: What do the results indicate clearly? What have you found?
Explain what you know with certainty based on your results and draw
conclusions:
Since none of the samples reacted to the Silver foil test, sulfide, if present
at all, does not exceed a concentration of approximately 0.025 g/l. It is
therefore unlikely that the water main pipe break was the result of
sulfide-induced corrosion.
b) Interpretation: What is the significance of the results? What
ambiguities exist? What questions might we raise? Find logical explanations for
problems in the data:
Although the water samples were received on 14 August 2000, testing
could not be started until 10 September 2000. It is normally desirably to test
as quickly as possible after sampling in order to avoid potential sample
contamination. The effect of the delay is unknown.
More particularly, focus your discussion with strategies like these:
i) Compare expected results with those obtained: If there were
differences, how can you account for them? Saying “human error” implies
you’re incompetent. Be specific; for example, the instruments could not
measure precisely, the sample was not pure or was contaminated, or
calculated values did not take account of friction.
ii) Analyze experimental error: Was it avoidable? Was it a result of
equipment? If an experiment was within the tolerances, you can still account
for the difference from the ideal. If the flaws result from the experimental
design explain how the design might be improved.
iii) Explain your results in terms of theoretical issues: Often
undergraduate labs are intended to illustrate important physical laws, such as
Kirchhoff’s voltage law, or the Müller-Lyer illusion. Usually you will have
discussed these in the introduction. In this section move from the results to
the theory. How well has the theory been illustrated?
iv) Relate results to your experimental objective(s): If you set out to
identify an unknown metal by finding its lattice parameter and its atomic
structure, you’d better know the metal and its attributes.

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v) Compare your results to similar investigations: In some cases, it is
legitimate to compare outcomes with classmates, not to change your answer,
but to look for any anomalies between the groups and discuss those.
vi) Analyze the strengths and limitations of your experimental design:
This is particularly useful if you designed the thing you’re testing (e.g. a
circuit).

1.7 Conclusion
Can be very short in most undergraduate laboratories. Simply state what
you know now for sure, as a result of the lab:
Example: The Debye-Sherrer method identified the sample material as
nickel due to the measured crystal structure (fcc) and atomic radius
(approximately 0.124 nm).
Notice that, after the material is identified in the example above, the
writer provides a justification. We know it is nickel because of its structure and
size. This makes a sound and sufficient conclusion. Generally, this is enough;
however, the conclusion might also be a place to discuss weaknesses of
experimental design, what future work needs to be done to extend your
conclusions, or what the implications of your conclusion are. (See also
Components of Reports / Conclusions)

1.8 Questions and Answers

Question should be gathered from the lab manual, or the lab instructor
will share the questions.
● Q-1: What is …XYZ?
o A-1: .xyz is a top-level domain name. It was proposed in ICANN's
New generic top-level domain Program, and became available to
the general public on June 2, 2014
● Q-2: What is …
o A-2: .xyz is a top-level domain name. It was proposed in ICANN's
New generic top-level domain Program, and became available to
the general public on June 2, 2014

1.9 References
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Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Experiment No:
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include your lab manual and any outside reading you have done. (See
Online Handbook / Accurate Documentation for an appropriate way to
reference in your field)
include your lab manual and any outside reading you have done.
(See Online Handbook / Accurate Documentation for an appropriate way to
reference in your field)

1.10 Appendices
typically include such elements as raw data, calculations, graphs
pictures or tables that have not been included in the report itself. Each kind of
item should be contained in a separate appendix. Make sure you refer to each
appendix at least once in your report. For example, the results section might
begin by noting: “Micrographs printed from the Scanning Electron Microscope
are contained in Appendix A.”

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