Chem 31A:

Lecture 2: Units, Stoichiometry

Sept. 22nd
I. Data and Measurements
a. Some quantities are meaningless without dimensions
For ex:
Dimension SI Unit Others
time s min, hr
length m inch, ft, yd
mass kg g, metric tonne, amu
charge C= As

b. Units of number are useful

Parts per mil (ppm) = 10^-6
Percent = 10^-2
c. Know the prefixes (in ppt Sept 22nd)
d. Sig Figs tells how certainty in a measurement, also a measurement is
only as accurate as the instrument used to measure.
- Adding/ Subtracting- round to the least sig fig’s (lsf) place
For ex: 5.33+6.3 = 11.6 because the lsf place is .1
- Multiplying/ Dividing- the smallest number of sig fig
e. Antoine Lavoisier: heated Hg in a closed container with air
Observations:
- formed crumbly residue
- less gas in the container
- air left did not support life
- weighed product, mass equaled before and after
mass calx= mass of Hg + mass of used air
- compound has different properties than the original
elements
- Law of the Conservation of Mass: in a chemical reaction,
mass is always conserved
- Law of Definite Proportions: fixed empirical formula for
the compound
II. Scientific Process
Hypothesis Theory
 test test confirm or revise
Experiments
 test
Law or Model
III. Atomic Theory of Matter
1. All matter consists of solid indivisible atoms /atoms are divisible
2. Atoms of a given element are same in mass and other properties /
isotopes have different masses
 3. Different elements have unequal masses/ the atomic proton tells
the element b/c isotopes of different elements can have the same
mass
4. Retain their identity in chemical reactions/ not nuclear, elements
can lose or gain ions
5. Formation of compounds occurs through combination of elements in
small whole number ratio / proteins are not small ratios

Lecture 3: The Fundamental Particles and Stoichiometry

Sept 24th
I. Fundamental Particles
a. Proton- has a significant mass (~1 amu) and charge (+1.0602 x
10^-19)
b. Neutrons- no charge significant mass (~1 amu)
c. Electrons- has charge and little mass (-1.0602 x 10^-19)
d. A neutral atom has protons = electrons, no charge.

Lecture 4: Applications of Stoichiometry

Sept 27th
I. Conversion between molecular number and mass:
i. Mass/ formula mass = mass/ FM= number of molecules
ii. 1g/1amu = 1 mole
iii. 1 g/ mole = 1 amu
iv. 1 mole of 1 amu = 1g
b. Example: 1 g of carbon hydrogen compound burned in pure
oxygen, producing 3.38 g of carbon dioxide and .690 of water. The
molecular weight of the compound is 78.11 amu. What is the
molecular formula of the unknown compound?
i. CxHy + O2 ? CO2 +? H2O
ii. NC = 3.38/14.01 = .0768 moles of C
iii. NH = (.690/ 18.015) x 2= .0767 moles of H
iv. C/H= 1; therefore the empirical formula is CH
v. Molecular weight of CH is 13.02 amu
vi. x=y 78.11/13.03 = 6  C6H6
c. Number of a reaction: a mole of a reaction refers to the number of
a reaction = 1 mole for a minimally balanced reaction equation
without any fractional stoichiometric coefficients.
d. Number of reactions based on given quantity of a reactant: (the
mole number of the reactant)/ (the stoichiometric coefficient for
the reactant)
e. In reactions, one or more reactants are often in excess; a certain
reactant is in deficiency, limiting the number of reactions that can
occur- it is important to identify the limiting reactant.
f. Example: If we have 100. Kg of hydrogen and 180 kg of oxygen,
how much water can we produce?
i. 2H2 + O2  2H20
 ii. 100kg 180kg ?
iii. 2.016 amu 32.0 amu 18.015 amu
iv. 49.6 kmoles 5.62 kmole ?
v. 24.8 rxn 5.62 rxn ?
vi. 2 X 5.62 = 11.24 rxn
vii. 38.35 kmol 0 kmol 11.24 kmol
viii.  11.24 kmol H2O
Lecture
Sept 29th
I. Number of a reaction: to the number of minimumly balanced reaction
equation without any fractional coefficients
II. Composition of compounds example:
a. How many Mn atoms are in each particle
b. R= 2.5 nm= 2.5 x 10^-9 m = 2.5 x 10^-7
c. V= 4/3r3 = 4/3 (2.5 x 10-7)3 = 6.5 x 10-20 cm3
d. M=p x v = 5.7 g/cm3 x 6.5 x 10-20 = 3.7 x 10-19
e. Number of a molecule = mass/ FM = 3.7 x 10-19/ 3769.9 amu x 6.02
x 1023
f. 60 MnCd19  Mn = 60 atoms
Lecture
Oct 1st
I. Structure of Atom
a. Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering experiments gave the charge
of the proton. Alpha particles were fired at a piece of gold paper.
Nucleus was responsible for the scattering of the alpha particles.
b. Nucleus has all the mass and is very small compared to an atom:
i. More dense than an atom
ii. Less volume than an atom
iii. Smaller than an atom
c. Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometer (RBS) determines wht
atoms are present in solid samples.
d. The backscattered energy of the ion is greater the greater the mass
of the nucleus from which the ion backscatters
II. Electrons in the atoms
a. Reactivity of an atom is associated with its electrons.
b. In a reaction, atoms lose, gain or share electrons with other atoms
c. The ability of an atom holding onto its electrons determines its
reactivity
d. The nuclear core charge electrons see and the radius of an atom
determines the ionization energy: energy needed to remove an
electron from the atom, or electron binding energy.
III. Coulomb’s Law
a. PE = Kelec (qc e)/a  0 (attraction)
b. IE= PE(r = ) – PE (r=a)
c. IE = Kelec (qc e)/ - Kelec (qc e)/a = - Kelec (qc e)/a
 d. Larger qc .the larger IE
e. Smaller radius, large IE
f. IE to probe structures of atoms: radius
g. What keeps the electron from falling into the nucleus?
i. It is too fast, the KE of electrons rise as the electron gets too
close to the nucleus
Lecture
Oct 4th
I. H atom, radius a= 0.53 A, IE = 1.3 MJ/ mol (very small amount of
energy 1.3 MJ/ 6.02 x 1023 = 2.2 x 10-18 J)
II. The first ionization energy of atoms follow certain trends:
a. Decreases when going up and to the right
III. The outermost electrons see a core charge qc = nuclear charge Z - # of
inner shell electrons
a. As you go across the row the core charge increases, the radius
shrinks because there is more core charge on the outside. The
smaller the radius, the higher the ionization energy.
b. Core charge remain constant in the column, same core charge but
more shells so the radius must increase and the ionization energy
decreases
IV. Valence electrons: electrons on the outermost shell
V. Two types of charge that we will use
a. Core charge: Z – (number of electrons in inner shells) is an integer
b. Effective Nuclear Charge: Z – s
i. S: shielding electron number: obtain experimentally b
fitting to a formula. Is often a non-integer larger than
number of inner electrons due to shielding by electrons in
the same outermost shell
ii. The effective nuclear charge is often smaller than core cha
rge.
iii. IE of F- < IE of Ne because the nuclear charge on the
electrons is smaller
VI. Light is both Wave and Particle
a. Light is a wave:  = c:  = frequency of light,  = wavelength, c=
speed of light= 3 x 108 m/s. The longer the wave, the slower.
b. Light is a particle (photons), with energy h, h= Planck’s constant
= 6.63 x 10-34 Js
i. Photoelectron Spectroscopy (PES)
1. Uses high energy x-ray light to irradiate sample
under ultra high vacuum condition
2. Measure the kinetic energy of electrons that are
ionized by the x-ray radiation

Lecture
Oct 6th
I. Photo Energy
a. Photon energy = ionization energy + photoelectron kinetic energy
b. Measure the kinetic energy of electrons that are ionized by x ray
radiation, as a way to measure ionization energy
c. PES can measure the ionization energy for electrons in any shell
for light
d. PES can ionize electrons in various shells and subshells of an atom
i. Each peak in the reading shows the subshell
ii. Peak height proportional to number of extracted electrons
from a subshell
iii. X axis shows ionization energy
iv. PES reveals large differences in IE of different shells
II. Electron Configuration
a. Energies of electrons in an atom are at discrete levels, not
continuous.
b. Electrons reside in shells with an integer n as shell label, nth shell
i. Larger the shell number, outer shell, lower IE
c. Each shell has subshells, with l as label, l= 0,1,2,3…n-1 (l=0 to n-1)
i. IE decreases for higher subshells
d. Each subshell l has magnetic orbitals, labels: m = --l, -l +1, -l +2, l
e. Electrons occupy orbitals in the inner shells first and then outer
shells
f. Pauli’s exclusion principle: each orbital can accommodate no more
than 2 electrons with opposite spins (+spin ) (- spin )
g. Hund’s rule: electrons should be asses to a subshell with the same
spin

Shell # Subshell Orbital

N=1 L=0; 1s Ml = 0,;1s_
N=2 L= 0,1;2s2p 2s_ 2p_ _ _
N=3 L=0,1,2 ; 3s3p3d 3s_3p_ _ _ 3d_ _ _ _ _

Building Electron Configurations

 In general, inner shell and inner subshell electrons have lower energy
and should be filled with electrons first.
 But there are exceptions. 4s is lower in energy than 3d ans should be
filled with electrons first. 5s is lower than 4d etc.
 Ex:
H: Z=1 ; 1s 
He: Z =2; 1s2 
Li: Z= 3; 1s2 2s1 
C: Z=4; 1s2 2s2 2p2
 Cl: Z=17; 1s2 2s2  2p63s2 3p5

Inert gas atoms have completely filled subshells: high stability against losing or
gaining additional electrons, non-reactive chemically

Example: F requires one electron so it is highly reactive

Lecture
Oct 11th
I. Lewis Dot Structure
a. CO2 Example: How many bonds can we form in it?
a. O=C=O