Chapter 2

Routing Protocols with Bridges

Mr. Uppala Suman

Lecturer,SECE.

1
Introduction

• Several different devices for interconnecting networks

Ethernet Ethernet
Hub Hub
Hosts Hosts

Bridge Router

Token- X.25
ring Network
Gateway

2
Ethernet Hub

• Connects hosts to Ethernet LAN and connects multiple Ethernet LANs

• Collisions are propagated

Ethernet Ethernet
Hub Hub

Host Host

IP IP

LLC LLC

802.3 MAC Hub Hub 802.3 MAC

3
Bridges/LAN switches

• A bridge or LAN switch is a device that interconnects two or more Local

Area Networks (LANs) and forwards packets between these networks.
• Bridges/LAN switches operate at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

Token-
ring

Bridge

IP IP
Bridge
LLC LLC LLC

802.3 MAC LAN 802.3 MAC 802.5 MAC LAN 802.5 MAC
4
Ethernet Hubs vs. Ethernet Switches

• An Ethernet switch is a packet switch for Ethernet frames

• Buffering of frames prevents collisions.
• Each port is isolated and builds its own collision domain
• An Ethernet Hub does not perform buffering:
• Collisions occur if two frames arrive at the same time.

Hub Switch
CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD

CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD

HighSpeed
Backplane
CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD

CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD

Input Output
Buffers Buffers

5
Routers

• Routers operate at the Network Layer (Layer 3)

• Interconnect IP networks

IP network IP network IP network

Host Router Router Host

Application Application

TCP TCP

IP IP protocol IP IP protocol IP IP protocol IP

Network Data Network Network Data Network Network Data Network

Access Link Access Access Link Access Access Link Access

Host Router Router Host

9
Bridges versus Routers

• An enterprise network (e.g., university) with a large number of

local area networks (LANs) can use routers or bridges
– 1980s: LANs interconnection via bridges
– Late 1980s and early 1990s: increasingly use of routers
– Since mid1990s: LAN switches replace most routers
– Late 2000s: Switches and SDN

7
A Routed Enterprise Network

Router
Internet

Hub

FDDI

FDDI

8
A Switched Enterprise Network

Router
Internet

Bridge/
Switch

9
Interconnecting networks:
Bridges versus Routers

Routers Bridges/LAN switches

• Each host’s IP address must be • MAC addresses of hosts are

configured hardwired

• If network is reconfigured, IP
addresses may need to be • No network configuration needed
reassigned

• Routing done via RIP or OSPF • Routing done by

– learning bridge algorithm
• Each router manipulates packet – spanning tree algorithm
header (e.g., reduces TTL field)
• Bridges do not manipulate frames

10
Bridges

Self-configuring without hardware or software changes

Bridges should not impact operation of existing LANs

Three parts to understanding bridges:

(1) Forwarding of Frames
(2) Learning of Addresses
(3) Spanning Tree Algorithm

11
Frame Forwarding

• Each bridge maintains a MAC forwarding table

• Forwarding table plays the same role as the routing table of an IP router
• Entries have the form ( MAC address, port, age), where
MAC address: host name or group address
port: port number of bridge
age: aging time of entry (in seconds)
with interpretation:
a machine with MAC address lies in direction of the port number
from the bridge. The entry is age time units old.

MAC address port age

MAC forwarding table a0:e1:34:82:ca:34 1 10
45:6d:20:23:fe:2e 2 20

12
Frame Forwarding

• Assume a MAC frame arrives on port x.

Port x
Is MAC address of
destination in forwarding Bridge 2
table for ports A, B, or C ? Port A Port C
Port B

Not
Found? found ?

Flood the frame,

Forward the frame on the i.e.,
appropriate port send the frame on all
ports except port x.

13
Address Learning (Learning Bridges)

• Routing entries set automatically with a simple heuristic:

Source field of a frame that arrives on a port tells which
hosts are reachable from this port.

Src=x, Dest=y Src=y, Dest=x

Src=x, Dest=y
Port 1 Port 4
x is at Port 3
Src=x, Dest=y
y is at Port 4 Src=x, Dest=y
Port 2 Port 5

Src=y, Dest=x
Src=x, Dest=y Src=x, Dest=y
Port 3 Port 6

14
Address Learning (Learning Bridges)

Learning Algorithm:
• For each frame received, the source stores the source
field in the forwarding database together with the port
where the frame was received.
• All entries are deleted after some time (default is 15
seconds). Src=y, Dest=x
Port 1 Port 4
x is at Port 3
y is at Port 4
Port 2 Port 5

Src=y, Dest=x
Port 3 Port 6

15
Example

•Consider the following packets:

(Src=A, Dest=F), (Src=C, Dest=A), (Src=E, Dest=C)

•What have the bridges learned?

BrI d g e 1 Bridge 2

Port1 Port2 Port1 Port2

LAN 1 LAN 2 LAN 3

A B C D E F

16
Need for a forwarding between networks
• What bridges do if
some LANs are LAN 2
reachable only in d

multiple hops ?
Bridge 3 Bridge 4

• What bridges do if the

path between two LANs Bridge 1 LAN 5
is not unique ?
Bridge 5

LAN 1

Bridge 2

LAN 3 LAN 4

17
Problems with network of bridges

• Consider the two LANs that are connected

by two bridges.
• Assume host n is transmitting a LAN 2
frame F with unknown destination.
What is happening? F F
• Bridges A and B flood the frame
to LAN 2. Bridge A Bridge B
• Bridge B sees F on LAN 2 (with F F
unknown destination), and copies
the frame back to LAN 1 LAN 1
• Bridge A does the same. F
• Duplication causes “broadcast storm”
Where’s the problem? What’s the
solution ? host n

18
Transparent Bridges

• Three principal approaches can be found:

– Fixed Routing
– Source Routing
– Spanning Tree Routing (IEEE 802.1d)

• We only discuss the last one

• Bridges that execute the spanning tree algorithm are called

transparent bridges

19
Spanning Tree Protocol (IEEE 802.1d)

• Spanning Tree Protocol (SPT) is a

solution to prevent loops when LAN 2
forwarding frames between LANs
– Standardized as IEEE 802.1d
d

Bridge 3 Bridge 4
• SPT organizes bridges and LANs as
spanning tree in a dynamic
environment Bridge 1 LAN 5
– Frames are forwarded only along
the branches of the spanning tree
Bridge 5
– Trees don’t have loops

• Bridges exchange messages to LAN 1

configure the bridge (Bridge Protocol
Data Unit or BPDUs) to build tree.
Bridge 2

LAN 3 LAN 4

20
What do the BPDUs do?

With the help of the BPDUs, bridges can:

• Elect a single bridge as the root bridge.
• Calculate the distance of the shortest path to the root bridge
• Each LAN can determine a designated bridge, which is the
bridge closest to the root. The designated bridge will forward
packets towards the root bridge.
• Each bridge can determine a root port, the port that gives the
best path to the root.
• Select ports to be included in the spanning tree.

21
Concepts

• Each bridge as a unique identifier: Bridge ID

Bridge ID = Priority : 2 bytes
Bridge MAC address: 6 bytes
– Priority is configured
– Bridge MAC address is lowest MAC addresses of all ports

• Each port of a bridge has a unique identifier (port ID).

• Root Bridge: The bridge with the lowest identifier is the root
of the spanning tree.
• Root Port: Each bridge has a root port which identifies the
next hop from a bridge to the root.

22
Concepts

• Root Path Cost: For each bridge, the cost of the min-cost
path to the root.

• Designated Bridge, Designated Port: Single bridge on a

LAN that provides the minimal cost path to the root for this
LAN:
- if two bridges have the same cost, select
one with highest priority
-if min-cost bridge has two or more ports
on the LAN, select port with lowest ID

• Note: We assume that “cost”of a path is the number of “hops”.

23
Steps of Spanning Tree Algorithm

• Each bridge is sending out BPDUs that contain the following

information:
root ID cost bridge ID port ID

root bridge (what the sender thinks it is)

root path cost for sending bridge
Identifies sending bridge
Identifies the sending port

• Transmission of BPDUs results in the distributed computation

of a spanning tree
• Convergence of the algorithm is very quick

24
Ordering of Messages

• We define an ordering of BPDU messages

ID R1 C1 ID B1 ID P1 ID R2 C2 ID B2 ID P2
M1 M2

We say M1 advertises a better path than M2 (“M1<<M2”) if

(R1 < R2),
Or (R1 == R2) and (C1 < C2),
Or (R1 == R2) and (C1 == C2) and (B1 < B2),
Or (R1 == R2) and (C1 == C2) and (B1 == B2) and (P1 < P2)

25
Initializing the Spanning Tree Protocol

• Initially, all bridges assume they are the root bridge.

• Each bridge B sends BPDUs of this form on its LANs from
each port P:

B 0 B P

• Each bridge looks at the BPDUs received on all its ports and
its own transmitted BPDUs.
• Root bridge updated to the smallest received root ID that has
been received so far

26
Operations of Spanning Tree Protocol

• Each bridge B looks on all its ports for BPDUs that are better than its
own BPDUs
• Suppose a bridge with BPDU:
M1 R1 C1 B1 P1
receives a “better”BPDU:

M2 R2 C2 B2 P2
Then it will update the BPDU to:

R2 C2+1 B1 P1
• However, the new BPDU is not necessarily sent out
• On each bridge, the port where the “best BPDU” (via relation “<<“)was
received is the root port of the bridge.
27
When to send a BPDU

• Say, B has generated a BPDU for each port x

R Cost B x

• B will send this BPDU on port x only if its

Port x
BPDU is better (via relation “<<“)than any
BPDU that B received from port x.
Bridge B
Port A Port C
Port B
• In this case, B also assumes that it
is the designated bridge for the
LAN to which the port connects
• And port x is the designated port of that LAN

28
Selecting the Ports for the Spanning Tree

• Each bridges makes a local decision which of its ports are

part of the spanning tree
• Now B can decide which ports are in the spanning tree:
• B’sroot port is part of the spanning tree
• All designated ports are part of the spanning tree
• All other ports are not part of the spanning tree

• B’sports that are in the spanning tree will forward packets

(=forwarding state)
• B’sports that are not in the spanning tree will not forward
packets (=blocking state)

29
Building the Spanning Tree

• Consider the network on the right. LAN 2

• Assume that the bridges have d
D
calculated the designated ports
Bridge Bridge
(D) and the root ports (R) as
D R
indicated. R

Bridge LAN 5
R

• What is the spanning tree? Bridge

– On each LAN, connect R ports D

to the D ports on this LAN LAN 1

R

D
Bridge
D

LAN 3 LAN 4

30
Example

• Assume that all bridges send out their BPDU’s once per second, and assume that
all bridges send their BPDUs at the same time
• Assume that all bridges are turned on simultaneously at time T=0 sec.

Bridge ID 7 Bridge ID 5

LAN LAN LAN

port A port C port A port C
port B port B

port B

port A Bridge
port A port A
Bridge LAN ID 1
port B LAN
ID 3
port C Bridge ID
port B 2

port B
port C
LAN port A port D LAN
36
Bridge ID 6
Example: BPDU’s sent by the bridges

Bridge 1 Bridge 2 Bridge 3 Bridge 5 Bridge 6 Bridge 7

T=0sec (1,0,1,port) (2,0,2,port) (3,0,3,port) (5,0,5,port) (6,0,6,port) (7,0,7,port)

sent on ports: ports ports A,B,C ports ports ports

A,B A,B A,B,C A,B,C,D A,B,C

T=1sec
(1,0,1,port) (2,0,2,port) (1,1,3,port) (1,1,5,port) (1,1,6,port) (1,1,7,port)
A,B A,B A,C B,C A,C,D A

T=2sec
(1,0,1,port) (1,2,2,port) (1,1,3,port) (1,1,5,port) (1,1,6,port) (1,1,7,port)
A,B none A,C B,C D none

•In the table (1,0,1,port) means that the BPDU is (1,0,1,A) if the BPDU is sent on port A
and (1,0,1,B) if it is sent on port B.
•At T=1, Bridge 7 receives two BPDUs from Bridge 1: (1,0,1,A) and (1,0,1,B). We assume
that A is numerically smaller than B. If not, then the root port of Bridge 7 changes. 37
Example: Settings after convergence

Bridge Bridge Bridge Bridge Bridge Bridge

1 2 3 5 6 7
Root Port - A B A B B
Designated Ports A,B - A,C B,C D -
Blocked ports - B - - A,C A,C

Bridge ID 7 Bridge ID 5

LAN LAN LAN

port A port C port A port C

Resulting tree: port B port B

port B

port A Bridge
port A port A
Bridge LAN ID 1
port B LAN
ID 3
port C Bridge ID
port B 2

port B
port C
LAN port A port D LAN

Bridge ID 6 38
802.1Q VLAN frame format
type

preamble dest. source data (payload) CRC

address address 802.1 frame

type
dest. source
preamble
address address
data (payload) CRC 802.1Q frame

2-byte Tag Protocol Identifier Recomputed

(value: 81-00) CRC

Tag Control Information (12 bit VLAN ID field,

3 bit priority field like IP TOS)

•Link Layer •5-34