Learning Bridges &

Spanning Tree Algorithm

Unit -2
 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Just Above the Data Link Layer

Application
• Bridging
Presentation • How do we connect LANs?
Session • Function:
Transport • Route packets between LANs

Network • Key challenges:

• Plug-and-play, self configuration
Data Link • How to resolve loops
Physical
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 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Background

• Originally, Ethernet was a broadcast technology

Terminator

Repeater
Tee Connector

 Pros: Simplicity Hub

 Hardware is stupid and cheap
 Cons: No scalability
More hosts = more collisions = pandemonium
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
 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
The Case for Bridging

• Need a device that can bridge different LANs

• Only forward packets to intended recipients
• No broadcast!

Send Packet A Send Packet A

BC BC
Bridge
B Hub B

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C C
 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Bridging the LANs

Hub

Hub

• Bridging limits the size of collision domains

• Vastly improves scalability
• Question: could the whole Internet be one bridging domain?

• Tradeoff: bridges are more complex than hubs

• Physical layer device vs. data link layer device 5

• Need memory buffers, packet processing hardware, routing tables

 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Bridge Internals

Bridge Hub
Inputs Outputs

Switch
Fabric

Makes
Memory routing
buffer
•decisions
Bridges have memory buffers to queue packets
• Bridge is intelligent, only forwards packets to the correct
output 6

• Bridges are high performance, full N x line rate is possible

 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Bridges

• Original form of Ethernet switch

• Connect multiple IEEE 802 LANs at layer 2
1.• Goals
Forwarding of frames
2. Learning
• Reduce theof (MAC)
collision Addresses
domain

3. • Complete transparency
Spanning Tree Algorithm (to handle loops)
• “Plug-and-play,” self-configuring
• No hardware of software changes on hosts/hubs
• Should not impact existing LAN operations

Hub
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 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Frame Forwarding Tables

MAC Address Port Age

00:00:00:00:00:AA 1 1 minute
00:00:00:00:00:BB 2 7 minutes
00:00:00:00:00:CC 3 2 seconds
00:00:00:00:00:DD 1 3 minutes

• Each bridge maintains a forwarding table

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Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Frame Forwarding in Action

Port 1

Port 4 Port 2

Port 3
• Assume a frame arrives on port 1
• If the destination MAC address is in the forwarding table,
send the frame on the correct output port
• If the destination MAC isn’t in the forwarding table, 9

broadcast the frame on all ports except 1

 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Learning Addresses

• Manual configuration is possible, but…

• Time consuming
• Error Prone
• Not adaptable (hosts may get added or removed)

• Instead, learn addresses using a simpleDelete

heuristic
old entries
• afterport
Look at the source of frames that arrive on each a timeout

MAC Address Port Age

00:00:00:00:00:AA 1 0 minutes
00:00:00:00:00:AA
00:00:00:00:00:BB 2 0 minutes

Port 1 Port 2
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Hub 00:00:00:00:00:BB
 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Complicated Learning Example

Bridge 1 Bridge 2
AA 1 AA 1
CC 2 CC 1
EE 2 EE 2

• <Src=AA, Dest=FF>
• <Src=CC, Dest=AA> Port 1 Port 2 Port 1 Port 2
• <Src=EE, Dest=CC>
Hub Hub Hub

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AA BB CC DD EE FF
 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
The Danger of Loops
• <Src=AA, Dest=DD> CC DD
• This continues to infinity
• How do we stop this?

• Remove loops from the Hub

topology
• Without physically unplugging Port 2 Port 2
cables AA 12 AA 12
• 802.1 uses an algorithm to Port 1 Port 1
build and maintain a spanning
tree for routing Hub

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AA BB
 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Spanning Tree Definition
• A subset of edges in a graph that:
• Span all nodes
• Do not create any cycles

• This structure is a tree

5

1 2 3 4 6 2

5 3
4 1

6 7 13 7
 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
802.1 Spanning Tree Approach

1. Elect a bridge to be the root of the tree

2. Every bridge finds shortest path to the root
3. Union of these paths becomes the spanning tree

• Bridges exchange Configuration Bridge Protocol Data

Units (BPDUs) to build the tree
• Used to elect the root bridge
• Calculate shortest paths
• Locate the next hop closest to the root, and its port
• Select ports to be included in the spanning trees

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 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Definitions
• Bridge ID (BID) = <Random Number>
• Root Bridge: bridge with the lowest BID in the tree
• Path Cost: cost (in hops) from a transmitting bridge to the
root
• Each port on a bridge has a unique Port ID
• Root Port: port that forwards to the root on each bridge
• Designated Bridge: the bridge on a LAN that provides the
minimal cost path to the root
• The designated bridge on each LAN is unique

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Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Determining the Root

• Initially, all hosts assume they are the root

• Bridges broadcast BPDUs:
Root ID Path Cost to Root Bridge ID

• Based on received BPDUs, each switch chooses:

• A new root (smallest known Root ID)
• A new root port (what interface goes towards the root)
• A new designated bridge (who is the next hop to root)

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 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Comparing BPDUs

BPDU1 BPDU2
R1 Cost1 B1 R2 Cost2 B2

if R1 < R2: use BPDU1

else if R1 == R2 and Cost1 < Cost2: use BPDU1
else if R1 == R2 and Cost1 == Cost 2 and B1 < B2: use BPDU1
else: use BPDU2

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 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Spanning Tree Construction

0: 0/0 12:
12:12/0
0/1 3: 0/2
3/0

27: 27/0
27: 0/1 41: 3/1
41:41/0
0/2

3/2
9: 0/3
9/0 68: 3/2
9/1
68:68/0
0/3
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 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Bridges vs. Switches

• Bridges make it possible to increase LAN capacity

• Reduces the amount of broadcast packets
• No loops

• Switch is a special case of a bridge

• Each port is connected to a single host
• Either a client machine
• Or another switch
• Links are full duplex
• Simplified hardware: no need for CSMA/CD!
• Can have different speeds on each port

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 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Switching the Internet

• Capabilities of switches:
• Network-wide routing based on MAC addresses
• Learn routes to new hosts automatically
• Resolve loops

• Could the whole Internet be one switching domain?

NO
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 Learning Bridges & Spanning Tree Algorithm
Limitations of MAC Routing

• Inefficient
• Flooding packets to locate unknown hosts

• Poor Performance
• Spanning tree does not balance load
• Hot spots

• Extremely Poor Scalability

• Every switch needs every MAC address on the Internet in its
routing table!
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