DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

BY
Prof. Ihaji Elvis
Introduction

Development of human life begins in a simple way with the fertilization of the
female egg by the male sperm which continues throughout the individual’s life span.
The development itself involves changes which eventually become complex. It is
affected by biological (nature) and environmental (nurture) factors which interact to
shape development of life. The changes in human life have led to the discipline of
developmental psychology which is classified into two major divisions,:
child/adolescent psychology and adulthood and aging psychology. Developmental
psychology is wide and its domain extends to all other branches of psychology.
Human beings keep developing because development is unending. To live is to
change because life is not static but always in flux. Nature has no fixed entities but
always in transition and transformation from conception to birth to old age: All of us
undergo dramatic changes as we pass from conception into infancy, childhood,
adolescence and adulthood and old age. We start to grow small, grow up and grow
old. Even at ninety years changes continue to take place at every living individual
and such a person regresses back to childhood behaviour. At the very extreme old
age, the individual adult is carried about and assisted in movement, and clean up like
an infant. His diet changes from solid food to liquid just like an infant. Thus the
author sees developmental psychology as life circle from conception to childhood,
and to aging similar to childhood.
Psychologists refer to the changes in human beings over the span of life as
development.

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The concept of development
The development of an individual begins when life starts at conception.
Conception is the fertilization of the ovum or egg by the sperm cell from the male.
Development as a concept refers to those changes in the potentials of an individual
that are qualitative in nature. The changes are said to be qualitative, since the
individuals change either for good or for bad as they accumulate experiences.
Development in brief means the gradual and orderly process of unfolding the
individual characteristics at each successive stage which involves emergence,
expansion and refinement of individual capacities to provide greater facilities in
functioning. According to Zanden (1978) development is the orderly and sequential
change that occurs within the passage of time as an organism moves from conception
to death. It includes those processes that are biologically programmed within the
individual, and those by which the individual changes through environment.
Developmental psychology is a process in which individual human beings
grow over span of time and becomes something different, while remaining in some
respects the same. The human being remains in an unending state of development.
Thus we see human development as an unfinished business and death is its only
cessation. It is a process that does not end.
The new trend now is that developmental psychology focuses on human aspect
of development and therefore called “Human development”. development of human
beings can be achieved through:
i. Growth: It involves changes or increases in size such as height and weight. It
can be qualitative or quantitative. It refers to physical changes that occur in an
individual from conception and maturation to adulthood. It includes
psychological changes that are positive and that aids the individual to function
more effectively. Growth is noticeable in early development that occurs with

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 changing age of the child. Growth levels up as individual approaches sexual
maturity.
ii. Maturation: it is the gradual process of bringing different areas viz: physical,
social and psychological, into full development. Maturational processe to some
extent is independent of environmental conditions and experiences because it
involves unfolding of genetically prescribed part of the body. When we say an
individual is matured for certain function, we imply that he is ripe/ready for
such functions. A child’s body parts for example, have to attain certain levels
of maturity before the child can learn to sit alone, then stand, and walk. Both
growth and maturation involve biological changes
iii. Learning: Is an aspect of development. It is more or less a relatively
permanent change in behaviour of an individual due to experience. Learning is
comes from exercise and the effort on the part of the individual. Through
learning, the child brings about changes in his physical structure, behavior and
acquires competence in using his hereditary resources. Unless the child has
opportunities for learning, many of his hereditary potentials will never reach
their optimum development. Learning occurs through out life in the family,
school, office, market etc. Learning depends on growth and maturation which
form the basis of readiness for physical and mental activity. Learning provides
flexibility in behaviour and enables the individual to adjust in the environment.
The three are interrelated and operate jointly to achieve development while
growth may case, maturation and learning continue.
Concern of developmental psychology
From the beginning of developmental psychology, the concern has been
children. Thus child psychology was and is a very popular field in psychology. It is
the branch that deals with how individuals change with-time while remaining a child.
It studies the development of children from the conception to the end of childhood.

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Child psychology is the largest branch in development psychology. There are many
changes that occur at childhood period of development that one can observe. The
concern of development of children began in the 19 th century with contributions from
different scholars like Stanley Hall who is the father of child study movement, baby
biographies by Charles Darwin who was the first to observe child behavior, John
Lock who believed that children were different from adult and need special attention.
Later Alfred Binet made contribution on intellectual aspect of children, while
Watson, Freud and others came on board with interest in the development of
children.
Today the field of developmental psychology has grown beyond child to
adolescent and adult. It has become a multidisciplinary field encompassing
contributions of other social fields and humanities like sociology, Anthropology and
Biology. It has become a discipline of science, social and behavioural science with a
focus on four major goals in line with the goal of the general discipline of
psychology. These are:
1) To describe behaviour: Developmental psychologists attempt to describe the
changes that occur across human life span eg when does the child begin to
crawl, stand, speak? What is the nature of speech, what is the sequence of his
words? What changes take place at adolescence or old age? What is the
intensity of the change that takes place?
2) To explain the given behavour: Apart from describing the nature of changes
or behaviour that occurs across human development, developmental
psychologists are concerned with the explanation of the changes and the
behaviour. That is to explain the factors responsible e.g. what role does
learning play in language development? How does feeding and medical cares
affect the growth?. How does peer pressure affects change in adolescent

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 behaviour? How can environment or genetic factors account for prediction of
behaviour?
3) To predict behaviour: Another goal of psychology which developmental
psychologists focus is the prediction of changes that take place in a life span.
For instance, at what stage can a child learn to walk or speak? Developmental
psychologists can predict the changes that will take place at the adolescence
stage or at old age
4) To control behavior: Developmental psychologists are concern with the
control of changes in life span of people as they can minimize or increase for
example, intellectual development of a child with use of diet after birth,
physical growth of child can be controlled through feeding. Truancy in
children and stealing can be controlled by developmental psychologists.
Furthermore old age and aging can be controlled.
Through various scientific means, developmental psychologists are able
to carry out scientific studies to achieve the general aims of psychology.
The scope and limitation of developmental psychology
Developmental psychology is a wide discipline that covers all aspect of human
development from the beginning of life at conception to the end in old age and death.
The domain of developmental psychology covers three major areas of changes.
i) Physical development: This includes those changes that take place in a
person’s body such as changes in height, and weight, the bone structure,
muscles, physical appearance, brain, heart, reproductive capacity, etc. Physical
changes occur at childhood, adolescence and at old age period. These physical
changes are observable
ii) Cognitive development: This covers changes that occur in mental activity,
such as sensation, perception, memory, thought, reasoning and language, for
instance intellectual capacity widens at adolescence stage, and the adolescent is

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 able to do abstract thinking and reason in hypothetical terms compare to the
child who is unable to reason and to understand the concept of democracy and
justice
iii. Psycho-social development: These are changes that have to do with
individuals’ personality, emotion and relationship with others in the society.
Different societies make a separation between child and adulthood
expectations in terms of roles and behaviour
These three major domains of developmental psychology are intertwined and
what happened to one area affects the other.
Methods of studying developmental psychology
Different methods are use to study human development through research.
These include:
Observation: Man is always observing, and noticing what is going on around him;
this can be done at home, classroom, play ground, laboratories etc which constitute a
natural habitat. Observation involves watching and recording the aspect of
development being under investigation sometimes with the use of sophisticated
control measures. It requires trained observers in naturalistic observation. According
to Parke and Locke (2007) observation program is used in direct naturalist
observation, to record on going behavior as it occur.
The observer makes use of equipments like camera, video, tape recorder etc.
during the observation of human development. Sometimes, it involves participation
of the observer where he becomes a complete member of the group under study so
that people may not become aware of his activity in the group he is observing. He
keeps his anticipation at a minimum level.
Longitudinal Study: This method is use to study changes in human
development. It is known as long-term study which makes use of repeated
measurement of the same group of people. In longitudinal study, the same groups of

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people e.g children are observed on several occasions over an extended period of
time. It proceeds in length wise direction, hence it is called longitudinal. The people
are studied periodically over several years like studying child’s vocabulary, and the
investigator may choose to observe the group at one month at a time and repeat the
observation at 19 months, 24 months etc. This will indicate what happens at each
stage. This method is expensive because it takes a long time to complete the study. In
addition, the participants may change location, transfer or die which may render the
study incomplete.
Experiment
Experimental research is one of the methods used to study human behavior. It
is the most scientific and sophisticated research method where the experimenter
manipulates one or more independent variables. In experimental studies, the aim of
studying human behavior or changes is to investigate into the effects of one variable
or more on another set of variables. It may cover play, learning, memory, motivation
etc. The experiments are often done in the psychological laboratory or field.
Experimental studies with human behavior can be repeated, because it has high
validity and reliability. However, human conditions such as war, natural disaster like
flood, accident, etc are difficult to study with experimental method.
Survey Method
Developmental psychologists like other social scientists make use of survey to
study changes in human being. In survey, the developmental psychologists select
sample of respondents and administer questionnaire or conduct interviews to collect
data on any aspect of changes in human development. The data will describe the
characteristics of the population like attitudes, belief, values, habits, demographic
opinions. Since it is not possible to get every member of the population under study
to participate, the developmental psychologists select sample size from the larger

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population through randomization, purposeful and occasional sampling and
generalize the findings to the larger population.
Survey research in developmental psychology makes use of questionnaire and
interviews. Both are self reported measures. An investigator who opts out for this will
ask the child or parents series of question pertaining to the aspect of development.
The questionnaire can be structured (closed ended) or unstructured (open ended).
While survey study is stressful and money consuming. It has advantage of providing
face-to-face interaction with the respondents
Case study
A case study is a research method that is also used in the study of human
beings. It is an in-depth look at one individual. It provides information about an
individual e.g language development, psychomotor development, social development
etc. Case histories provide dramatic, in-depth information about people’s life but
researchers need to exercise caution when generalizing this information (Santrock,
2009) because the individual in case study is unique with genetic and environmental
conditions and no two persons have the same the uniqueness.
Other methods use to study developmental psychology are; cross cultural, life
history and physiological methods. In conducting researches in life changes,
developmental psychologists take into consideration ethical issues like respect for the
participants (confidentiality) informed consent, protection from harm and weighing
the benefits-to-risk ratio. Participants have the right to say no (Shaffer & Kip, 2007).
Principles of development:
Development of human being is not a random process but normally it follows
certain pattern called principle of development. These principles interact and do not
operate in isolation.
1. Growth gradient or directional growth principle. It states that development of
life follows certain direction. There are two of such principles:

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a. Cephalocaudal: this principle is derived from Greek words for head (Cephalo)
and tail (Caudal). The direction of development is from the head to the tail (foot)
or lower extremities. For example a fetus head is well developed before his legs
assume final forms; arm buds appear before leg bug; after birth, the head region
develops in advance of the lower part of the body. A functional example is that
the child gains control over head before other parts. A child is able to control his
neck by turning his head, moving the hand before walking in terms of motor
activity.
b. Proximo-Distal growth gradient. The principle is from two latin words for
near and far. (center-extreme). It states that development proceeds from the
central parts of the body down to lower extremities. That is, the central parts of
the body mature earlier and become functional before those at the periphery. It
means that development occurs close to central axis before proceeding out into
the peripheral limbs of the body. For example, the spinal cord develops before
the limbs. Also infant exhibits gross arm and forearm movements before he
moves his wrist hand, and fingers in reaching for an objeect. A child is efficient
in use of his hand before the leg. He uses his shoulders and elbows effectively
before he uses his wrist and fingers.
2. Differentiation principle: This states that development starts from simple to
complex, general to specific, and homogenous to heterogeneous, for example, the
simple fertilized egg called zygote undergoes series of divisions and
multiplications to form complex parts of the body or differentiates into various
body parts like eye, noise, hand, leg, skin, etc which are formed later from the
simple fertilized egg. Also language development follows this principle. The
child learns simple words like papa, mama etc, and later shifts to more complex
heterogeneous sentences. A beginner in the French or English language may start

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 with names of objects like pencil, chairs, boy, girl, and later knows how
conjugate verbs.
3. Principle of synchronous growth rate: This principle believes that
development shifts from a part of the body to another at different periods. Some
parts grow earlier and faster than others. For example, the child needs matured
intestine before chewing food. Teeth develop later for chewing and may not
appear at birth.
4. Principle of discontinuity of growth rate: This refers to the fact that growth or
development changes at different periods. There is a period of increased or
accelerated growth in life e.g. between 1-2 years and 11-13 years. Growth is
slowed down (de-accelerated) at other times, for example, between 2-5 years.
5. Principle of uniqueness of individual growth: This states that each individual
develops at his own rate or has a unique rate of development. Even identical
twins differ in their rates of development. This principle accounts for individual
differences is growth rate as no two individuals are the same.
6. Principle of modifiability of growth rate and pattern of growth. It states that
the rate and pattern of growth can be modified through environmental factors
such as nutrition, emotion, toxic substance, sickness etc that affect the
developmental pattern. The development can be affected or altered by
environmental factors.
7. Complexity of growth principle: Development is complex involving different
parts of the body. What happens to one part affects the other parts. For example,
disability of tongue, hand or leg affects the social and moral development of the
child.
8. Principle of indigenous motivation: This maintains that each healthy child has a
tendency, and spontaneously to put his growing power to use. Inherent in the
organism is an impulse to do what the organism is capable of doing.

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 Health workers, parents and teachers need to be aware of individual
differences that exist in children’s growth and development so that unique needs of
each child is catered for in the teaching and learning encounters with children.
Stage of Development
Having known what development, the processes involved, is and the principles
that guide development, we can now proceed to examine the stages of human
development. The development of human beings can be classified into pre and post
natal stages. That is development inside and outside the womb.
1. Prenatal Development
The term prenatal refers to the period before birth. It is the period from conception
till birth. In a simple language, it is the period of pregnancy or antenatal. It may
further be subdivided into three phases; namely:
a). Ovum or germinal period (0-14 days).
b). Embryonic stage (2-8 weeks).
c). Fetus or fetal period (8-40 weeks).
Ovum or germinal period: (0-14 days).
This stage lasts from conception to the time of implantation, a process which
usually takes 14 days. At about the middle of each menstrual cycle, for example 13 th
or 14th of a 28th day cycle, the matured female sex cell or ovum (or egg) moves down
to the middle of fallopian tube. The process is called ovulation. Fertilization takes
place here when the male cell called sperm penetrates the egg and the fertilized egg is
called zygote. The zygote grows and divides as it journeys from oviduct to uterus
where implantation occurs. A few hours after fertilization of the egg, the resulting
zygote divides into two cells, which divide further into four, then into eight cells.
Thus, within 72 hours (i.e. 3 days), it grows into 32 cells. In some cases the single
fertilized cell divides into two identical cells which develop into two individuals. The
result is identical or monozygotic twins. They look alike and are of the same sex. In

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other cases, two separate ova are fertilized by separate sperms resulting into fraternal
or dizygotic twins. They may be of the same or opposite sex but will not look alike.
By the time the zygote reaches the uterus, it has developed a finger-like implantation.
It usually floats for one or two days before attaching itself to the uterine wall. The
uterus normally undergoes some changes in preparation for receiving the zygote. This
stage ends when implantation is achieved. When fertilization does not take place, the
egg released is flushed out as menses otherwise called monthly period.
B. Embryonic state: (2-8 weeks)
The stage begins when there in implantation and it lasts from 2-8 weeks. The
zygote is now called an embryo hence the name embryonic state. During this stage,
there is rapid multiplication, division and specialization of cells. The inner mass of
the cells differentiates into three layers, namely, ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
The ectoderm is the outer layer and forms the skins, hair, nails, teeth, nervous system.
The mesoderm (middle layer) forms the circulatory and excretory organs and
muscles while endoderm (inner layer) forms the lungs, liver, heart, digestive tract,
thyroid, glands etc. Also moss-like vile develops from the embryo and are attached to
the blood spaces of material uterine wall for feeding and exchange of gases (o 2 and
co2). At the end of embryonic period, the tiny creature has arms, legs, fingers, toes,
heart, brain and lungs. The embryo develops an amniotic sac filled with fluid, and
nourishment is through the placenta. The development proceeds from the head to the
tail region which is an example of cephalocaudal growth principle. That is, the head
first grows bigger and more specialized than the rest parts of the body.
c. Fetal/Foetal Period: (8-40 weeks)
At the end of the 8th week, the organism begins to take the form of a human being,
and a new name is applied, foetus (fetus) till the time of birth. The feotus has
complete face, neck, arms, legs, toes etc. and the internal organs begin to function.
During the third month, sex differences appear on the foetus, and it begins to kick,

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turn and move in the womb. Further refinement and development take place here.
The principle of development is general to specific, homogenous to heterogeneous,
simple to complex, thus illustrating the principle of differentiation.
Prenatal (environmental) factors that affect the development of the unborn baby
There are a number of environmental factors that may influence the
development of the foetus in the womb. Such factors include:
a. Age of the mother:
This refers to how old the mother is at the time of pregnancy. The ideal age for
child bearing in women is between 20-35 years. Infant mortally is higher among
mothers below 20 and above 35 years of age. Mothers who are below or above the
ideal age give birth to underweighted babies, and mongoloids, while others have
miscarriages. Most of them suffer prolonged labour with adverse effect on children
such as anoxia, paralysis, brain damage, in ability of the child to walk or talk. Such
condition is sometimes attributed to wizards and witches in some African societies
due to lack of proper scientific knowledge.
b. Drug
Drugs taken by the pregnant woman may affect the healthy development of an
unborn child, and may also cause some deformities to the child. The drugs pass from
the mother’s blood stream to the foetus blood and may result in abnormal baby. For
example, thalidomin, which is supposed to be fertility inducing drugs, has been
reported to cause defects of the limb when taken during pregnancy. Excessive
quinine intake, tranquilizer can cause deafness in the child. Pregnant women should
therefore take only drugs recommended by doctors. Alcohol and cigarette also known
to have negative effects on unborn babies, when taken by a pregnant mother. Certain
body structures are much more vulnerable to drugs than others.

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c. Nutrition of the mother
Since the foetus gets its nourishment from the mother, the kinds of food taken
by the mother have effect on the unborn child. The unborn baby depends directly on
the mother diet. When the pregnant mother starved, or underfed, the un-baby is also
starved and underfeed. Poor nutrition of the mother during pregnancy could cause
still birth, premature babies, rickets, anemia, underweight babies, lethargic children,
and prolonged maternal labour compare to pregnant mothers on good diet. Babies of
good diet mothers are healthier at birth and more resistant to diseases than babies of
under nourished mothers. Generally, expectant mothers should have adequate diet to
maintain good health during pregnancy.
d. Number of pregnancies
It is known that the number of children a woman has is related to the general
health and vigour of the child. The first born and those at the end of the scale of bith
of a woman are susceptible to complications during child birth.
e. Diseases
Nature protects the unborn baby, but there are some diseases which are not
hereditary but passed from mother to child during pregnancy and labour. e.g. Rubella,
a German measles which when contracted within the first 10 weeks of pregnancy can
lead to visual, auditory and mental abnormalities. Another example is Syphilis which
can lead to miscarriage, blindness, or mentally deficient child; and untreated
gonorrhea can lead to defects of the eye of the child. Also HIV/AIDS is known to
affect the unborn babies when mothers are affected. (mother to child transmission)
f. X-ray effects:
When pregnant women are exposure to X-Ray or radiation treatment, especially
heavy dose in early pregnancy it may cause abortion, miscocephally, disorders of the
central nervous system, blindness etc.

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g. Emotional State of the Mother
The emotional state of the mother has influence on the development of the unborn
child. When an expectant mother experiences emotion like rage, anxiety shock,
sorrow etc. certain chemicals are released into the maternal blood stream, and passed
on to the foetus which may adversely affect the child. Maternal emotional stress,
unhappiness in marriage and extreme rejection of pregnancy predispose women to
uneasy pregnancies, pre-mature births miscarriages, and to giving birth to tense,
hyperactive, hard-to live with babies.
h. Poverty:
Poverty perhaps affects the unborn child more than other environmental
factors. If the parents are poor, they are unable to provide adequate feeding and pay
for antenatal care. Such poor mothers generally do not go for medical checkup and
ever deliver and have with Traditional Birth Attendants (TBA) or alone. They have
complications during delivering. Poor mother’s usually have poor personal health
which affects unborn baby. In Nigeria such women only depend on God for safe
delivery. The babies of poor mothers are unhealthy with low resistant to diseases.
Infant and maternal mortality as well malnutrition are high among such parents and
high incidence of still birth, pre-maturity, and complication during delivery.
Implication of pre-natal factors
Pregnant mothers that contract diseases, should ensure that they are properly
treated before planning to have the child. In addition, a pregnant woman should avoid
self-mediation, heavy dose of x-ray treatment. Further they should go for antenatal
check up frequently. Family planning is also recommended as this will help to reduce
unwanted pregnancies. Finally, a good interpersonal relationship should be fostered
between a pregnant woman and her husband so that the she could be happy
throughout the period of her pregnancy. If these suggestions and others made

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elsewhere are taken seriously and acted upon, the physical well being, emotional
security and adequate intellectual development of the unborn child will be been
ensured to some extent.
Childhood Development
The period of childhood stretches from birth to about 12 years. Childhood period
is divided into the following phases of development:
1. Babyhood (0-2 weeks)
2. Infancy (2 weeks – 2years)
3. Early childhood (2-6 years)
4. Middle childhood (6-9years)
5. Late childhood (pre-adolescence) 9-12 years
Babyhood:
This period starts from birth and ends at approximately two weeks of post-
natal life. The period is generally sub-divided into partunate and neonate periods.
The partunate period starts from birth and stretches to 15 and 30 minutes of
postnatal life; that is, from the time the infant emerges from the mother’s womb into
the world until the umbilical cord is cut. The cutting of the umbilical cord marks the
beginning of the second subdivision, the neonatal period.
Neonatal period (approximately 30 minutes to 2 weeks)
Neonatal means ‘new born’ and it marks the beginning of the time when the
new born is no longer a parasite but a separate distinct and independent individual.
The neonatal period is characterized by the baby’s making of adjustment to a new
environment in the world outside the mother’s body. The neonate has to quickly
adjust to temperature changes, to breathing, to sucking and swallowing and to
elimination if he is to survive in his new environment. physically, the new born is a
small creature but possesses all the major parts of a human being. These enable him
to survive in the postnatal (after birth) world. Behaviourally, the new born reacts to

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hunger, pain and discomfort by crying until the source of displeasure is removed. The
neonate feeds very often (about every 3 hours), and sleeps for about 20 hours a day.
The new born engages in reflect action such as thumb sucking which may start
in the womb. It is necessary for infants’ survival. Another useful reflects is the
rooting reflex when the baby’s check is touched, he moves his mouth towards the
stimulus. This aids the baby in finding the nipples at the breast. Grasping reflex is
common. The baby closes his fingers over any object, such as pencil or parents
finger. When a new baby is started by a loud noise, he reacts by extending both arms
to the side with fingers stretched out as if he wants to catch something. The whole
body shakes in alarm at a sudden sound of a noise. These physical and behavioural
characteristic are the foundations upon which the baby acquires new skills and
behaviours gradually.
Infancy: (2 weeks – 2 years):
This period stretches approximately from two weeks of postnatal life to two
years and it is characterized by rapid growth and achievement in all areas of
development (physical, emotional, mental etc)
Early childhood period (2-6 years)
This period, also called the pre-school years, falls between 2-6 years of post-
natal life. On the part of the child, the period is characterized by great achievement in
physical movement, rapid cognitive and language growth, personal control of habits
and slowed physical growth. That is, physical growth is very gradual and changes in
size are almost un-noticeable. Playing, climbing, running throwing objects are the
achievements of the child etc. He also achieves great motor coordination and can feed
himself. Pre-school motor development is achieved by the child’s ability to hold
pencils, crayons, chalks and brushes etc. to paint colour, draw and write. Writing at
this stage starts from scribbling to well coordinated schematic drawing.

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 From 4 to 6 years of age, the child makes elaborate and complex speeches. He
has also formed ideas about size, form, colour and acquired elementary knowledge of
time, number, space and causality.
At this stage too, the child has mastered control of his bladder and bowel.
Many children at this period have stopped bedwetting. This is a crucial period in the
development of a child’s personality. Positive and negative attitudes toward self are
developed from what others say about how he looks and behaves. Parents and
teacher’s comments and observations are very important at this age as they serve to
create a particular self image in the child.
Middle Childhood Period (from 6-9 Years)
At middle childhood – physical growth is slow compared to early childhood,
but there is improved language development. His personality is shaped through motor
skills and peer influence. Physical movement, and fine motor coordination are
achieved and the children improve their skills in jumping, running, climbing,
throwing, balancing etc.
In personality development, the child’s self concept is greatly influenced by his
motor skills. He may develop a positive image as a leader, dancer, an athlete, but a
negative self image in some areas of his lives and may become emotionally disturbed.
Peer activities greatly influence and mould children’s personality at this time because
of the value they attach to peer-related activities.
Heredity factor: Children inherit genetic materials from their parents at the time of
conception which influence the course of development. This can be seem in the
following areas
Physical appearance: When a child is conceived, he receives 23 pairs of
chromosome from each parent. Within the chromosome you have the genes. These
chromosomes received from each parent become the genetic constitution (or
genotype) of the child. In heredity, there is transmission of potential genes for mental,

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emotional and behavioural characteristics from parents to the offsprings at
conception. These inherited potentials for individual behavoural and physical
characteristics, determine our development. The physical inherited materials
includes: blood group, colour of eye, skin, hairs, sex of the child (male/female),
tallness, shortness etc. The evidence that heredity factors influence development is
that we look like our parents to some extent. However, it is possible that children
may not resemble their parent in physical appearance, but genetically they belong to
the parents.
Intelligence
Researches indicate that intelligence runs within families. This means that
High intelligent parents give will birth to high intelligent children because
intelligence is passed on from parent to children. This assertion has been made on the
basis of similar I.Q scores of parents and their children, and identical twins. But
evidence, has also shown that the realization of I.Q potential depends on the
environment; that is, whether the environment is favorable or unfavorable. Studies
have shown that individual with I.Q potential could or could not realize this fully
depending on the environment in which they are raised.
The correlation of I.Q between identical twins reared together is .86 while that
of fraternal twins reared together is .62. This shows that identical twins are more
alike in intelligence than ordinary children, an evidence that intelligence is
hereditary. It is established that fraternal twins reared together have I.Q correlation of
.62 while ordinary children reared together have I.Q correlation of .44.
Studies of identical twins reared apart shows further evidence. Despite the
different environmental factor, identical twins still resemble in intelligence more than
fraternal twins raised together. This gives a strong support to genetic factors in
determining one’s level of intelligence.

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Personality: Heredity can affect the personality of a person. Some people inherit a
genetic tendency toward inhibition, such a person could be shy, timid, withdrawned
compared to a person who is active, outgoing and friendly (exttrovert). Chess (1970)
in their study showed that birth characteristics such as activity level of attention span,
adaptability to changes in the environment. can be hereditary. One infant might be
active, easily distracted and willing to accept new objects/people, while another
might be predominantly quiet, persistent in concentrating on an activity and may not
notice anything new. These traits reveal the genetic potentials in the infants which
persist and influence the personality throughout life. Thus we hear people say “he
was like that from birth”.
Disease: This is another known area of heredity factors influencing human
development.
(a) Mental diseases: Mental illnesses that have genetic cause and can be inherited
from parents by their offspring. However, such mental disease can also be
influenced by environment e.g. schizophrenia and neurosis can be inherited. If
one identical twin is schizophrenic, it is most likely that the second twin will
also show some signs of mental disturbance. But whether or not he develops
the actual illness will depend on environmental factors. The genes may
predispose but the environment decides (Nash 1973)
(b) Physical Disease: Diseases such as sickle-cell anemia, high blood pleasure and
diabetes are known to run in families. Though these diseases are inherited,
their manifestations depend on the environmental conditions. For example,
diabetes is manifested as elevation of blood sugar level. It is the genes that
determine the production of insult which affects the metabolism of
carbohydrates, hence the sugar level in the body. But not everyone that carries
the genetic potential for the disease develops it. A study of identical twins that

20
 has the disease shows that those with trait for diabetes were unaffected because
their diet made fewer demands for carbohydrate catabolism.
Nature-Nurture controversy
Development of life is affected by both heredity and environment factors
which are termed as nature and nurture respectively.
Nature refers to the heredity or genetic qualities passed on by parents to their
offspring, while nurture on the other hand refers to the effects of learning and of the
social and physical opportunities provided by environment on the development of
human being. The relationship between nature and nurture often raises a lot of
controversy.
Nature - nurture controversy is a long age debate on the relative contributions
of heredity and environment to one’s development. Some scholars argue that heredity
sets the limits of an individual’s potential and environment determines the extent to
which such inherited potential can be reached. The two terms imply a polarity,
focusing on the strength of the contributions of each on individual differences with
respect to a wide range of traits and disorder (Plomin, Defries etal 1997). It is true
that genetic and environmental influences have effect on a behavior that are relatively
direct, the consequence’s depend on a more complex interplay between the two.
Therefore neither is more important than the other.
In conclusion, both genetic and environmental factors play impart roles in
development of human beings. The nature-nurture controversy can be laid to rest by
accepting the relative contributions of each of the school of thought. None is more
important than the other. The school can be seen as both sides of the same coin.
Heredity alone cannot bring development. Environment is needed to build on what
nature has began, nature is the architect that designs while environment is the builder.
The interplay of both factors is responsible for development.

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Theories of Development
There are different theories of human development some, of them are
discussed here.
Moral theory of development
The term ‘moral’ comes from the latin word ‘mores’ which means manners,
customs and folkways. Thus moral behavior implies behavior that is in conformity
with the custom or tradition of a group. In general usage, morality refers to the idea
of right and wrong, an internal set of standard that regulates one’s behavior. Morality
may be defined as the ability to draw a balance between what is right for oneself and
what is right for others and the ability to postpone immediate pleasure for future
gratification
Morality is not hereditary but an acquired trait of an individual in the society.
Children learn moral in the society simultaneously as they learn emotional self-
control. In most cultures of the world children learn moral behaviour such as respect
for others, feelings for property, respect for truth, honesty, tolerance and sexual
control. Cultural values and mores which may be universal or specific are the
foundation upon which morality is built. It is through experiences in the society,
which a child develops from the selfish egocentric stage in infancy through early
childhood to the emotionally controlled and morally mature individual.
Though cultural practices determine the moral standards of individuals, the
moral behavior of individuals in various cultures differ. This is because morality is a
relative construct and as such what may be morally right in one culture may be seen
as morally wrong in another.
Stages in Moral Development
In everyday life we may expect different kinds of moral conduct from children,
adolescents and adults. This implies that there is a general assumption that morality
develops from childhood to adulthood. Painstaking studies have revealed the

22
consequential development of moral behaviour and the distinguishing features of the
different stages of moral development. This information help us to know the kind, of
moral conduct that can be expected at each successive level of moral development.
Jean Piaget has identified four stages of moral development. These are discussed
below:
Egocentricity (Birth to 2 years, infancy)
At his stage the child is self centered and he is unable to consider the interest
and feelings of others. He has no ability to cooperate with others, as he either submits
or opposes them. His play is usually solitary, private and repetitive. The concept of
morality is not yet understood and the child’s behaviour is solely controlled by
personal satisfaction and avoidance of pain.
Moral Realism (2-4 years, early childhood)
Between the ages of 2-4 years, a child develops his first idea of right and
wrong, which is based entirely on what the parents permit or forbid, because his idea
of right and wrong is based on the parents’ classification. The child lives in a moral
world of his own where things are either absolutely right or absolutely wrong.
Children of this age are commonly heard saying “this is wrong because my mother or
father says so or this is how my mother does it”. The parents are the child ideals for
morality
At this age, the child begins to develop a little awareness about the existence of
rules, but he does not fully understand what rules are. Piaget describes this stage as a
stage of anomy. That is the stage without law. In actual fact, morality involves a
system of rules and since the essence of morality consists in the acquisition of rules
by the individual this stage can appropriately be called the stage of anomy because
the regulators of behavior are not so much of rules but pain and pleasure. However, it
is worth nothing that this is the stage in which the foundation of moral development
of an individual is laid. The child’s behaviour begins by impulses but eventual

23
depends on the parents’ value. As he grows and matures intellectually and
emotionally in terms of his perception, he learns that free expression of impulses is
met with natural consequences such as pain. Similarly, he is beating by parent when
he disobeys. He eventually introjects into himself the ‘dos’ and ‘don’t’ of his parents.
As he begins to acquire this, the development of superego begins and this lays the
foundation for the development of conscience and moral behavior.
Heteronomy: This is the third stage and it is divided into two parts
a) Authority (4-9 years middle childhood)
During the stage of egocentricity and moral realism (Anomy) the means of
behavior control is pain and pleasure, that is the discipline of natural consequences.
The control of behavior at the stage of heteronomy (moral reciprocity) is reward and
punishment, otherwise called the discipline of artificial consequences imposed by
adults. Although the control between the early stages and the stage of reciprocity is
given as discipline of natural and artificial consequences respectively. The distinction
is easily made; hence punishment is linked with pain and reward with p1easure.
The child’s behavaour at this stage is controlled by external authority. This
external morality helps because it is the discipline by others that lay the bases of
growth towards self-discipline. Even though we know that genuine morality is the
free expression of individual, yet morality at this stage is externally forced, that is, it
is not free and spontaneous, yet it is highly acceptable and even needed as a stepping
stone in the development of behavior control.
During this stage children gradually learn that the rules are not rigid reality but
rather man made and can be modified or even changed. With a more clear view of
rules, the children’s games become more organized with rules to control participants.
Because of the vague understating of rules, children tend to adhere to the latter rather
than the spirit of rules.

24
(b) Reciprocity (9-13 years pre-adolescence)
During the first stage of heteronomy (authority), there is morality of obedience
and duty which are demonstrated in children respect for parents, teachers and other
adults. At the second part of heteronomy (Reciprocity), the child develops the
morality of cooperation and mutual respect with his equals.
This is made possible through free and reciprocal relationship with peer
members. At the first stage of heteronomy (authority) being good was shown in
obedience to external authority, but at the reciprocity, stage goodness is expressed in
being fair and just. Group feeling and a sense of altruism develop at this stage. The
golden rule is also firmly established at this stage in reciprocal relationship with
peers. Reciprocity is defined in term of the golden rule “Do unto others what you
wish them to do into you.” Among children of this age, however, this golden rule
may be applied purely for self-interest, (e.g. if you help me I will help you.) instead
of applying it from a benevolent point of view. The child now moves from the stage
of reward and punishment to the stage of social approval and disapproval. This
implies that the child is now highly inf1uened by public opinion. He conforms to
group norms as he dreads on social isolation. As the child grows in social awareness,
the sense of justice begins to grow. There is also an emergence of the sense of guilt in
place of the earlier sense of fear, so the child’s conscience emerges clearly now.
Equity Autonomy’ (13-18 years, Adolescence)
This is the highest stage in moral behaviour. At this stage, the rules that govern
moral behaviour come from within the individual that is internal as opposed to
external control. The goal of moral maturity is to know ourselves, accept our selves
and be ourselves. While reciprocity demands equality, autonomy according to Piaget
develops equally as well as a detailed consideration of motive, circumstances, feeling
etc that leads to a given behaviour at any particular point in time.

25
 Even though the development of morality has been discussed according to
specific age levels, the stages are not fixed but are interrelated. Some children may
enter the later stages earlier or late.
Implication of development of moral behavior:
Moral development has implication for parents, teachers, and health workers in
terms of the appropriate use of various means for inculcating morality. There is a
significant relationship between morality and health.
Parents play a leading role in the development of morality, followed by the
school and the community. Just as in the development of emotions, the foundation
upon which an individual’s morality is built is laid by the family. Any child will
develop sound moral standards if the parents teach him the consequences of his
action on others; and if the parents show him genuine affection and provide
emotional security. Above all, parents’ moral behavior is very important as models
because children often imitate their moral behavior and emotions. In similar way,
teachers and other adults dealing with children ought to be examples of good moral
standards. To this extent we may say that the moral behaviour of an individual
depends upon the role his parents, teachers and other adults play in moulding his
moral life.
To facilitate effective moral development, parents must make judicious use of
the various means of inculcating morality like punishment, reward, imitation and
constructive reflective thinking. Discipline based on threat or punishment may
produce morality based on fear of being caught or punished, e.g. “If I ever catch you
again hitting your little brother, I will whip you so hard, that you won’t sit down for a
week.” This threat is teaching the child to be kind to avoid punishment. The child
may also deduce that hitting a younger person is okay so far as he is not caught in the
process.

26
 Secondly, parents and teacher must note that whatever punishment is given to
inhibit a wrong behaviour must be consistent to be effective. If it is a reward for
correct behavior, it should also be consistent. If training is consistent, the child grows
to know what is expected of him. But where there is no consistent training the child
does not know what is expected of him and he may lose respect for discipline and all
the agencies which set out to discipline him. This explains why children do not take
seriously what their parents or teachers may require of them because the authority
figures in the persons of parents and teachers are not consistent with their demands
for expected modes of behaviour in the children.
Another dimension for the use of .rewards and punishment is that the child
needs to be taught to accept and understand that he deserves either the reward or
punishment meted out to him at anytime. When the child understands why he is
punished, he accepts it but where he does not, he resents it. At this point, it will be
very necessary for the parent or teacher to adequately explain to the child the reason
for the punishment. If the child always sees punishment and reward as deserving,
then these will help to reinforce 1earning moral values in him. His wrong behaviour
will be effectively eliminated by the use of punishment and his right behavior will be
strengthened with the use of rewards. This will altogether encourage not only
effective learning of morals but contribute to healthy emotional growth of the child.
Parents, teachers and others using punishment to train moral behavior must be
objective in their use of punishment. The aim should always be to help the child to
stop undesirable behavior. Punishment is harmful if it arises out of anger, resentment,
disgust or a sense of humiliation. Such punishment produces hostility towards the
child. The effects of punishment have show that effective punishment must be
consistent, impersonal and constructive/objective. The aim of punishment must be to
correct and improve the child and not to cause him humiliation.

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Intellectual Development: Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
Jean Piaget: was born in 1896 to a professor of history in Switzerland, he
obtained his Ph.D at the age of 21 years and made his first publication at the age of
11 on Albino Sparrow.
As a result of series of experiments, Jean Piaget identified four stages of
intellectual development which every child must pass through in the same way. The
roles of parents, especially mothers are important during socialization. These stages
are as follows.
Sensory-motor Stage: (0-2 years). Infants and children acquire understanding
primarily through impression and motor activities. Children understand environment
in terms of activities they can perform and the sensation they drive. The child
performs a lot of reflex activities like sucking, touching, crying, grasping and kicking
which are not purposeful initially, but lay the foundation for coordinated behavior
later in life. The child considers himself to be the center of universe as he is not
aware of the existence of others.
Between 4-8 months, the child begins to show directional behavior of
stretching his hand as if he wants to catch an object. He can distinguish himself from
others and acquires the notion of object performance. He knows that object outside
his immediate field continues to exist and follows an object that has gone out of sight.
His behaviour becomes coordinated and purposeful towards the end of this stage.
Pre-Operational Stage: (2-7 years). This refers to, “before operation” because the
child is not capable of operation. Children at this stage do not understand the concept
of reversibility or change in weight and volume. For instance when equal amount of
water is poured from a narrow container into a wider one, the pre-operational child
will say that the narrower tube has more water than the wide one. Similarly, if equal
amount of clay is rolled into a ball shape, and another is flattened, the pre-operational
child will say that the clay that is longer in size has more content than the flat one.

28
Also when equal amount of beneseeds are poured from a narrow cup into a larger,
container, a pre-operational child will say that the narrower cup has more beneseeds.
The pre-operational child is not capable of serialization or classification of
objects. He understands concepts and can use language to represent his thinking e.g
flying paper as airplane, tyre as car etc.
The implication here is that parents or caregivers should not give abstract or
special activities to the children, and socialization should be limited to immediate
environment of infants with emphasis on identification of objects and concepts while
complex activities should be avoided.
Concrete Operational Child (7-11 years): This stage is marked by acquisition of
concept of conservation of mass or reversibility. The child thinks in terms of self
interrelated principles rather than a single bit of knowledge. His thinking is logical.
He understands addition, multiplication, and subtraction. If equal amount of water is
poured from a narrow glass into a larger one, the concrete operational child will say
the amount is the same.
The child learns in concrete terms, like what he can see, touch and handle but
he cannot understand hypotheses.
Formal operation: (11 years and above). In Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth,
logical operations are no longer bound by concrete term but the child is now capable
of dealing with abstract and hypothetical questions, and thinks logically. He is able to
generalize and engage in mental trial and error. The stage is an accumulation of
sensory-motor, preoperational and concrete operational stages. The child understands
alternatives in problem-solving because he has ability to discover simple laws and
reasons logically.
According to Jean Piaget, the stages are hierarchical, sequential and cross
culturally valid even though some individuals are faster in attainment of these stages.

29
Implication: Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory has wide application in socialization of
children especially at home and school:
1. It provides specification for attainment of certain abilities and therefore child
training or socialization should be individualized as far as possible to cater for
individual differences. Parents, caregivers and other agents of socialization
have to bear in mind the progressive nature of the child.
2. The theory places emphasis on learning in concrete terms through activity and
exploration. According to him, knowledge comes through interaction with the
physical world, hence the importance of teaching aids and learning materials at
junior classes. There is need to allow children to interact with these materials
through touch, feeling observation, etc.
3. Children should be given opportunity to practice over and over again.
Assignments, test, home work should be given to children frequently for
objective participation and they should be encouraged to ask questions and
interact with adults so that they can imitate them.
4. Children should be allowed reasonable freedom to express their views and
provide conducive and stimulating social environment to facilitating learning
and social development.
5. The theory has given insight into age placement of children within school
system. Therefore the content of learning during socialization has to be related
to the age of the child.
6. Socialization and learning should proceed from simple to complex as the child
develops progressively. Learning should be arranged in a graded sequence.
Freudian Psycho-Sexual Theory of Development
Sigmund Freud was born in 1856 and trained as a Neurologist. He studied
under French psychiatrist, Jean Charcolt, and developed a classical psycho-analytic
theory of development known as psycho-sexual theory of development. He identified

30
five developmental stages. According to him, what happened at each of these periods
during socialization determines the development of the individual. Each stage is
defined as a mode of reaction to a particular zone of the body.
The stages are as follows:
1. Oral Stage (0-2 years)
According to him, sex in infant is located in the mouth; and whenever the
membrane at the mouth is irritated, the child gets pleasure. Sexual gratification is
related to oral activities. The principal source of pleasure from the mouth is easting,
swallowing, spitting out unpleasant items. Oral activities manifest itself in various
degrees ranging from chewing, biting, putting anything in the mouth. Fixation may
occur at this stage resulting into following personality.
a) A gullible person. Such a person swallows almost anything he or she is told
and lacks creativity, originality, and he is easily brainwashed by others.
b) Biting fixation, is a form of sarcasm, sadistic behavior, or argumentativeness.
Such a person is suspicious, aggressive and bitter in dealing with others.
c) Dependent or passive personality. Since the child depends on the mother at this
time for fulfillment of her needs, the child when fixated becomes dependent,
optimistic, immature in thinking, and expecting help from others even at adult
life.
d) Other fixated personality resulting from oral activity includes drinking, using
chewing stick, chew gum etc.
Anal stage (2-3 years)
This is the second stage of Freudian psycho-sexual theory of development
when the pleasure shifts from the mouth to anus. At this stage, the child derives
pleasure from expulsion of discomfort to get relief. The child learns to postpone the
pleasure that comes from relieving tension, and his greatest pleasure is stimulation of
the anus. Touching the anal muscles gives pleasure to the child. If the mother is strict

31
in toilet training, the child holds back its bowels and becomes constipated. Toilet
training is very important at this stage.
The fixation at this stage may occur resulting into the following:
- The child may have retentive character (not ready to give out), and becomes
obstinate or stingy,
- Cruelty and wanton destruction,
- Messy disorderliness (when the child expels excreta anywhere).
- If the mother reinforces (eg. Praises) the child for doing it appropriately,
he feels the whole activity is important and it becomes the basis of creativity,
productivity, neatness and orderliness.
Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
The name comes from Latin word “phallus” meaning penis. During this period,
pleasure is located on the genital organ as the child discovers that self manipulation is
enjoyable
The sex organ becomes the object of pleasure (i.e. erogenous zones). Sexual
and aggressive feelings become associated with genital organ. There is fantasy of
pleasure, mustabaotion, and exhibition of sex organ. The most important discovery at
this time is Oedipus complex. It is defined as consisting of sexual love for parent of
opposite sex and hostility towards parent of the same sex.
The name Oedipus comes from the king VI Thebes who killed his father and
married his mother. The situation is common between the ages of 3-5 years when the
boy posses his mother as object of love and the girl her father as object of love. The
complex is expressed in mustabation and alteration of loving parents of the opposite
sex and hostility towards parent of the same sex.
Initially, both boys and girls love the mother because she satisfies their needs
and resent the father who is regarded as a rival to them. This feeling persist in boys
and change in girls. The boy’s crave for his mother brings him into conflict with the

32
father. He fears that, his rival (father) is going to hurt him. This is confirmed if the
father is punitive. The fear is centered around the genital organ. He fears that his
father is jealous of his relationship with his mother and will castrate him. Sigmund
Freud called this castrations anxiety which is expressed in sexual desire for the
mother and hostility towards the father. Worse for the boy, he observes that the girl
lacks penis and has a cavity. And he therefore concludes that she has been castrated
and it could be his turn. The problem is finally solved when the boy identifies with
father and the erotic feeling for the mother is converted to harmless affection for her.
The girl changes her original object of love, the mother to the father because
she discovers that she has a cavity and the boy has protrusion (penis). She holds the
mother responsible for her castration or cavity and transfers her love to the father
who has the valued organ which she aspires to share with him and considers the
mother as a rival. She suffers from penis envy. This is call “Electra complex”.
She has a fantasy that she will be pregnant and bear a son to compensate her
lost penis. The girl’s Oedipus complex persists for longer period than the boy. The
girl conflict is resolved when she identifies with her mother and becomes gender
type.
Parents need to be aware of this complex because of its effects on children.
Where the complex is not broken through proper identification, the boy may still hate
the father; the girl the same to the mother and consequent incent taboo may result.
The girl may have intercourse with the father and boy with the mother. On a limited
scale, the girl may long and desires the company of the father and the boys the
mother.
On another extreme, it may lead to homosexuality between the boy and father
and the mother and the girl or girl to girl and boy to boy. However the girls and boys
go outside members of immediate family for sexual love.

33
Latency: This is the fourth stage of the Freudian psychosexual theory which occurs
between 6-12 years. This is silent or quiet stage because nothing happens here.
Genital Stage (12 years and above)
This is the final stage of Freudian psycho-sexual theory of development.
Individual obtains gratification from manipulation and stimulation of his or her body.
The sexual love is now channeled to genuine object of choice during adolescence.
Sexual attraction, socialization, group activities, planning and preparation of marriage
and raising a family begin. After adolescence the individual is transformed from
pleasure seeking to reality orientation. Source of sexual pleasure now comes from
outside the family as individual develops matured love-relationship.
Erikson Psychosocial Theory of Development (1902-1994)
Erikson born was 1902 in a broken home and raised with a step father. This
fact was hidden from him but it later influenced his theory. According to Erickson
(1950, 1968) believed that development proceeds in stages according to a pre-plan
time table. The first four stages occur during infancy and childhood, the fifth during
adolescence and the last three during adult years. He placed emphasis on the early
years in contributing to the final development of individual. Each stage consists of a
unique developmental task that confronts individual with crisis. The individual that
resolves the crisis successfully becomes healthy. This theory is called psychosocial
because it involves psychological and social aspect of the individual.
Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust (0-1 year)
This stage corresponds to Freudian oral stage. Erikson believed that a child
faces crises of establishing a sense of trust versus mistrust and the resolution
determines his development. Basic trust includes the care the caregiver gives the
child, the comfort, affection, protection, love, feeding, sleeping etc. If these needs are
met regularly and constantly, the child will develop a sense of trust, that is, the world

34
is good, with a predictable hope and feels secured and protected from danger. He is
confident with a feeling of self worth.
According to Erikson, a child whose needs are not met consistently will
develop feelings of mistrust that the world is not good but bad place. Such an
individual will develop to be involved in drug addition, alcoholism, and excessive
smoking. He will have a feeling of insecurity and irrigational attitudes towards his
enemies.
The society meets the psychological needs for basic trust in religious system,
care of the child, affection etc.
Autonomy versus Shame or Doubt (1-2 year)
With resolution of basic trust, the child moves to the next stage of autonomy
versus Shame and Doubt. This corresponds to anal phase of Psychosexual theory.
Autonomy means that the child controls his impulses and react voluntary from inside.
The sense of autonomy is that the child is responsible for his reaction and protects
himself from shame and doubt, for example the child learns to control his bladder by
holding on and letting go at the right time. But if he fails to conform, and he is
punished, he becomes ashamed, doubt himself and restrains his wishes. If a child
loses self control, he has a feeling of shame and doubt; a feeling of being exposed
and consciously being looked at or being caught. The feeling that ‘I have done
something wrong, and not ready to be visible’ a feeling to sink right there and then.
The doubt is related to front and back of shame.
According to Erikson, autonomy corresponds to society’s institutions laws, and
the systems that regulate the adult world. The child judges right and wrong, as he
develops, makes decisions, choices and retrains himself. When encouraged and given
necessary freedom to explore the environment, the child develops the sense of
independence and autonomy (Ozioko & Onyishi, 2007).

35
Initiative versus Guilt (2-6 years)
This corresponds to Freud’s phallic stage. The child has advanced in
locomotive skills and rudimentary language as he enters places and interrupts
concentration. This is the age of expansion and mastering, he can pursue, plan and
determine goals when parents give opportunity to him to play, ask question, and
initiates motor activity. The danger is when the child develops a feeling of quilt, an
inability to take part in competition and he resorts to use aggression when denied
opportunity to play.
Industry versus Inferiority: (6-12 years). This corresponds to school age. The
child develops a sense of industry and learns the reward of perseverance. He learns
different skills and to be productive. This is a sense of industry and it produces
expansion and progressive striking.
The danger at this stage is when the child develops a feeling of inferiority
complex and he is unable to master any task. Inferiority leads to withdrawal and
anticipated failure. To lose hope is for the child to isolate himself from working tools
and to develop a feeling of despair, as he considers himself a failure.
Identity versus role confusion: (13-20 years): The individual develops a sense of
his own identity, a feeling that one is unique and prepared to meet some meaningful
roles in the society. He makes plans and experiments with his own body which are
not approved by adult world and questions the societal rules, identifies with people,
adapts to situation and learns the rights and wrongs in the society. He can answer the
question “who I am; where I am going?”
The opposite is the failure to integrate one’s identity which results in role
confusion. Another problem is to be locked up in negative identities or habits
prohibited and he may not be able to answer the question “whom am I?”
Intimacy versus Isolation (20-40 years): The young adult is prepared to seek for
intimacy, partnership and comes close into personal affection or relationship with a

36
spouse, or he makes friends, and shares a sense of belonging with others. It is a
period of socialization, group activities, vocational planning, preparation for marriage
and sexual attraction and raising children.
Generality versus stagnation (40-65 years): At this stage, the adult faces the
task of becoming productive at work, raising families or parenting. He is concern
with training of children for future generation. Generally, the individual makes
contributions to the future in his own culture. Those who are unable or unwilling to
resume responsibilities become stagnant, and those without children at this stage have
feeling of stagnation
Integrity Versus Despair (65 years and above): This corresponds to old age.
The old adult reviews his life as he looks at the past. If the past is satisfactory, full of
happiness and achievement, the individual develops ego integrity. He is happy with
himself and with others. It is a period of self evaluation based on one’s achievement
in life time. But a major disappointment occurs when an individual has realized that
his goals, achievement, or dreams have not been fulfilled. Such an old adult is not
happy, nor satisfied with his achievements. He will develop a feeling of regret
leading to despair.
Erickson theory believes that life development follows a grand plan that
unfolds in an order. His theory demonstrates that human development goes beyond
adolescence and continues throughout life span. However, the theory is vague about
causes of development.
Adolescence:
The term adolescence has drawn much attention of parents, government,
teachers and health workers all over the word. Many psychologists and others have
interest in this period because it is critical in development. Some refer to it as the
period of “rebellion, storm and stress, run away, ganging, transition etc”. The period
is characteristic with youthful demonstration on campus, confrontation with police,

37
riot, increased in using of drugs and drinking of alcohol. Some observers called this
the “cult of youth”. Adolescence is frequently depicted as a carefree age of physical
attractiveness, robust, fun, enthusiasm, and enemy within. There is no precise
definition of adolescence. It is often defined in terms of biological, social, and
chronological aspects. However, the adolescent has characteristics of childhood and
adulthood. Physically, he is tall like adults and emotionally, he behaves like a child.
The adults regard him as a child and the children regard him as an adult. Therefore he
is like a ‘bat’, neither an animal with four legs nor bird with feathers. Another local
example is the prelim students who are neither University undergraduates nor
secondary schools students. They have one leg there and another elsewhere.
Adolescence is that span of years during which boys and girls move from
childhood to adulthood, emotionally socially and physically. According to Akimboye
(1982), it is the time between 12-21 years. Adolescence is a period of transition
between childhood and adulthood. Transition because the individual is moving way
from childhood to adult life. Physically, the adolescent looks matured and appears
like an adult. Physiologically, he can release life sperm (boys) and menstruate (girls),
yet he is not accepted as an adult. Socially he behaves like a child. He lacks
emotional control and he is childish in his behaviour. In many primitive cultures, the
period is marked with ceremonies or initiation. The adolescent is caught between
both forces of childhood and adulthood. Thus, he is in no man’s land neither as a
child or adult?
Childhood
Early and Late Matures
Adolescents
Early matures are those adolescents that growing faster and move ahead of
their mates. They arrive at this stage before their mates due to heredity and or better
feeding. They are called fast growers Adulthood
or early mature and may reach this stage
between 9-12 years. On the other hand, late matures are behind their own mates and

38

Figure 1: Diagram illustrating adolescence as transition between childhood and adulthood

may reach adolescence stage at about 13-15 years. They are often children from poor
homes. It can be due to genetic factor like sickness, or poor feeding.
Early matures have advantage over their mates because they are tall and well
developed. On account of this they play leadership roles or given responsibilities
much earlier as they are more popular than their mates. Early maturing girls get
married before the late matures. Late matures on the other hand tend to be out of
phase with their mate and are rejected by their peers because of their size and
weakness. They develop feeling of inferiority and inadequacy and become
aggressive, hypertensive, talkative and body busy. They engage in attention seeking
behaviour.
Puberty
This is pre-adolescence stage, and it is called pubescence. The word
pubescence comes from a Latin word “puberta” meaning, “age of manhood”. The
word pubes means hairs. It refers to the first stage of development when sexual
maturation becomes evident. It begins with gradual en1argement of ovaries and
uterus in girl and testis in boys. It is marked with elevation of breast called budded
spur and onset of the first menstrual period called menarche. There is onset of
pigment of public hairs and change in voice. The term puberty is applied to the life
cycle when sexual and reproductive system becomes evident. Puberty is not a single
event but involves gradual and complex processes. It marks the begging of
adolescence and ends of childhood period. It involves biological changes in the
central nervous system and endocrine glands which are responsible for bodily
changes specially sex organs. It is a period of remarkable development with changes
in all areas of life.
Physical change
Physical changes occur in adolescents due to certain inborn maturational
process, especially increase in hormonal level. These changes are conspicuous as

39
both boys and girls experience a sudden accelerated growth and bodily changes. The
adolescent becomes longer, taller due to increase in height and weight within a short
span of years. This sudden accelerated increased in growth or shoot up is called
growth spurt. The duration, intensity and age of onset vary from one child to another.
In boys, it is common between 9-16 years and on the average 13years. While in girls,
it begins two years earlier, at about 7-13 years as they become faster, taller and
heavier than boys. Before this time, the growth rate is slow in boys and girls in the
middle childhood, only to be greatly accelerated at this stage. Girls grow faster and
taller than boys but later they catch up with them. The adolescent spurt usually lasts
one to two years, during which there is increase in height, weight, muscles and
skeletal growth. Typically, girls put on rounded hips with pelvic bones broaden and
the wrist bone becomes circular. Generally, adolescent parts of the body like legs,
arms, head and the trunk reach adult size. Difference between girls and boys are
noticeable as boys develop broad and strong shoulders with strong muscles and
masculine appearance.
Changes in Strength
The increase in muscular and skeletal development gives increase and speed to
the adolescents. The strength is reflected in games like football, athletics as well as in
pulling and pushing. To cope with increased in strength and exercise, the adolescent
develops larger hearts and lungs. Their strength is seen their work, like farming,
carrying heavy load, etc.
Primary and secondary sexual changes
The growth in spurt in adolescent gives rise to changes in other areas of
physical development that make them mature. There are changes in size of genital
organs in boys and girls. The testis and penis increased in size and length in boys as
they are capable of producing live spermatozoa. Hence they can procreate like adult.
The changes associated with sex organ are known as primary sexual changes.

40
 The sex organs in girls acquire maturity. There is development of breast, which
initially started as a bud at pre-adolescence. There is onset of menstruation and
external changes like widening of pelvis which mean so much to the adolescent girls.
There is ovulation in girls depending on environmental factors like feeding and
health. Some girls begin their period or menses at 11 years, while others menstruate
at 12-13 years. Secondary sexual changes in adolescents include public hairs on the
private part, facial hair, beard in boys and hair in armpit. Further there is increase in
sweat and sebaceous glands. There is a change in voice which has noticeable effects
on them. The girls’ voice becomes sweet while boys’ voices are coarse and deep.
These changes are biological in origin and there is no fix age at which they appear.
Physiological changes and alteration of hormonal level
The physical change in adolescent is also internal. The internal system such as
respiratory, circulatory, digestive and blood pressure, all attain adult size, with the
brain reaching full growth at 18 years. There is a change in hormonal level (estrogen)
which is the principal factor responsible for the increase in physical change. There is
also a rise in sex hormones which is responsible for her sexual drive at this time.
Boys take in more oxygen and give out less carbon-dioxide and much of the oxygen
is conserve for energy output in them.
Adolescence Crisis
The period, adolescence has been associated with different labels because of
the adolescent faces series of conflict, and experience problems that become the
turning point in his life for better or worse. The crisis that adolescents pass through is
as a result of biological changes taking place in them as well as societal demands on
their adjustment. It is a period of storm and stress because adolescence is
characterized by inevitable turmoil and adjustment, tension, rebellion, dependency,
and exaggerated peer group conformity. The adolescence crisis is responsible for the
generation gap. The adolescent crises are in the following areas:

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Crisis with Physical Appearance
The biological changes in adolescents resulting in growth spurt or accelerated
growth cause problems for them in various ways. An average adolescent becomes
concern about his or her appearance in the eyes of the public. He appears like adult
and begins to take care of his body especially the girls. The physical size and shape
affect his self-concept because his physique is very much important to him since
there are certain rules and emotions about body appearance.
The body appearance becomes a source of worry and embarrassment to the
adolescent. For instance, he is ashamed and worried about the size of his nose,
pimples on the face, large eye brow, the size of his genital organ. The adolescent’s
boy feels inferior and ashamed if the size of his penis is too small. He may not urinate
in presence of his friends. He thinks about the size of his penis and believes that girls
will not accept him, and that he is not capable of having children and they may
therefore suffer from anxiety and consequently withdraw. It may even affect his
academic work. On the other hand, when the size of his penis is too long, it has two
effect, first, it may become a source of pride to the young adolescents and may
display it for friends and this, and this can affect his positive self concept. Secondly,
it can make the adolescent shy and ashamed to the extent that he feels that he is
abnormal and may be rejected by girls. Similarly adolescent girls may be worried
about the size of clitoris whether it is too big or too small. In the same manner, she is
worried about the size of her breast. When the breasts are small, she feels anxious,
worried and inferior just like the adolescent boy whose penis is too small. Such
adolescent girl feels she cannot give birth. When the breast is too large, they become
a source of worry to adolescent girl. She is ashamed and sits behind in the class. She
may be mocked and given different names such as “mountain” “milk industry”
pillow” by her mates and this becomes a source of embarrassment to her.

42
 She wishes to keep off from public appearance and truancy may characteriste
her school behavour. Poor-self concept can also emerge when the girl becomes too
fat. Feelings of inferiority may accompany such dimension. However, in the past
fatness was accepted as a source of pride to the individual in Africa. In the past
deliberate attempts were made to put the adolescent girls on special diet to become
fat during the process of fattening in order to be attractive, however, this has
changed. Adolescent who are tall or short, fat or thin various associated feelings that
disturb them.
2. Crisis with Menstruation and nocturnal emission
Menstruation called menarche presents crisis to adolescent girls especially the
irregular nature of the menses and the pain that accompanies the monthly period. The
headache, backache, abdominal pain, dizziness and physical discomfort make the
adolescent to dread this period, because the adolescent girls do not receive any
education about it. However, these symptoms gradually disappear as menses get
established with maturity, and as they become use to it. The late maturing girls
become anxious as they do not experience this menses on time. This make them feel
inferior and sorry for themselves. On the other hand, the menses is a symbol of
sexual maturity and production. Some girls receive it as pride as an indication of
adult status, while other fear and hate it, yet other feel embarrassed and ashamed
about it. This is particularly due to unrelated stories they have been told about it,
many adolescents cannot talk about their menses because it is a taboo and curse on
the teenage girls. In a study of determine emotion reaction of 475 adolescents girls
toward the onset of their menses by Awana (1989) 51% were in different, 4% were
curious and interested 1% terrified and 12% annoyed and sad. Only 8% were
delighted and proud about it. In Nigeria culture there is euphemism of being unwell
during menses. It is regarded as a sickness because the adolescent girl may be

43
inadequately prepared for it. The naturalness of the whole phenomenon should be
explained to our adolescent girls.
For the adolescent boys, the appearance of noctural emission is a surprise and
worry to them. This involved ejaculation of seminal fluid during sleep often
accompanied by erotic sexual dreams. The adolescent boys feel shy to talk about it as
they lack proper information on it. As a group, the boy tends to be less worried about
it than girls do about menstruation.
3. Sexual crisis
As a result of newly acquired genital maturity and change in hormonal level,
adolescent, begin to show interest in the opposite sex as seen in their love affairs.
Their sexual crises are seen all over, in campus, secondary schools as well as in
villages, as reflected in their dressings, language, music and the kinds of novels they
read. They are not only sexually active but excited on anything about sex. They are
involved in pre-marital sex, prostitution, and hence teenage pregnancy. The present
increase in sexual knowledge, such as the use of pills, condom and other family
planning or safer sex methods that are freely available all over impact of meedia
seem to have increased adolescent’s sexual activity in Nigeria. They are not worried
about the existence of sexual sexually transmitted disease (STD) and HIV/AIDS. The
society and parents frown at adolescent’s sexual activities as they seem helpless to
control the adolescents who are not ready to wait till marriage. Thus virginity which
was valued the past has been eroded. The adolescent’s sexual activities bring into
conflict with adult. These include petting, necking, breast stimulation, stimulation of
genital organ, mouth- breast contact, etc. Inspite of the societal regulations,
adolescent sexual activities are on the increase. We must understand that they have a
problem arising from biological change in them which is responsible for their sexual
drive and seeks outlet or discharge. We must try restoring the past glory of purity and

44
virginity and freeing the adolescents from sexual crisis. It is safe and possible to
remain a virgin till marriage. It is false belief that it is unhealthy to abstain from sex.
3. Emotional Crisis
Adolescent experience emotional crisis, as his mood is not stable but keeps
changing. He is emotionally unpredictable as he is easily irritable, miserable,
depressed, withdrawn and fearful at one end, and at another end, he is elated, happy
and cheerful. Sometime the adolescent retires to drinking to overcome his emotional
problem.

Social crisis
Apart from the crisis arising from the body, the adolescents experience further
conflict in the society as he makes effort to adjust. The social problems are many and
differ from one culture to another in Nigeria depending on the society that makes
demand on them resulting. Some of them are:
a. Independence-Adolescent in the present contemporary age seeks increase
freedom and independence from parents than they are willing to give. They
want to control their own lives and be self directed on many issues especially
social aspect. This is because they see themselves as adults and want adult
recognition. For example they want to drink smoke, and have sexual
intercourse. This may result in adolescent youth culture. This period becomes a
time of storm and stress for them as parents lose control over them. They fail
to adhere to parental advice because they are pushing too much for freedom.
b. Societal expectation- Nigeria society has much expectations from the
adolescents. They are regarded as children who should obey and conform to
societal rules and regulations. But the adolescents do not see wisdom in the
norms and values. The adolescent is an easy rider, who is reckless, interested
party disco, trying and experimenting here and there with lack of concern for

45
 the society. He is impatient and wants short out in life. Socrates stated that
adolescents are manncrless and fail to rise when their elders enter the room,
they chatter before company, gobble up dainties at table, cross their legs and
tyrannies over their teachers. Greek poet said that there is no hope for the
future of our people, if they were dependent upon frivolous adolescents of
today, for certainly all of them reckless, beyond words. “When I was a boy, we
were taught to be discreet and respectful of our elders but the present
adolescents are exceedingly wise and inpatients without restrains”. These
quotations and sayings show that adolescent crisis in respect to societal values
is not new in literature. Therefore, it is not surprising that Nigeria adolescents
have clashing interest and values with disregard to adult word. The adults can
not watch to see their cherish values destroyed by the adolescent. The truth is
that every adult has passed this stage and should understand what adolescents
are passing through.
c. Marital problem- The marital crisis of adolescents arises out of sexual change
and the societal expectation. Sexual intercourse is permitted only in marriage
and adolescents make conscious effort in heterosexual relationship. Marriage is
every important in the society and valued as an achievement and status
enhancing. Therefore, Nigeria adolescent wants to marry out of curiosity and
to get sexual permit. The adolescent is worried on whom, how and when to
marry. This crisis was solved in the past when parent had to arrange marriage
for their adolescents but now they will not want parental interference on the
choice of marriage. The adolescent girls are more worried than boys on marital
issues because of the fear that husbands are difficult to get after adolescent
stage. In effect we now experience adolescent marriage, premarital sex, trial
marriage among adolescents.

46
d. Dressing and music- Adolescents have problems about dressing as far as adult
world is concern. Their dressings are significantly different from those of
adults and children. They dress colourfully to attract attention from adults and
opposite sex. They are interested in every latest dressing and fashion, and go at
length to get dressings. Their dressing styles and clothes are specific to their
taste. Nigerians elders are shock to see the way the adolescent dress. The
adolescent girls use mini skirt, tight cloth, and give attention to their dressing.
Both adolescent boys and girls use T=shirts with colourful inscription on them
like “it is here’ kiss me” “love” “stop it” “one in million” “it is hell”, “look up”
etc. Their dressing is a reflection of youth culture. Adolescent boys and girls,
use Jean trouser “low-west”, wear cap upside down, and eye glasses on face,
ears and on trousers they make their head in a decorated or fashion manner e.g
J-5, punk, skin cut, cock among the boys while traditional hair style among
Nigerian adolescent girls is giving way fast to perming, Jerry, curl, Bob marley
etc. Canverse and heavy shoes are common foot wears for adolescent boys.
Along with the problems posed by adolescent dressing is their music style,
which is more sensational, and characteriste by disco-party mood. This is a
deviation from African music of drums and songs.
e. Career-The problems of adolescent carrier is minimized in the western
country because of their exposure and there, children are encouraged to
develop their carrier according to their ability and interest. However, in
Nigeria, the situation is different. Parents seem to dictate the type of profession
for their adolescents. In most cases the adolescents are made to make
occupational choice against their own interest and ability. They do not know
how to go about it resulting in confusion. They are unstable in their career
choice, at one time adolescent will say, “I want to be a doctor”, later to be
“engineer” or “lawyer”. They look at career choice in terms of social status

47
 without regards to the require subjects. As a result academic failure and school
drop out is the high among Nigeria adolescents though other factors may be
responsible like drug abuse; alcoholism and smoking.
Implication of adolescence years
Considering that adolescent years are characteriste by physical, social,
emotional and psychological changes with attendant crisis, health works, teachers,
parents and government should be concerned. Since they have passed through this
stage before, and familiar with the associated conflicts, they are in good position to
help younger ones to adjust adequately in the society. The following are some of the
ways, which they can make their contributions.
1. The rapid physical development in adolescents gives rise to physical strength
and energy which is at its peak. The school authority and parents should
prescribe set of activities for them to utilize their energy and strength. With the
former 6-3-3-4 system of education in Nigeria, the 3-3 would provide some
manual work in the curriculum e.g agriculture, wood work typing etc to
channel their accumulated physical potential.
2. Teachers, parents and government officials should not stereotype the
behaviours of adolescents but rather the adolescent should be accepted,
honoured recognized as they themselves have passed through this age.
Adolescent should be given encouragement in all vital areas of their lives
despite their behavior.
3. To minimize the in dependence vs dependence conflict, parents, school
authority, governments, and agents should give the adolescents considerable
freedom and at the same time instruct and educat them from time to time. The
school rules should be a little flexible for them.
4. The adolescents should be give proper education about the changes in their
body to reduce their anxiety over such changes. They should be made to

48
 understand that such changes are natural and they should accept them, and
control their impulses to avoid additional problems from the society. It is
desirable to provide sex, moral and health education programmes for them.
This will help them to meaningful make adjustment in the society and relate to
the opposite sex in approved way. Public seminars, workshops and
programmes should be organized for them. In some cases, boys and girls can
be separated during such seminars or public lecturers on adolescents, and at
another point they can be together during the lecture.
5. The school authority, health works, parents and government agencies should
provide guidance and counseling service to the adolescents, especially in areas
of carrier, marriage, inter-personal relationship, body changes etc. At present,
this is very poor in our post primary schools and colleges due to shortage of
qualified personnel and facilities. All effort must made to improve the present
standard, so that the adolescent receive adequate information about type of job,
market situation, problems associated with bodily changes, etc.
6. Parents and health works should ensure that adolescent are well fed on
balanced diet for proper physical development.
Adolescent drug and alcohol use
There is increase rate in drugs abuse among the adolescents. They take drugs
for various reasons. Commonly abuse drugs among them are marijuana; (derive from
India help plant called cannabis), barbiturate, tranquillizers hallucinogen, narcotic,
cocaine alcohol etc. They take drugs for a number of reasons such as:
- To explore new areas of mind, in opening up new areas that are usually not
consciously function. This enables them to search for new values, enjoy
heightened responses.
- To rebel against adult constraints and to demonstrate what they view as adult
ignorance

49
- For pleasure and fun
- To feel high, bold, and to overcome fear, worries depression (emotion)
- As stimulate for recreation
- Still other adolescents use drug for the purpose of the curiosity and
experimentation.
- To gain acceptance among their peers.
- Alcohol is sold freely almost at everywhere at any time. Adolescents do not
only go and buy but are employed to sell. This makes them to drink. In
addition alcohol is served at parties and ceremonies for both adolescents and
adult.
Harmful Effects of Drugs/Alcohol on Adolescents
The drugs use have profound effect on adolescents. When adolescents begin to
use drugs, other ills will follow like illegal channels and criminal activities.
- They get involve in stealing to get money to buy drugs and alcohol, and get
into problem with police and finally jail term.
- They ignore school rules and their academic work as they have no time to
study and concentrate on their school work.
- It affects their brain and vision. They see double and cannot pay attention to
studies.
- Truancy becomes part of life with no respect for parents and school authority.
- They tell lies, fight and destroy property,
- There is lowering in breathing rate, lower blood pressure with consequent
effect on the heart and nervous system. They become relaxed and rowsy.
- Muscular co-ordination may deteriorate and emotional control becomes less
stable. They become intoxicated and confused like a drunkard.
- They become dirty and maintain poor personal hygiene

50
Solution to Adolescent-Drug use
1. Anti-drug campaign should be mounted by federal, state and local
governments. Postal and handbills should be place in strategies places in
schools and town to state the dangerous effects of drug use and cigarette
smoking. Radio and T.V should join the campaign with other media.
2. Drug and cigarette education to be included in Health/civic Education
curriculum.
3. There should be law to stimulate the age at which one can buy and sell alcohol
and cigarettes.
4. Manufacturers to be compelled to indicate danger on cigarette packets and
alcohol while law enforcement agents should take practical steps in dealing
with drug users.
5. Use of alcohol at parties and ceremonies should be discouraged
6. Teachers should not smoke or drink in school premises.
Adolescent initiation rite
Many societies, especially primitive cultures have prescribed formal and
extremely significant ceremonies that mark the transition from childhood to
adulthood. This is accompanied by rapid role-switch once the ceremonies have been
completed. In many primitive societies, a sort of birth or resurrection takes place.
This ceremony is called initiation rite, it is the rituals which celebrate the passage of
an individual into adulthood. Its function is to affect the transition from childhood to
adulthood. According to Theodor (1961) all over the world from time immemorial it
has been the custom to usher adolescent into adulthood by means of public
ceremonies. Many societies in the past have elaborate way of welcoming the
adolescent into adulthood known as initiation rite. The rite is a symbol of death and
rebirth. The death of adolescent is women-childhood status and rebirth into the status
of an adult.

51
 The age, period and venue of initiations differ from culture to culture. Even in
the same society it varies from family to family. In most cases, it occurs at puberty or
coming of age for boys and girls. It follows biological change.
The process of initiation rites takes different forms. It involves long or short
teaching lessons on sexual experience, famine and masculine distinction and various
ordeals for boys. This includes excruciating pain and torture to test their mental
ability whether they can suffer as men and to be tolerant in life. They may fast
without food or torture till they see vision. Parts of their body may be mutilated with
tattooing, genital manipulation. They may be subjected to distasteful humiliating
experience such as terrorizing them.
The initiation normally takes place at specific points, where the adolescents are
separated from the community. It occurs in the bush far away from home so that
adolescents will not run back home. Special games are prepared for them. For girls in
particular it could occur in the old woman’s house and they can return home at
intervals.
Adolescent Initiation Practices in Nigeria
There is little literature on the subject in Nigeria. This does not means that it
did not exist. It does exist and still practiced today in a limited and modified way.
Among the Akwa tribe of cross River State, the adolescent girls’ initiation
ceremony is called “nkpu” which takes place at the age of fourteen years. The
adolescent girls go into seclusion and are confined to fattening house. Marriage
instructions were given to them as they were groomed, and their skins were anointed
with oils. There was a great deal of eating combined with lack of exercise which
make them increase in wight. The weight is judged in terms of the degree of
ornament displaced. Their hairs are specially arranged in that disc indicating
readiness to marry.

52
 As a symbol of fertility the lower part of her body was decorated with kelvoid
and raised berry like scares. Cloths were tied round their waist to cover their hips and
bells and strings of cow were hung, on their leg and neck. Their legs were fitted with
brass made by blacksmith. Part of the ceremony was the presentation of the first cloth
to the girls. Before this time, they wore little cloth.
In Niger Delta, the adolescent initiation is called “kalabri” ceremony of Iria.
The young adolescent girl enters into a period of seclusion, and is prepared for
marriage in fattening house.
She is lavishly fed and does not work except to learn perfection and different
styles of dancing. Activities include bathing, painting with clam wood and body
designs. She is dressed with many strings and beads of various colour across the
chest and bell was tied to her ankles.
In Benin, the ceremony is called “Irovbody” which takes pace after rain where
harvest has been gathered. It is a ceremony for boys and girls of marriageable size.
During the ceremony, girls show the wealth of their parents through ornaments they
wear. Their bodies are designed and painted with dyes and calm-wood.
The following characteristics were common to all adolescent initiation in Nigeria:
1. The rite must be presided over by elders who were older members of the
society.
2. It involved the process of indoctrination into customary practices.
3. It involved physical ordeals such as circumcision, mutilation, and suffering
(boys)
4. The rite was universal to all adolescents of the same age and sex
5. It must be conducted in groups and not on single individual
6. The opposite sex was excluded from witnessing the rite.
7. There was temporal separation from normal life for the adolescents.
8. Specific lessons taught were related sex role stereotype

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Significance of adolescent initiation rite
Adolescent initiation serves various purposes. The main purpose was to help in
successful transition from childhood to adulthood, so that crisis would be avoided.
1. It represents an effort by adult world to make adolescents conform to social
order especially when the values were threatened by other forces. The older
people therefore have to maintain their cultural consciousness and custom
through initiation. In this way the cultural heritage was perpetuated. It served
as a vehicle to link generations and to promotion tribal solidarity.
2. It permitted adolescents to adult rights and privileges, like marriage, sexual
intercourse, drinking and smoking. He was allowed to carry on adult
responsibility as he became a contributor and full fledge tribe’s fellow.
3. There was a prestige associated with passing through ceremonies. He was
elevated, promoted into a new class. He or she became a man or woman and
not a boy or girl, and therefore treated by members of community with respect.
4. It was the climax of primitive education as the adolescent received instructions
on laws of the land and morality in various degrees. Therefore adolescent
career began after the initiation. He might become a hunter warrior, food
producer etc.
5. Discipline was highly inculcated into the adolescents through the various
process of suffering. He was to obey without question. Respect was instilled
into him, as he was frequently punished, made to appear clever and foolish, to
dance etc.
6. Sex-role differentiation was highly emphasized during the training especially
the masculine-famine concepts.
Adolescent Identity Crises
Identification is the process of acquiring appropriate social roles in childhood,
through copying unconsciously from significant adults. Identity crisis is a major task

54
confronting the adolescents in developing a sense of individual identity. To find
answer to the question “who am I” and “where I am going”? The search for personal
identity is called, identity crisis. It involves deciding what is important or worth
doing and formulating standard of conduct for evaluating one’s behavior and those of
others. It also involves feelings about one’s worth and competence.
Adolescents search for identity arises because their individual values and
moral standards are largely those of their parents but as they move into wider world
of schools, peers become important as well as teacher’s appraisals. The adolescents
try to synthesis these values and appraisal into a consistent picture.
When parents and teaches values are consistent, identity crisis is less, but when
parental values and views of the peers are different from those of peers, there is a
conflict and the adolescent experiences role confusion. That is, he tries one role after
the other, and he has difficulty in synthesizing the different roles into a single identity
e.g. adolescent girl may say “I am a good girl at home because my parents are firmed
about how a girl should behave, but at school when I’m with my friend and relax I go
out at night and drink. “at time, I go crazy who am I really”.
In search for personal identity, the adolescents’ behavior become inconsistent
and contradictory.
The major factors responsible for adolescent personal identity crisis are as
follow:
1. It comes about because adolescents must fend for themselves, and do the best
they can, as they attempt to bridge the gab between childhood and adult hood.
It is characterize by internal instability
2. They come in contact with friends whose values and beliefs contradict those of
their parents and they become confuse with taking on various roles,
identification with and rejecting others. They modify them according to their
needs.

55
3. It is also brought about by the individual’s realization that his personal
qualities and capabilities are in compatible with the social roles available to
them. It may occur in relation to their career choice.
Effects of Identity Crisis: identity crises have several effects on our young adults.
These are:
1. Adolescents may adopt deviant identity that is odd and against the prevailing
values of the society. They may rebel against parental standards and go
extreme in taking pride to be nothing. They may develop a negative identity, a
debased self-image
2. They pass through a prolonged period of identify confusion and hence have
difficulty in answering “who am I”
3. When identify comes very suddenly and unexpectedly, the individual
adolescents suffer identity shock. They are confronted with fundamental
challenges of themselves and the social roles they have to successfully
integrate. They may experience shock e.g. during the freshmen’s years on
campus. It is accompanied by apathy, depression and discouragement. After
experience the shock adolescent may say “see me far, how can that be me”.
4. Another effect of identify shock is feeling of inferiority complex when the
adolescent realizes that his background is limited and inadequate compared to
these of his peers in the same class, or mate, he develops a feeling of
inadequacy.
5. He may develop a state of non-being in which the individual sense of identify
is severally threatened and he fears that the self he knows will not continue to
exist.
6. There can be identity diffusion, a lack of ability to commit oneself. The
adolescent may not commit himself to any occupational or ideological
position.

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 In simpler society, identification models were few and social activities were
limited. Therefore, identity crisis was less. But with increased complex society,
adolescents are with a number of possibilities on how to behave.
Resolution
1. Forming personal identify with the group identity. The adolescent join his
peers and accept their values and thereby take up the group identity.
2. To try out various roles and ways of behaving before settling to one. May
experts believe that adolescents should be allowed to experiment and explore
different ideologies so that they select which one appeals to them
3. After a period of experimentation, they commit themselves to life goal and
proceed toward it.
4. Parents, teachers and significant adults are to be good models for them to copy
and develop self-identity.
Adolescent Self Concept
This refers to adolescents’ perception of themselves and how others receive
them. That is, how do they appear in the eyes of others? What do other think about
them? They are physically matured as adults but tossed to and fro by adults. They are
confused where they belong. They are given adult responsibility and yet treated as
children. They are concerned with how they appear in the eyes of others. If their
values are the same with those of adult, it will lead to development of self-concept.
But if adults view them different from what they believe, there will be a deviation
and confusion leading to problems. If an adolescent holds a negative self concept
about himself and others hold the same negative picture about him, there will be
developmental problem. Adult’s image of adolescents serve as a mirror or social
looking glass. His idea about himself is a reflection on how others see him.

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Adulthood
The word “adulthood” comes from a past participle of the latin word,
“adultus”. It means growing to full size and strength or maturity. An adult is an
individual who has completed his growth and is ready for his status in society with
other adults. From this perspective, adulthood is the end of line, beyond which we
have no place to go because it is the end of development.
In Nigeria, the legal age for adulthood is 18 years at which one is qualified to
vote. Adult therefore is the age of legal matter. This period is divided into three,
namely, young or early adult, middle adult and late adulthood.
Early adulthood starts with the age of legal matters and extends to
approximately 40 years. By the end of this period, most men and women experience
changes in reproductive ability. Early adulthood is a period when most people are at
the peak of their physical ability and strength, and their bodies inside and outside are
at their best. In early adulthood, the individual chooses a mate to marry and rear
children. It is time when individual settles down. At this period the growing adult
begins to play the role of the bread winner and parenthood. He is forced to follow a
consistence position of behavior in many areas of his life. There is a measure of
stability as he settles down for job.
The development tasks at early adulthood are.
1. Selecting a mate
2. Learning to live with a married partner
3. Starting a family
4. Rearing children
5. Managing a home
6. Taking a civil responsibility
7. Finding a congenial group

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Middle age
This ranges between 40 to 60 years, approximately a span of 20 years. Most
adults show a lost of reproductive capacity which sometimes begin to show a decline
at the end of early adulthood.
The middle age is a dreaded period because the individual does not admit that
he is getting old. The lost of reproductive capacity and children leaving home,
marked with anxiety and loneliness make this time a difficult period. There is a threat
to his/her sexual vitality, ability to keep a job, managing his appearance (that he is
losing his ability to attract the opposite sex) add to crisis at period, similar to that of
adolescent. The developmental tasks here are:
- Achieving adult and social responsibility
- Establishing and maintaining a home
- Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adult.
- Developing adult leisure time activities.
- Relating to oneself spouse
- Accepting and adjustment to physiological change
- Adjusting to aging parents.
Mid-Life Transition
There is mid-life transition between 40-45 years, popularly known as turmoil
or crisis time. It is known variously as a period of equilibrium and disequilibrium, a
dangerous and awkward age. This is indeed, is a period of transition and
readjustment. The woman looks at her fertility and lost of productivity and feels that
she is losing her sexual charms, and this makes her to dreaded and rebel against
middle age. She may give more problems to her husband than before as he
approaches her menopause. She feels that she is finished; as empty nest syndrome
may set (children grow up and leave home). For most men, the middle age means
diminishing of physical sexual, vitality and this makes men to dread middle age. In

59
attempt for a man to reassure himself, pride forces him to show everyone that he can
do things, he did during his youth and he may engage in flirting with women and
girls young enough to be his daughters. Anxiety and loneliness pose problem in
addition to the turmoil;
According to Levinson (1978), the middle adulthood has three major tasks:
- To review or re-organize the early life.
- To modify the unsatisfactory aspect of a previous life and testing new
elements.
- To resolve the psychosocial issues.
In a survey, he found that 80% of his respondents had experienced turmoil
caused by anxiety, and guilt that kept them locked up into depression. Gold (1978)
found that both men and women are badly shaken by the realization that death will
come. There may bold out in mid life transition e.g. change of religious, marital
status, job, etc.
Ageism: Attitude towards the elderly
The concept ageism is new in life span development. It refers to discrimination
against the old people as they are often treated as children because they are no longer
needed. They are rejected by children and adults, poorly cared for and easily brushed
aside because they are physically, physiologically and psychological weak. They
regress to child like behavior and hence treated as children. The discrimination
against the elderly is a problem in advanced and developing world.
Ageism is a negative stereotype for the elderly. Old people are considered as
senior citizen, crazy less intelligent and discriminated against socially, and sexually.
They are regarded as parasites living on their children or relatives. They are not hired
for new job and phased out of jobs and therefore reducing them to a life of
redundancy and idleness as they are retired of out job.

60
 They are unable to contribute to income ingeneration. In addition to their
economic problem of routine maintenance, feeding and Hospital treatment, they
become a burden to their children who have to move them along from one place to
another. They have nobody to take care of them at home coupled with the lack of old
people homes in Africa.
The care of the elderly in a problem to the children who discriminate against
them because they have more health problems than the young adult. They are often
hospitalized on ground of chronic illness which the quire long medical treatment and
care.
Intellectually old people face discrimination because they begin to lose their
memory and become incapable of learning new things. They also begin to loss vision
as their eyes become dim. Physically they lose their strength and are no longer strong
enough to do physical labour, even to walk around. They become reluctant, idle and
stay in one place. This leads to loneliness syndrome which many aged and serious
discrimination now. They have nobody to talk with especially when younger ones
leave home for work or jobs. Some people consider them as wizards and witches
With prolonged life due to medical care, there will be more problems of old
people and ageism. To reduce the problem, the study of gerontology in Nigeria
should be encouraged. This is a new field in developmental psychology that is
concerned with the study of old people.
Aging in general involves biological, psychological and social changes which
are unpleasant for most old people because they are not prepared for it. They become
like children again in character. Some have to be supported with walking sticks to aid
their movements. There is therefore need to change our attitudes towards the old
people hand give them necessary supports.

61
New direction in developmental psychology

As a result of scientific research, developmental psychology is facing new

directions in some aspects. This includes the nature of changes that occur during
development. The basic question is whether these changes are gradual or abrupt. This
is called continuity and discontinuity controversy. Some developmental psychologists
view the changes in human beings as gradual, smooth and continuous over time
without sudden change. This, they believe continue in an orderly way such that new
change is built on the earlier experiences. However, others view development as
occurring in series of discrete stages and see the changes as quantitatively different in
each stage. For example, the childhood, adolescence and adulthood are separate and
distinct phases of development where differences exist between the phases.

However, the modern trend has suggested that our judgment of continuity and
discontinuity of development depends on the lens we use to examine the changes
across development (Parke and Locke, 2007). When considered from a long period of
time, it is clear that the there are marked differences at stages of development but
when viewed carefully, the changes have not moved abruptly. The new trend is to
hold a more or less middle-of-the road view, seeing development as continuous but
interspersed with period of transition in which changes may be quiet, sudden or
pronounced. Thus, the development is now focused on holistic process rather than
segmented approach. Different aspects of development such as cognition, biological,
personality, social etc are not only interrelated but influence each other as the
individual develops in the environment. Most developmental psychologists adopt a
holistic view because all areas of development are interdependent and one cannot
understand developmental change without knowledge of other areas.

62
Conclusion

The development of human beings is not only gradual at some points but rapid
at other points, like adolescence period. The development of life generally involves
changes in the entire body. The changes may be unnoticed and we may not be aware.
The changes involve different principles of development which may act alone or in
combination with others. Human development is affected by two major factors
namely; genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture). The debate of which is more
relevant and has greater force on development, has been on by psychologists, but the
view of the author is that none is more important than the other. Development of life
is consistent among human races all over the world. The difference is created by
environment. Different theoretical explanations are given to show how development
occurs across different stages of life. The theories that focus on different areas of
development are by no means exhaustive explanation at the introductory level of
human development.

63
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