Human Behavior and VICTIMOLOGY j.

There are traditional beliefs about people of all ages

Chapter I These beliefs about physical and psychological characteristics
Development affect the judgments of others as well as their self evaluation.

A. Development Defined C. Characteristics of Development

Development refers to a progressive series of changes of an 1. Dependence to Self – direction
orderly and coherent life leading toward maturity. 2. Pleasure to Reality
3. Ignorance to Knowledge
B. Significant Facts about Development 4. Incompetence to Competence
a. Early foundation is critical (first two years of life, (physical and 5. Diffuse to Articulated Self – identity
emotional))
Attitudes, habits, and pattern of behavior established during D. Stages in Human Life Span
the early years and determine to a large extent how successfully 1. Prenatal period - Conception to birth (0 – 9 months)
individuals will adjust to life as they grow older. 2. Infancy - Birth to the end of second week
3. Babyhood - End of the second week to the end of the second
b. Maturation and learning play important role in development year
 Maturation – refers to the growth following the birth that is 4. Early Childhood - Two to Six years
determined primarily by genetic factors and occurs more or less 5. Late Childhood - Six to Ten or Twelve years
independently of learning. 6. Puberty or Pre – Adolescence - Ten or Twelve to 13 or 14 years
 Learning – development that comes from exercise and effort on 7. Adolescence - 13 or 14 to 18 years
the individual’s part. 8. Early Adulthood - 18 to 40 years
9. Middle Age - 40 to 60 years
 Three Important facts emerge from our present 10. Old Age or Senescence - 60 to Death
knowledge of the interrelationship of maturation
and learning as the cause of development. E. Developmental Tasks During Life Span
1. Because human beings are capable of learning, variation is Developmental Tasks – A tasks which arises at or about a certain
possible. period in the life of the individual, successful achievement of which
2. Maturation sets limit beyond which progress, even with the leads to happiness and to success with later tasks, while failure leads
favorable learning methods and the strongest motivation. to unhappiness and difficulty with later tasks.
3. There is definite time table or learning. a) Babyhood and Early Childhood
- Learning to take solid food
c. Development follows a definite and predictable pattern - Learning to walk
The importance of this is that it makes it possible to predict - Learning to talk
what people will do at a given age and to plan their education and - Learning to control the eliminations of body wastes
training to fit into this pattern. - Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
- Getting ready to read
d. All individuals are different - Learning to distinguish right and wrong and beginning to
All individuals are biologically and genetically different from develop a conscience
the others. No two people can be expected to react in the same b) Late Childhood
manner to the same environment stimuli. - Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
- Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself as growing
e. Each phase of development has characteristics pattern of organism
behavior - Learning to get along with age mate
 Phases of Development - Beginning to develop appropriate masculine or feminine
1. Equilibrium – when individuals adopt easily to social roles
environmental demands. - Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and
2. Disequilibrium – when the individuals experience difficulties calculating
in adaptation makes poor personal social adjustment. - Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
- Developing conscience, sense of morality, and scale of
f. Each phase of development has its hazards values
Each period in the life can has associated with certain - Attitudes toward social groups and institutions
developmental hazards, physical, psychological and environmental. - Achieving personal independence
c) Puberty and Adolescence
g. Development is aided by stimulation - Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of
Directly encouraging the individual to use ability is the process both sexes
of development. Stimulation of the muscles during the early years - Achieving a masculine and feminine social role
results in earlier and better coordinated motor skills. - Accepting one’s physique and using one’s body effectively
- Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible
h. Development is affected by cultural changes behavior
Individual development is molded to conform to cultural - Achieving emotional independence from parents and other
standards and ideals. adults
- Preparing or an economic career
i. There are social expectations for every stage of development - Preparing or marriage and family life
Cultural groups expects its member to master certain essential - Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to
skills and acquire certain approved patterns of behavior. behavior
d) Early Adulthood
- Getting started in an occupation
- Selecting a mate
 - Learning to live with a marriage partner Chapter II
- Starting a family Human Behavior
- Rearing children
- Managing a home A. Human Behavior Defined
- Taking on civic responsibility Human Behavior – It is the voluntary or involuntary attitude a person
- Finding a congenial social group adopts in order to fit society’s idea of right and wrong. It’s partly
e) Middle Age determined by heredity and environment and modified through
- Achieving adult civic and social responsibility learning. It is also the way human being act.
- Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy
adults B. Causation of Human Behavior
- Developing adult leisure time activities a. Sensation - feeling or impression of stimulus
- Relating oneself to one’s spouse person - the process by which organism responds to stimulus
- Accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of
middle age a.1. visual – sight
- Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one’s a.2. olfactory – smell
occupational career a.3. cutaneous – touch
- Adjusting to aging parents a.4. auditory – hearing
f) Old Age a.5. gustatory – taste
- Adjusting to decreasing, physical strength b. Perception - knowledge of stimulus
- Adjusting to retirement and reduced income -sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli from our
- Adjusting to death of spouse sensory organ.
- Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of one’s - process by which sensory stimuli are interpreted, analyzed, and
age group integrated
- Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements c. Awareness - psychological activity, it is in accordance with the
- Adapting to social roles in a flexible way interpretation and experience of object of stimulus
 Purposes of Developmental Tasks
1. They are guidelines that enable individuals to know C. Two Basic Types of Human Behavior
what societies expect of them at given ages. a. Inherited Behavior – behavioral response or reflex
2. Motivate individuals to do what the social group expects exhibited by people due to their genetic endowment or the
them to do at certain ages during their lives. process of natural selection.
3. Show individuals what lies ahead and what they will be b. Learned Behavior – involves cognitive adaptation that
expected to do when they reach their next stage of enhances the human beings ability to cope with changes in
development. the environment in ways which improve the changes for
service.
F. Psychosexual Stages of Development
Freud believes that all human beings pass through a series of D. Motivation of Human Behavior
psychosexual stages, each stages dominated by the development and a. The Needs Theory of Human Behavior
sensitivity in a particular erogenous or measure – giving spot in the This theory states that, throughout life, desires, wishes,
body. If individuals are unsuccessful in resolving the conflict, their and drives, collectively called needs, motivate all. When not fulfilled,
solving frustration becomes chronic and remains a central feature of these needs lace the individuals under stress and in order to relieve
their psychological make – up. the tensions created, one has to strive for appropriate satisfactions.
However, the ways to satisfy these needs are governed by the society
As a result of their frustration or over indulgence, individuals whose mechanics are not always identical to the individual’s constant
experience fixation at a particular stage of their development. struggle for food, warmth, affection, achievement, recognition, and
 Fixation – is the tendency to stay at a particular stage: economic and emotional security.
The individuals troubled by the conflict that characterizes These needs are arranged according to its hierarchy, to wit:
the stage and seeing to reduce it by means of the 1. Physiological needs
behavior characteristics of that stage. 2. Safety needs
a. The Oral Stage – reflect the infants need for gratification from the 3. The sense of belonging and love needs
mother. 4. Esteem needs
b. The Anal Stage (2nd to the 3rd year of life) – reflects the toddlers 5. The need for self – actualization
need for gratification along the rectal area. During this stage,
children must endure the demand of toilet training. b. The Psychodynamics of Human Motivation
c. The Phallic Stage (4th to 5th year of life) – reflects the Psychodynamics, which literally means motivation to
preschooler’s gratification involving the genitals. Children of this action, define human behavior in terms of inner personality of the inner
stage gratify their sex instinct by foundling their genitals and self. The concept of subjective life and the inner forces within, called
developing incestuous desire for the opposite sex parent. mental personality.
d. The Latency Stage (6th year of life to puberty) – is Freud’s This theory viewed that what person do and how they act
fourth stage of psychosexual development. During this time, are reflections of the operations of their inner personality. This inner
sexual desires are repressed and all the Childs available libido is personality of the inner self is a system of forces or network energy,
socially acceptable outlets such as school – work or vigorous play called psychic forces and makes one act and feel in certain ways its
that consume most of Childs physical and psychic energy. interplay.
e. The Genital Stage ( from puberty onwards) – is characterized The seat of these psychic forces is the mind, which is a
by maturation of the reproductive system, production of sex symbol of mental life and mental activity. The mind has three levels on
hormones, and reactivation of the genital zone as an area of which the symbols of these psychic forces operate, namely: Id, Ego,
sensual pleasure. The adolescent may openly expresses libidos and Superego. These are not structures or entities, but are symbolic
toward member of the opposite sex. But for the first time, the terms used to describe certain emotional and psychological activities
underlying aim of sex instinct is reproduction. which motivate behavior and affect personality. The organization of
total personality depends upon the adequate and harmonious e. Voluntary or involuntary Behavior - Voluntary behavior is
functioning of these three dynamically interacting forces. an act done with full volition or will such as when we
discriminate, decide, or choose; while involuntary behaviors
 Id – the raw, unorganized, inherited part of personality whose sole refer to the bodily processes that function whether we are
purpose is to reduce tension created by primitive drives related to awake or asleep.
hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. These drives are
fueled by “psychic energy” called libido. The id operates I. Personality Dimensions That Affect Human Behavior
according to the pleasure principle in which the goal is the a. Extraversion
immediate reduction of tension and the maximization of - The diversion that dictates conditionability and is therefore
satisfaction. the principal factor in anti – social behavior. It represents a
 Ego – provides a buffer between the id and realities of the central nervous system tendency that determines need for
objective outside world. In contrast to the pleasure seeking nature stimulation and excitement.
of the id, the ego operates according to the reality principle, in - Extroverts not only have high needs for stimulation, but they
which instinctual energy is restrained in order to maintain the also do not condition easily. They frequently seek stimulation
safety of the individual and help integrate the person in society. excitement and thrills, all of which can get them in trouble.
 Superego – the final personality structure to develop, represents b. Neuroticism
the rights and wrongs of the society as handed down by person’s - It reflects an innate biological predisposition to react
parents, teachers and other important figures. The superego physiologically to stressful or upsetting events. Basically, it
actually has two parts, the conscience and the ego – ideal. represents emotionality. Persons high to neuroticism react
- Conscience – prevents us from doing morally bad things intensely much longer to stress and are generally moody,
- Ego – Ideal – motivates us to do what is morally proper. touchy, sensitive slights and anxious or nervous.
- Neuroticism is most important in understanding some adult
E. Viewpoints in the Study of Human Behavior criminals, less important in understanding adolescents and
a. Neurological – emphasizes human actions in relation to even younger children.
events taking place inside the body, especially the brain and c. Psychoticism
the nervous system. - It is characterized by cold cruelty, social insensitivity,
b. Cognitive – concerned with the way the brain processes disregard for danger, troublesome behavior, dislike of others
and transforms information in various ways. and attraction toward the unusual.
c. Psychoanalytical – emphasizes unconscious motives - The individual high on psychoticism tends to be impulsive,
stemming from repressed sexual and aggressive impulses in aggressive individual without appreciable conscience or
childhood. concern for others.
d. Behavioral – focuses on external activities that can be
observed and measured.
e. Humanistic – focuses on the subject’s experience, freedom Chapter III
Adjustment
of choice, and motivation
A. Adjustment Defined
F. Factors that Affect Human Behavior Adjustment, on the psychological point of views, can be
a. Heredity – It is determined by genes. Genes are segments defined simply as a process where the internal demands of motivations
of cell structures called chromosomes by which parents pass are brought into harmonious relation with the external demands of
on traits to their offspring. reality. As a means to adjustments, persons resorted to what is known
b. Environment – Consists of conditions and factors that as defense mechanism or adjustment mechanism.
a. Defense mechanism or adjustment mechanism
surround and influence on individual.
- Used to defend the ego
c. Learning – Is the process by which behavior changes as a - Unconscious strategies people use to anxiety by
result of experience or practice. concealing the source from themselves and others.

G. Characteristics of Behavior B. General Principles of Adjustment

1. Primarily native or learned a. Biological Level - Immunological defenses against disease
2. Evoked by external stimuli or internal need and damage repair mechanism
b. Psychological and Interpersonal Level - There are
3. Automatic, voluntary, conscious motor or intentional
learned coping patterns and self – defenses
c. Socio – cultural Level - Groups of labor unions, religious
H. Kinds of Behavior organization and law enforcement agencies.
a. Overt or Covert Behavior - Behavior that are outwardly
manifested or those that are directly observable are overt C. Types of Defense mechanism
behaviors. On the other hand, the covert behaviors are a. Repression - Unacceptable or unpleasant id impulses are
behaviors that are hidden and not visible to the naked eye. pushed back into unconsciousness. Repression is the most direct
method of dealing with anxiety; instead of handling an anxiety –
b. Conscious or Unconscious Behavior - Behavior is
producing impulse on a conscious level, one simply ignores it.
conscious when act are within the level of awareness. It is b. Suppression - Involve the individual’s and conscious attempt to
unconscious when acts are embedded in one’s sub – stop anxiety – provoking thoughts by simply not thinking about
consciousness. them.
c. Simple or Complex Behavior - These are act categorized c. Denial - Refers to a person’s refusal to perceive an unpleasant
according to the number of nervous involved in the process event in external reality.
of behaving. Simple behavior involves less number of d. Displacement –
- The expression of unwanted feeling or thought is
neurons, while complex behavior involves more number of
redirected from a more threatening, powerful person to
neurons, a combination of simple behavior. a weaker one.
d. Rational or Irrational Behavior - There is rational behavior - Unconscious attempt to obtain gratification for id
when a person acted with sanity or reason and there is impulses by shifting them to substitute objects that
irrational behavior when the person acted with no apparent would directly satisfy the impulses are not available.
reason or exploitation. e. Scapegoating - Blaming other for his failure
f. Rationalization - It involves the inventing of excuses or reasons
for behavior that is inadequate, unacceptable, or damaging to B. Types of Abnormal Behavior
personal integrity and status. a. Personality Disorder - It originates during early development
Types of Rationalization process leading to maladaptive behavior.
f.1. Sour – Grape mechanism – this involved self – Classification of Personality Disorder
deception by adopting a conviction, and giving up and 1. Passive – Aggressive - Passive – dependent Aggressive
relinquishing all efforts towards a goal because it is not worth due to indulgence
the efforts anyway. 2. Hysterical Personality Disorder - Easily excitable
f.2. Sweet – Lemon mechanism – desirable qualities are emotional instability, dramatically attention getting,
found in what was not truly wanted. immature, with tendency to sexualize contacts with opposite
g. Projection sex
- The process of shifting the responsibility for an act or 3. Compulsive Personality Disorder - Excessive concern for
thought from oneself to another person conformity, rigid, maybe intelligent but trait of character
- Attributing unwanted impulse and feeling to someone explains his undoing.
else. 4. Paranoid Personality Disorder - Hypersensitive,
h. Substitution or Transferred Compensation - A device which unwarranted suspicion, jealousy, envy, and feelings of
makes it possible to discharge tensions by diverting one’s excessive importance.
energies from a desired goal to a substitute one. Working on the
principles of substitution are: b. Neuroses - Neuroses or psychoneuroses are behavioral
h.1. Compensation – the mechanism where the individual disorder brought about by emotional tension resulting from
devotes time and effort to a pursuit with increased vigor in an frustration, conflicts, repression, or insecurity. The persons who
attempt to make up for real or imagined inadequacy. develop a neurosis breaks down under the pressure of outer
h.2. Overcompensation – the concentration of efforts on a and inner stresses and displays a host of distress symptoms,
narrow field at the expense of well rounded and complete although not serious enough to require institutionalization. They
adjustment to a variety of life’s demands. compromise with reality by developing imaginary ailments,
i. Reaction Formation - Defense mechanism where urges that are phobias, obsessions, compulsions, anxiety or depression.
not acceptable to the consciousness are repressed and opposite  Behavioral Characteristics of Neurotic Reactions
attitudes or modes of behaviors are expressed with considerable 1. Presence of anxiety
force. 2. Inability to function at capacity level
j. Avoidance Mechanism - Way of adjusting to a threatening 3. Rigid or repetitive behavior
situation by escaping from it. 4. Egocentricity
Types: 5. Hypersensitivity
j.1. Fantasy – mental mechanism where a person substitute 6. Immaturity
real satisfaction for imaginary satisfactions. 7. Somatic Complaints
j.2. Regression – process relieving anxiety or threat falling 8. Unhappiness
back on thoughts, feelings, or behavior in which worked 9. A great deal of unconsciously motivated behavior
successfully during the earlier period of life.  Factors to be Considered in Understanding the
j.3. Negativism – the refusal to participate in a tense Causes of Neuroses
situation. This is a type of avoidance mechanism manifested 1. Predisposing or Constitutional factors
through either active or passive resistance towards the 2. Childhood Development Patterns
external demands on the individual. 3. The Immediate Life Situation
- Active resistance – doing the opposite of what is 4. The Cultural Factors
supposed to be done.
- Passive resistance – doing what is expected to be b.1. Classification of Neuroses According to Most Striking
avoided Symptoms
j.4. identification mechanism where the individual b.1.1. Anxiety Reactions - These are principally manifested in
enhance self – esteem by patterning him/herself another diffused and consciously experienced feelings of anxiety and
person. This is done in fantasy or actual behavior. apprehension for which there seems to be no specific basis in reality.
k. Sublimation - People divert unwanted impulses into socially The condition may be chronic and continuous, where the person is
approved thoughts, feelings, or behavior. This type of defense always tense and worried, easily upset, and preoccupied with future
mechanism is particularly healthy and socially acceptable. calamities. Repeated unsatisfactory life situations, conditions that
l. Intellectualization arouse fears of the breakdown of defensive processes, may constitute
- Here, a person gains detachment from threatening the precipitating cause of the anxiety. The reaction built on a lifetime
event in order to remain untouched by it emotionally. An pattern of insecurity and immaturity.
emotional event is dealt with analytic, intellectual terms b.1.2. Hysteria - A disorder in which the individual manifests, without
as if it where something to study or be merely curious identifiable physical pathology, one or more symptoms usually due to
about, rather than to be emotionally involved about. organic disease. These symptoms insulate the individual from real life
- These adjustment or defense mechanisms serve a stresses. Disabilities developed include paralysis of the limbs, intense
useful purpose in that they protect the person against aches and pains, deafness, blindness, loss of voice, continuous
pain. Also they are normal and universally use. vomiting, and head or hand tremors. The hysteric may develop an
However, defense mechanism can be potentially anesthesia, where he or she becomes insensitive to pain and cannot
pathogenic when they are used indiscriminately, feel a needle or a burn. He or she fits or seizures, or faint at the least
compulsively, and in ways that continually contradict provocation.
the reality of the situation.
Forms of Hysteria
Chapter IV b.1.2.1. Amnesia - A disorder in which the individual cannot
Abnormal Behavior recall his or her name and remembers little or nothing about
the past. It is obliteration through repression of awareness of
A. Abnormal Behavior the self and of the historical data of all part of one’s previous
A behavior that fails to meet the characteristics of a normal person existence.
such as: Types of Amnesia
1. Free expression of personality b.1.2.1.1. Anterograde – the inability to retain information
2. Adequate security feeling which has just been seen or read.
3. Efficient contact with reality b.1.2.1.2. Retrograde – the inability to recall any event
4. Adaptability to group norms which took place during certain period of time.
5. Emotional maturity b.1.2.1.3. Localized – the inability to recall events which are
6. Adequate self knowledge related to a particular situation.
7. Integrated and consistent personality
 to intrude no matter how hard one tries and what activities are
b.1.2.2. Fugue - An amnesia state where one wonders away undertaken. Common obsessions are self – accusatory thoughts,
from his or her home or usual surroundings and, when thoughts about losing the mind, committing immoral acts, superstitious
awareness set in, there is no recollection as to how he or worries, etc. in their neurotic form; the obsessions are usually morbid
she came to be there. It may last for few hours, days or in content and dominate the walking behavior of the individual for long
months. It is an escape mechanism from a highly distressful periods of time.
situation.
b.1.2.3. Multiple Personality - A dramatic form of hysteria b.1.3.3. Compulsion - An irresistible tendency to perform an act or
where the patient develops two or more separated and very ritual which the individual feels compelled to carry out even though it is
different personalities. The personalities achieved vary in recognized as irrational he or she must do so in order to reduce the
degree of completeness, and may or may not be consciously tension. Completing the act makes the individual temporarily at ease;
different. Shifting from one personality to another last for failure to do so makes him or her extremely nervous. In its fleurotic
from a few hours to several months or years apart. form, compulsion are mere persistent and more absurd, and may grow
b.1.2.4. Somnambulism - A dream like state where the to such dimensions as to interfere seriously with the patient’s ability to
person walks about and carries on certain activities which carry out normal routine.
are not remembered later. The somnambulist will get out of Some examples of Compulsion
bed, with eyes open but not awake, and gives the 1. Arithmomania – the impulse to count everything
appearance of trying to reach a definite goal. Obstacles that 2. Dipsomania – the impulse to drink liquor
blocks or are injurious are violated. The somnambulist even 3. Homicidal mania – the impulse to kill
responds to questions or demands without awakening. 4. Kleptomania – the impulse to steal
5. Megalomania – the impulse for fame or power
b.1.3. Psychastenia - A psychoneurotic condition 6. Pyromania – the impulse to set things on fire
accompanied by a vast range of mental and emotional 7. Suicidal mania – the impulse to takes one’s life
symptoms which cannot be controlled. The person is fear –
ridden by unreasonable dreads or phobias, obsessions and b.1.4. Traumatic Neuroses - It is manifested in a situation where the
compulsion. Other symptoms of psychastenia are individual fears for his or her safety. It is caused by inhibitory process
unreasonable elation, constant depression, or over inhibition. which is protective to the individual. In the effort to safeguard
him/herself from injuries, certain physiological and psychological
Forms of Psychastenia symptoms are inhibited. The person manifests certain symptoms
b.1.3.1. Phobias - An irrational or exaggerated fear of an making others care for him or her, and therefore reduces the
object, person, act or situation. These may be developed possibilities of being hurt and increases the feeling of security.
towards any imaginable aspect of environment.
b.1.5. Operational Fatigue - Otherwise known as war neurosis, it is
 Characteristics of Phobia manifested in response to a battle environment. It is a reactive state
1. Reasons for the fear do not make sense resulting from the physical and emotional stresses of continued danger
2. The fear paralyzes instead of enhances the ability to and hardships. It is the result of sustained combat action and tension.
deal with the problem
3. The fear seems to be caused by the threat of a c. Psychoses
discharge of self destructive aggressions - Psychoses are serious mental illness where behavior is
unpredictable. Psychotic persons have a wholly unrealistic
 Some Examples of Phobias interpretation of the self and the life around them. Their ego
1. Achluphobia or nyctophobia – fear of dark has lost control over the personality. They have great mood
2. Acrophobia – fear of high places swings – extreme depression to extreme exaltation. They
3. Aerophobia – fear of flying are quit and docile at one moment and hyperactive, even
4. Agoraphobia – fear of open spaces violent, the next. They are socially inept.
5. Ailurophobia – fear of cats - Person suffering psychoses significantly lost or distort of
6. Algophobia – fear of pain contact from reality such as delusion, hallucination, and
7. Amaxophobia – fear of vehicles and driving regression. (Disturbances in thinking, thought content,
8. Anthophobia – fear of flowers perception, mood and effect, judgment) and dementia
9. Antrophobia – fear of people praecox. Psychotic almost completely out of touch with the
10. Aquaphobia – fear of water real world.
11. Arachnephobia – fear of spiders c.1. Classification of Psychoses
12. Astraphobia- fear of thunder, lightning or storms c.1.1. Organic/Somatogenic - Organic or somatogenic
13. Cheimphobia – fear of cold psychoses stem from a wide variety of causes, but damage or
14. Claustrophobia – fear of closed places injury to the brain or other parts of the central nervous system is
15. Cynophobia – fear of dogs always involved.
16. Dipsophobia – fear of drinking (Symptoms of Organic Psychoses)
17. Ecophobia or Oikophobia – fear of home 1. Impairment of intellectual functions
18. Electrophobia – fear of electricity 2. Emotional instability, shown by general irritability or
19. Erythrophobia – fear of blushing violent mood swings without apparent cause.
20. Gamophobia – fear of marriage 3. Inappropriate behavior and changes in general conduct,
21. Hematophobia – fear of blood including lack of interest in personal appearance, neglect
22. Hydrophobia – fear of water of responsibilities, and an antisocial behavior.
23. Ideaphobia – fear of thoughts (Types of Organic Psychoses)
24. Ochlophobia – fear of crowds 1. Psychoses associated with infectious diseases
25. Ophidiophobia – fear of snakes 2. Psychoses associated with toxins
26. Ornithophobia – fear of birds 3. Psychoses associated with head injuries
27. Pathophobia – fear of disease 4. Psychoses associated with old age
28. Phobophobia – fear of developing a phobia
29. Rypophobia – fear of dirt c.1.2. Functional Psychoses - Functional Psychosis is a serious
30. Sitophobia – fear of eating mental disorder involving the total personality with no observable
31. Taphophobia – fear of being buried alive tissue damage. Having no organic basis, these ailments are
32. Thermophobia – fear of heat believed to result from years of living under emotional stress.
33. Xenophobia – fear of strangers
c.1.2.1. Forms of Functional Psychoses
c.1.2.1.1. Schizophrenic Disorders - Schizophrenia is a
b.1.3.2. Obsession - An idea or series of ideas which recur so
psychotic condition marked by withdrawal from reality,
frequently that it interferes with normal thinking. The thought continues
 indifference concerning everyday problems, and the tendency c.1.2.1.2. Affective Disorder - Affective reactions of manic –
to live in a world of fantasy. It was formerly called dementia depressive psychosis are characterized by periods of depression
praecox by Emil Kraeplin, a German Psychiatrist. The term or elation or both. The condition may arise in a previously well
schizophrenia was given by Eugene Bleuler which literally adjusted personality but with a strong hereditary predisposition.
means splitting of the mind”. It occurs more frequently in women than in men. The illness
(Symptoms of Schizophrenia) persists for 6 to 18 months and responds well to shock therapy.
1. Disorganized patterns of feeling and thinking where there Although even without shock therapy, there can be spontaneous
is no logic or reason in the thoughts and feelings recovery and return to the normal personality.
expressed. Forms of Affective Disorder
2. Apathy or absence of feelings and emotions in situations a. Manic – types are marked by periods of elation where the
which call for such reactions. patients are unduly boastful, excited, and hyperactive. They
3. Bizarre actions, which include absurd and eccentric are irritable, angry, and shows abusive behavior when
gestures or such activities as hoarding and over self – contradicted. Heightened activity I accompanied by
decorating. physical changes, such as increased perspiration, rapid
4. Seclusiveness or the narrowing of interests and social pulse, elevated blood pressure, stronger muscle tones, and
contacts loss of sleep.
5. Disorganized patterns of speech b. Depressed – person feel sad and hopeless. There is
6. Delusions and hallucinations (usually auditory) psychomotor retardation, difficulty in thinking, and
7. Deterioration of conduct and personal habits. sometimes suicidal tendencies. Delusions hallucinations
may be present, which most frequently grow out of feelings
Types of Schizophrenia of unworthiness and guilt.
a. Simple Schizophrenia – Manifests a gradual decline of interest c. Mixed types – person manifest symptoms of both manic
and ambition. The person withdraws from practically all social and depressive types. In one instance, the patient is
contacts, as well as become irritable and inattentive. No talkative and yet be markedly depressed; in another, he or
encouragement or reasoning can make him or her renew interest she is elated while at the same time negativistic.
or activity. He or she no little effort to work or play; careless about
personal habits and prefers to daydream. He or she frequently
c.1.2.1.3. Paranoia - Another psychotic reaction is paranoia,
gives the impression of being stupid or mentally retarded although
where the main symptom is characterized by suspicion. The
actual intellectual impairment occurred. The simple schizophrenic
reaction range from paranoia, where the personality structure
loses all sense of responsibility and becomes dependent and
remains relatively well organized, through paranoid states,
parasitic.
where the personality loses some of its integration, to paranoid
b. Hebephrenic Schizophrenia – usually begins in early
schizophrenia, where there is a severe disorganization of the
adolescence and develops gradually. The person has fits of
personality structure.
laughter or childish giggling, grimacing for hours without apparent
- Paranoids have well systematized delusions, but have a good
reasons. He or she exhibits weird gestures or mannerisms, such
contact with reality. There is little or no intellectual deterioration.
as walking backward, makes peculiar movement, crawling on
Common Types of Paranoia
hands and feet, and talking gibberish. Abnormal speech reactions
1. Persecutory Paranoia – having delusions or persecution.
are exhibited, such as repeating meaningless phrases, coining
The person believes that some persons are plotting to harm
new words and placing together words that are not related. The
him or her in some way.
hebephrenic can be analyzed as a person so overwhelmed by
2. Litigious Paranoia – having delusions of both persecution
life’s stresses that he or she retreats to an infinite level of
and grandeur, and may go to great lengths to bring alleged
adjustment.
persecutors to court. In some cases, he or she will go from
c. Catatonic Schizophrenia
court seeking legal redress.
- it is marked by cycles of psychomotor reactions in stupor
3. Erotic Paranoia – also called amorous paranoia – having
(partial or complete loss of consciousness) and excitement
delusion that a certain person is in love with him or her. The
phases.
person will interpret a casual smile or a helpful remarks a a
- In the stupor phase of catatonia, the person loses all
indication of affection and will send love letters, flowers and
animation, remaining motionless and in a stereotyped
gifts to the object of his affection. Failure to acknowledge
posture for hours or even days. He or she is mute and
these letters and gifts is interpreted as a test of his love, or
unable to react even to a powerful stimulation; refuses food
due to the interference of someone who is opposed to his
and show no effort to control bowel or bladder. Extreme
suit.
negativism is present.
4. Exalted Paranoia – having grandiose delusions and
- Although in a stupor state, the person is aware of what is
believes him/herself as someone with great power or
going on around him or her. Sometimes he will imitate the
importance; usually a religious crusader, a social reformer,
behavior of others, or will carry out commands automatically,
or inventor.
or repeat phases in mechanical fashion. Hallucinations and
5. Jealous Paranoia – the most numerous, marked by
delusions occur which may involve the person in a conflict of
extreme and irrational jealousy.
symbolic fantasy experience.
- Individuals in catatonic excitement states exhibit intense
d..Anti – Social Personality - This is a mentally – disturbed person
psychomotor activity. They are noisy, aggressive, and
who is opposed to the principles upon which society is based.
impulsive. They become agitated and frightened, apparently
as a result of visual or auditory hallucinations, and can be
d.1. Characteristics of an Anti – Social Personality
violent. There is a continuous state of motor unrest. A
d.1.1. Sociopath – A person who lacks any sense of social or
condition manifested principally in agitated activity and
moral responsibility due to mental illness.
sleeplessness.
d.1.2. Psychopath – A person having personality disorders
- Catatonics have no insight of their condition and are
characterized by anti – social behavior, indifference to immorality
completely disoriented. However, some experience lucid
and abnormal changes in mood or activity.
periods during which they are aware of what is going on
d.2. Characteristics of Psychopath/Sociopath
around them.
1. A classic manipulator or con artist.
d. Paranoid Schizophrenia – it is marked by delusions and
2. One of the most significant characteristics of this personality
hallucinations which are illogical and loosely organized, as well as
is the absence of conscience or any guilt feelings.
grandiose and/or persecutory nature. Paranoids are moody,
3. The person has not incorporated the moral values of society
irritable, and suspicious. They can become dangerous, both to
into his life.
themselves and their alleged persecutors. They do not leave their
4. He is often a glib and convincing speaker and presents
home for fear of being stalked, watched, followed or called
himself extremely well.
disparaging names, etc. their delusions can impel him towards
5. The anti – social personality is selfish and strives for physical
violence. Their become excited and incoherent.
pleasure.
 6. Most of his pursuits revolve around manipulating people to 4. Dyspareunia - Painful sexual act in women
acquire personal gains. 5. Vaginisimus - Painful spasm of the vagina during sexual act
7. He is often impulsive and demands immediately satisfaction 6. Old Age - Weakening of sexual feeling in the elderly
8. He is unable to learn from past experiences
9. He is also a chronic liar.
d.3. As to the Mode of Sexual Expression or Way of Sexual
Satisfaction
C. Handling of Different Abnormal and Deviant Behavio
1. Oralism (Irrumation) - The use of the mouth as a way of sexual
1. Anxiety – Reassurance
gratification such as Fellatio, Cunning Lingus, Anilingus
2. Depressed - Put self on the shoes of the sufferer; place in the
2. Sado – Masochism (Algolagnia) - Pain or cruel acts as a factor
hospital; word of caution; alert of possible suicide
for gratification such as: sadoism masochism
3. Obsessive – Compulsive - Understand that sufferer is
3. Fetishism - A form of sexual perversion wherein the real or
disturbed and not crazy; refer to appropriate facility
fantasized presence of an object or bodily part is necessary for
4. Phobia - Supportive intervention
sexual stimulation or gratification. Ex. Anatomic, Clothing,
5. Psychoses - Display of guns, force and restrains should be
Necrophilia, Odor etc.
avoided unless there is a manifestation of danger to the life and
send the psychotic to the hospital. If he desists, be firm
d.4. As to the Part of the Body
regardless of pleading
1. Sodomy - Sexual act through the anus of another human being
6. Psychopath -
2. Uranism - Sexual gratification is attached by fingering, fondling
1. Review arrest record
the breast, licking parts of the body etc.
2. Recognize con – man’s glib conversation
3. Frottage - A form of sexual gratification characterized by the
3. Don’t bluff, he is a master of this and certainly better than
compulsive desire of a person to rub his sex organ against some
anybody
parts of the body of another
4. The best is to interview him after knowing every detail of
4. Pantialism - A form of sexual deviation wherein a person has
the case
special affinity to certain parts of the female body
5. Psychopathic can beat lie detector. He is immune to
anxiety unless placed under stress
d.5. As to Visual Stimulus
6. Be firm and clear. Psychopath maybe charming but can also
1. Voyeurism - A form of sexual perversion characterized by a
make very angry and may maneuver to violate his rights
compulsion to peep to see person undress or perform other
7. Drug Dependent Behavior
personal activities
1. Patience, but firm – the person is not himself
2. Mixoscopia (Scoptophilla) - Sexual perversion wherein sexual
2. Ignore the belligency unless going to hunt, keep him talking
pleasure is attached by watching couple undress or during their
to relieve the stress; use form of restraints.
sex intimacies
3. Do not place in drunk tank, but appropriate hospital
4. Referral fro medical institution
d.6. As to Number
8. Paranoid Behavior
1. Froilism (Menageatrios) - A form of sexual perversion in which
1. Understanding – never give an impression that he is crazy
three (3) persons are participating in the sexual orgies (Suixante
2. Friendliness & neutrality is usually the best approach
– neve)
3. Do not further or heightens anxieties, to provoke anxiety is
2. Pluralism - A form of sexual deviation in which a group of
to invite violent reaction
person participates in the sexual orgies (sexual festival)
4. Assure the paranoid that your presence is to help and
protect him
d.7. Other Sexual Deviates
5. Do not frighten or order the paranoid around with weapon,
1. Corpolalia - A form of sexual deviation characterized by the
Paranoid may panic and react violently. However, not to let
need to use obscene language to obtain orgies
down guard. Remember, paranoid is suicidal and homicidal
2. Don Juanism - It describes a form of sexual deviation
characterized by promisevity and making seduction of many
Chapter V women as part of his career
Deviant Sexual Behavior 3. Indecent Exposure (Exhibitionism) - The willful exposure in
public place of one’s genital organ in the presence of other
A. Sexuality - Behavior associated with relation between sexes and person’s; usually of the opposite sex
reproductive organ.
B. Normal Sexuality - Sexual completion that leads to mature and
adjusted individual capable of entering relationships with a member of Chapter VI
the opposite sex which are physically and mentally stable and Victimology
satisfying heterosexual.
C. Abnormal Sexuality/Sexual Deviancy - Sexual behavior which
seeks stimulation and gratification by means other than heterosexual. Scientific study of physical, emotional and financial harm
Classification of Sexual Abnormalities people suffer because of illegal activities.
d.1. As to the Choice of Sexual Partner Included in this definition is the victimization occurring for
1. Heterosexual - Sexual desire towards opposite sex; socially and victims within the criminal justice system.
medically acceptable
2. Homosexual - Sexual desire towards the same sex Victimization
3. Infantisexual - Sexual desire towards an immature person - Is an asymmetrical interpersonal relationship that is abusive,
4. Bestosexual - Sexual desire towards animal painful, destructive, parasitical, and unfair.
5. Autosexual - A form of self – abuse or solitary vice carried - Law forbids certain forms of victimization – oppressive and
without the cooperation of another person exploitative acts – but not all types of harmful activities.
6. Gerontophilia - Sexual desire with elder person
7. Necrophilia - Sexual perversion characterized by erotic desire Victimology
or actual sexual intercourse with a corps
 Victims – individuals who experience loss, injury, or hardship
8. Incest - Sexual relations between person who by reason of
for any reason.
blend relationship cannot legally married
 Crime Victims – above as result of an illegal act.
d.2. As to Instinctual Sexual Urge  Direct/Primary – experiences criminal act and its
1. Satyriasis - Excessive sexual desire of men to intercourse consequences first hand.
2. Nymphomania - Strong sexual feeling of woman  Indirect/Secondary – family and those who suffer
3. Sexual Anesthesia - Absence of sexual desire or arousal during emotionally or financially but are not immediately involved or
sexual act in women physically injured.
  Victimology is a new academic discipline that only means “the
study of” victims.
 It is focused on the research about people harm by criminals
 It does not impose a partisan point of view or a set or
predictably blased conclusions
Studying of Victimization Scientifically  The ideology of “victimism” is a coherent, integrated set of
 Subjective Approach beliefs that shapes interpretations and leads to political action
- Issues are approached from standpoint of morally,  Do not confuse “victimism” with “victimology”
ethics, philosophy, personalized reactions, and  Victimological research must tell the whole truth regardless of
emotions. who is disappointed or insulted
 Objective Approach  Three types of biases undermine the ability to any social
- Requires observer to be fair, open – minded, even – scientist to achieve objectivity – they include:
handed, dispassionate, neutral, and unbiased.
 Why should victimologists NOT be pro – victim? Three types of biases
 “Ideal victim”: person who suffered harm was weaker than 1. May arise from personal experience, taking the form of individual
aggressor, acting virtuously or not looking for trouble or preferences and prejudices.
breaking any laws, and wrongdoer was a stranger acting 2. Derives from the history of the discipline itself:
illegally and was unprovoked. - Pioneers in the study of victimology first introduced
the concept of victim – blaming
Victims or Offender? - Today, majority of victimologists are pro – victim
 Who is the victim and who is the offender? 3. A subtle bias traced back to the mood of the times:
 Not always clear cut – consider the following: - 60s – 70s: a demand for government to devise
- Subway Vigilante ways to help victims get back on their feet
- Menendez Brothers financially, medically, and emotionally
- Bobicks - 80s: a theme of self – reliance and a reduction in
government social spending and tax cutting gained
Criminals as Victims popularity
 Predatory persons prey each other
- Organized crime “takes out a contract” Three Origins of Victimology
- “Drive – by” shooting between two gangs  Significant gains in the United States when the President’s
- “Drug deal gone bad” Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of
Justice urged criminologists to pay more attention to victims.
Cycle of Violence  By the 70s victimology became field of study
 Cycle of violence over time can transform a victim(s) into  By 1990, 240 colleges and universities offered courses in
victimizer(s). victimology
- Group of picked on students may gang up against the  Most states passed crime victims rights amendments to their
bully state constitution
- Battered wife may launch a vengeful attack against  2004 – Congress enacts the Crime Victims’ Rights Act which
husband provides for fair treatment and opportunities for input in
- Convicts much more likely to have been abused federal court proceedings
physically or sexually as children
- Violence Begets Violence Victimology vs. Criminology
 Victimology is best viewed as an area of specialization within
Victims vs. “Good Guys” criminology
 Victimologists do not limit their studies to clashes between  Criminology embraces the scientific study of crimes, criminals,
victims and offenders criminal laws and the justice system, societal reactions, and
 They also consider the social reaction to victimization crime victims.
 Victims outraged by media coverage – sensationalism  Criminologists ask why certain individuals become involve in
 Investigation of charges in high profile cases require lawbreaking while others do not.
victimologists to be detached and disinterested in carrying out  Victimologists ask why some individuals, households, and
analysis entities are targeted while others are not, and why over and
Victimology’s Undeserved “Bad Reputation” over again.
 Victimology during the 90s and into the twentieth century has  Criminologists apply their findings to devise crime prevention
become to many a “dirty word”. strategies
 (Paglia, 1993) A critic of contemporary feminism declared on  Victimologists use patterns and trends to develop victimization
national TV, “I hate victimology. I despise a victim – centered prevention strategies and risk – reduction tactics.
view of universe”.  Both Criminologists and Victimologists study how the criminal
 (Leo, 1994) A news magazine commentator complained, “We justice system actually works versus how it is supposed to
are deep into the era of the abuse excuse”. The doctrine of work.
victimology – claiming victim status means you are not  Boundaries
responsible for your actions – is beginning to warp the legal - Boundaries are clear cut for Criminology
system”. - Boundaries for Victimology still unclear
 An author of a book about race relations called a well – known - Overlap due to lack of boundaries (Crime rates vs.
preacher who is a civil rights activist a “Professional Victimization rates)
Victimologist”. (Dreher, 2001).
 (Harrop, 2003) A review of a book noted, “The art of Division within the Discipline
victimology requires three easy steps:  Political ideologies shape policy recommendations:
(1.) Identify a group suffering from real or - Conservative
perceived injustices - Liberal
(2.) Exaggerate the problem - Radical
(3.) Blame the problem on a group you don’t
like. 1. Conservative influence
- Focuses on basically street crimes
Conservatives have long condemned the “victimology - Everyone to be held accountable for their decisions
industry” as a racket, especially when practiced by women and actions
and minorities.
 - Emphasis on self reliance, NOT government are dependent on their caretakers (e.g., parents, guardians,
- Individual responsibility for preventing, avoiding, teachers, and day – care providers); they also have the potential
resisting and recovering from critical acts to be exposed to a wider range of harm than adults. Moreover,
- Strictly punish offenders on behalf of their victims they are less able to defend themselves and sometimes less likely
2. Liberal influence to believed should they report abuse. This includes children who
- Scope of field to extend beyond street crimes suffer emotional, physical, and sexual abuse at home because of
- Endorse government intervention abusive parents (often under the influence of drugs and alcohol);
- Extend ‘safety net’ mechanisms for all kinds of children who are bullied at school because of some aspect of their
misfortunes appearance or personality; and children who are forced into acts
- Look to wrongdoers repaying their victims to allow of prostitution or sold into slavery by impoverished parents.
for reconciliation
3. Radical / Critical / Conflict Influence  The Acquisitive: Von Hentig was referring to those who are
- Victimization is a result of oppressive social system greedy and looking for quick gain. In other words, those focused
- Scope of the field to include: in acquiring wealth and possessions. Such individuals may
suspend their judgment, or intentionally put themselves in
Industrial polluters, hazardous workplaces, fraudulent advertisers, dangerous situations, to get the things of value that they desire.
brutally violent law enforcement agencies, poverty, malnutrition, family
dysfunction, unemployment and substance abuse; these are social  The Wanton: Von Hentig was referring to promiscuous
problems of which the criminal justice system is part of the problem. individuals. People who engage in indiscriminate sexual activity
with many different partners expose themselves to different levels
Chapter VII of disease and varying personalities. Some of these personalities
THEORIES OF VICTIMIZATION may be healthy and supportive; some may be narcissistic,
possessive, jealous, and destructive.
A. What Victimologist Do?
Victimologists explore the interactions between victims and  The Lonesome or Heartbroken: Von Hentig was referring to
offenders, victims and the criminal justice system, and victims and widows, widowers, and those in mourning. From a contemporary
society. standpoint, loneliness is at epidemic proportions, with more than
half of marriages ending in divorce, the rise of the culture of
Four step process victimologists follow when carrying out their narcissism since the late 1970s and diminishing intimacy skills
research: across all cultures. This category does not apply only to those in
 Step 1: Identify, Define, and Describe the Problem mourning; those who are lonely or heartbroken are prone to
 Step 2: Measure the True Dimensions of the Problem substance abuse, and can be easy prey for con men, the abusive
 Step 3: Investigate How Victims Are Handled and the manipulative.
 Step 4: Gather Evidence to Test Hypotheses
 The Tormentor: Von Hentig was referring to the abusive parent.
B. Key Figures In contemporary terms, there are abusive caretakers, intimates,
As mentioned, the origins of scientific victimology can be and family members of all kids. Such abusers expose themselves
attributed to a few key figures in criminology, including Hans Von to the harm they inflict, the resulting guilt and angst, and the
Hentig, Benjamin Mendelson, Stephen Schafer, and Marvin Wolfgang potential for their victims to fight back. For example, an abusive
(Karmen, 2012). Their early work represents the first attempts to study mother who gets drunk and punches a child exposes herself to
the victim – offender relationship in a systematic fashion, however the dangers of injuring her hand, of misjudging her strike and
misguided by generalizations, personal bias, and professional even her balance, of feeling bad about it, and of the child
agendas. Each discussed in turn, as their approaches to victims study punching back.
are arguably the most relevant to modern concerns.
 The Blocked, Exempted, or Fighting: Von Hentig was referring
1. Hans von Hentig (1887 – 1974) to victims of blackmail, extortion, and confidence scams. In such
A criminologists in Germany during the first half of the las cases, the attention of law enforcement, and any subsequent
century, Hans von Hentig sought to developcrime prevention publicity, is something that this victims wish to avoid. They fins a
strategies. Having researched the factorsthat predisposed one to means of dealing with the crimes being committed against them
criminality; he began to wonder what might cause a victim to become a (e.g., giving in to demands) without avoiding harm or loss – and
victim. He ultimately determined that certain victim characteristics did without involving the authorities.
play a role in shaping the crimes suffered (Doerner and Lab, 2011:
Meadows, 2007) From a research point of view, these are
interesting and even somewhat useful classifications with
The characterisitcsand forces that tend to make a criminal important theoretical implications, although the terminology
are diverse and complicated. A contributing factor may be ugliness, is sometimes inappropriate. However, the case working
deafness, a physical handicap. victimologists must study each victim to determine the extent
to which such classification has a bearing on the harm
Victims, Dr. Hans von Hentig believes, are born or shaped suffered within a particular crime. Some children are smart
by society much as criminals are. Some types of criminals are and fast; many women are strong and self – assured; some
attracted to slum areas; so are their victims. Feeblemindedness, of the elderly are quick and resourceful; immigrants and
common among some types of criminals, is also common among their travelers can learn languages and customs; and the
victims. “blocked” may decide to go to the police. In short, many of
the generalizations suggested in this typology may not when
Certain characteristics of law – abiding citizens arouse a applied to a specific crime or victim.
counter reaction in the criminal.the inexperienced businessman, for
example, invites embezzlement; the nagging wife is flirting with 2. Benjamin Mendelsohn
murder; the alcoholic is a natural for robbery. Thus the victim becomes Benjamin Mendelsohn was a French – Israeli lawyer who
the “temper” began studying victims in 1947 (Karmen, 2012). While working for the
defense on a rape case, he became interested in the correlations
Von Hentig originally classified victims into categories, between rapists and their victims. He found that there was often a
which could easily be described as a list of characteristics that strong interpersonal relationship between the two, and that it could
increase victim vulnerability or exposure to danger. lead some victims to unknowingly invite or even cause their own
victimization (Meadows, 2007). He referred to this as victim
 The Young: Von Hentig was referring to children and infants. precipitation.
From a contemporary point of view, children are physically
weaker have less mental prowess, have fewer legal rights, and
 Mendelsohn ultimately believed that many victims shared an Socially Weak Victims, such as immigrants, are regarded as
unconscious capacity for being victimized, and referred to this as being having no responsibility, but what if they are shot while robbing a
victim prone. Similar to Von Hentig, Mendelsohn developed a typology convenience store?
that categorizes the extent to which the victim is culpable in his or her
own demise. However, while Von Hentig’s typology explains Biologically Weak Victims, such as the elderly, are also
contribution based on personal characteristics, Mendelsohn’s typology regarded as having no responsibility, but what if they are abusing
uses situational factors. Mendelsohn’s six victim types, as adopted alcohol and become rancorous precipitative drunks, only to start a
from Meadows (2007; p.22) are as follows: physical altercation at home that they lose? As discussed throughout
this text, the relationships between victims and criminals are far too
 Completelt Innocent Victim: This person exhibits no provocative complex for such rigid presumptions.
or contributory behavior prior to the offender’s attack.
 Victim due to Ignorance: this person unwittingly does something However problematic, Dr. Schafer’s contribution to the field
that places him or her in a position to be victimized. of victimology must not be dismissed. As Young and Stein explain:
 Voluntary Victim: Victims make a conscious and deliberate “The importation of victimology to the United States was due largely to
choice to suffer harm or loss. This includes suicides, or those the work of the scholar Stephen Schafer, whose book The Victim and
injured while participating in high – risk activities crimes such as His Criminal: A Study in Functional; Responsibility became mandatory
drug abuse or prostitution. reading for anyone interested in the study of crime victims and their
 Victim more Guilty than the Offender: The victim provokes a behaviors” (Young and Stein, 2004). With his research, our efforts
criminal act (e.g., throws the first punch to start a fight but ends up have the benefit of being that much more informed.
a loser).
 Most Guilty Victim: This person is the initial aggressor, but due C. Victim Precipitation Theory
to circumstances beyond his or her control ends up the victim According to victim precipitation theory, some people may
(e.g., attempts to rob a convenience store but is short by the actually initiate the confrontation that eventually leads to their injury or
storeowner). death. Victim precipitation can be either active or passive.
 Simulating or Imaginary Victim: this person is a pretender, or false
reporter. No crime has happened yet the person reports suffering Active precipitation: occurs when the victim act provocatively, use
harm or loss. threats or fighting words, or even attack first.

The danger with Mendelsohn typology is that doesn’t always Passive precipitation: occurs when the victim exhibits some personal
apply that well to actual cases. It does have some important characteristics that unknowingly either threatens or encourages the
conceptual value, in showing a continuum of possible victim culpability attacker.
or precipitation. However, if applied broadly, simplistically, and without
careful investigation into the facts, it could be misused. Before these D. Lifestyle Theory
descriptors can be applied to a specific case, attention must be paid to Some criminologist believed people may become victims
the details. This means accepting that not every prostitute or drug user because their lifestyle increases their exposure to criminal offenders.
is a voluntary victim; not every bar fight involves a more guilty or most Victimization risk is increased by such behaviors as associating young
guilty victim; and not everyone who fails to exhibit provocative behavior men, going out in public places late at night, and living in an urban
prior to an attack is completely innocent. While Mendelsohn’s typology area.
is interesting in theory, its application to specific cases can be  High-Risk Lifestyles
problematic, if not entirely inappropriate, when contextual information People who have high-risk lifestyles- drinking, taking drugs,
is not investigated and considered. getting involved in crime- maintain a much greater chance of
victimization. Groups that have an extremely risky life, such as young
3. Stephen Schafer, Ph. D runaways living on a street, are at high risk for victimization; the more
Dr. Stephen Schafer was a professor of sociology at time they are exposed to street life, the greater their risk of becoming
Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts. In 1968, he crime victims.
published what is regarded by some as the first textbook on the subject  Victims and Criminals
of victimology. The Victim and His Criminal: A Study in Functional One element of lifestyle that may place people at risk for
Responsibility. According to Van Dijk, this work was significant to the victimization is ongoing involvement in a criminal career.
advance of victimology, as it was an “independent study of Carrying a weapon was another surefire way to become a
relationships and interactions between offender and victims, before, crime victim. Males who carried weapons are approximately three
during and after the crime”. Schafer’s study involved interviews with times more likely to be victimized than those who did not carry
criminals and aimed to build upon the typologies presented in previous weapons. Another study of high school youth, conducted Pamela
works by focusing on victim culpability. Wilcox, David May, and Staci Roberts, also found that kids who carry
According to Doerner and Lab (2011), Schafer proposed weapons to school are much more likely to become crime victims than
seven types of victim responsibility (or victim precipitation), which are those who avoid carry weapons.
essentially a variation on the work of Von Hentig (1948):
 Unrelated Victims: No victim responsibility E. Deviant Place Theory
 Provocative Victims: Victim shares responsibility According to deviant place theory, the greater their exposure
to dangerous places, the more likely people will become victims of
 Precipitative Victims: Some degree of responsibility
crime violence. Victims do not encourage crime but are victim prone
 Biologically Weak Victims: No responsibility
because they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas where
 Socially Weak Victims: No Responsibility they have the greatest risk of coming into contact with criminal
 Self – Victimizing: Total victim responsibility offenders, irrespective of their own behavior or lifestyle.
In reviewing this typology, we find it to be less of an inclusive F. Routine Activities Theory
measure and more of an incomplete list of circumstances that mitigate  The availability of suitable targets
victim responsibility because they increase general vulnerability. While
 The absence of capable guardians
it is true that lines are drawn between their provocative, the
 The presence of motivated offenders
precipitative, and the self – victimizing, from the examples cited in the
literature, it is unclear how these categories would be applied to a  Guardianship
specific case, as the defining elements are highly subjective. Also, Even the most motivated offenders may ignore valuable
Schafer has inappropriately defined (and therefore presumptively targets if they are well guarded. Despite containing valuable
assumed) the specific responsibility of each victim type. There appears commodities, private homes and/or public businesses may be
to be no room for mitigating circumstances once a victim is put in a considered off-limits by seasoned criminals if they are well protected
particular slot, which is what a pedantic or bureaucratic victimologist by capable guardians and efficient security systems.
could do with this labeling system.  Hot spots
Motivated people- such as teenage males, drug users, and
unemployed adults- are the ones most likely to commit crime. If they
congregate in a particular neighborhood, it becomes a “hot spot” for  Disorientation
crime and violence.  Memory problems
 Lifestyle, Opportunity, and Routine Activities  Intrusive memories or flashbacks
Routine activities theory is bound up in opportunity and  Nightmares
lifestyle. A person’s living arrangements can affect victim risk; people  Inability to concentrate
who live in unguarded areas are at the mercy of motivated offenders.  Difficulty in making decisions 
Lifestyle affects the opportunity for crime because it controls a person’s III. Financial
proximity to criminals, time of exposure to criminals, attractiveness as  Medical bills (e.g., emergency transportation, hospital
a target, and ability to be protected. stays, inpatient and outpatient physical care, medical
supplies)
 Medication and prescription drugs
 Replacement of eyeglasses, hearing aids, or other
Effect of Crime Victimization sensory aid items damaged, destroyed, or stolen
 Physical therapy
Introduction  Occupational therapy
Criminal victimization is a frightening and unsettling  Job retraining
experience for many individuals. It is unpredictable, largely  Mental health counseling and therapy
unpreventable and often unexpected. Unlike normal life experiences,  Loss of wages due to incapacitation, rehabilitation, or
victimization is not sought out and never welcomed. It is debilitating taking time off from work to repair damage from
and demoralizing. Its effect can be often long – term and difficult to property crimes, participate in criminal or juvenile
overcome. justice proceedings, or seek medical or mental health
Victims may be confused, fearful, frustrated and angry. They treatment
want to know why this happened, and why it happened to them.  Loss of or damage to personal property
Victims often have no knowledge of who or where to turn in the  Costs of replacing locks and changing security devices
aftermath of crime. They feel insecure and do not know who to trust or
 For families of homicide victims, funeral and burial
rely on for support, understanding, and help. Not only do they suffer
expenses and loss of income
physically, emotionally, psychologically, and financially from their
IV. Emotional
victimization, they are also burdened by the complexity of the criminal
 Shock, disbelief and denial – Initially, victims may find it
justice system.
difficult to believe they have become victim of crime. They
may even pretend that it did not happen at all. These
How does crime affect people?
reactions can last for a few moments or they may be present
Crime affects everyone differently. Victimization often
for months and even years. It is not uncommon for victims to
causes trauma and depending the level of trauma that a person has
assume a ‘childlike’ state and may even need to be cared for
already experienced in their lifetime, crime can be devastating. In
by others for some time. It is also common for victims to feel
general, victimization often impacts people on an emotional, physical,
as though the crime occurred when they were in a dreamlike
financial, psychological and social level.
state. Once the initial shock of the crime has worn off,
victims may experience other emotions such as anger, fear,
A. Types of Losses
frustration, confusion, guilt, shame, and grief.
I. Tangible Losses
 Property damage and loss (property damaged, taken, and
 Anger or rage – Victims may be angry with God, the
not recovered)
offender, service providers, family members, friends, the
 Medical care (payments for hospital and physicians,
criminal justice system, or even themselves. Many victims
emergency medical transport, rehabilitation, prescription,
experience strong desires for revenge or getting even. Hate
medical devices, and premature funeral expenses )
may even felt by victims. These strong emotions are often
 Mental health care ( payments for services to crime victims disapproved of by the rest of society, which can leave the
by : psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers ) victim feeling like an outcast. It is certainly justified for
 Productivity ( wages, benefits, housework, and school days victims to feel anger toward the person or people who
lost by victims and their families, productivity lost by co – harmed them.
workers and supervisors/agency recruiting and training
replacements for disabled workers, people stuck in traffic  Fear or Terror – It is common for victims to feel terror or
jams caused by vehicular accident ) fear following a crime that involved a threat to one’s safety or
II. Intangible Losses life, or to someone else a victim cares about. Fear can cause
 Pain ( physical ) a person to have panic attacks if they are ever reminded of
 Suffering ( mental – anti – social behavior, emotional – the crime. Fear can last for quite some time following the
trauma ) commission of a crime and under certain circumstances, it
 Reduced quality of life ( physical disability / incapacity ) can become debilitating. Fear or terror that becomes
overwhelming is unhealthy and victims should consult their
B. Sufferings family physician about it as soon as possible.
I. Physical
 Physical injuries (such as gunshot wounds, lacerations,  Frustration – Many victims are frustrated by the feelings of
broken bones, sprains, and burns) helplessness or powerlessness that surface when the crime
 Physical injuries that lead to other health conditions takes place. This can be especially true if victims were
(such as heart attack, stroke, fractures from falling, and loss unable to fend off an offender, call for help or run away. After
of dexterity) the crime, victims may continue to feel frustration if they
 Physiological anxiety (including rapid heart rate, cannot access the support and information that is necessary
hyperventilation, and stomach distress) to their healing.
 Permanent disability
 Disfigurement  Confusion – Victims of crime may become confused if they
 Sleep disorders are unsure of what actually happened, as crimes often occur
 Inability to work quickly and are chaotic. Victims might also become confused
 For sexual assault victims: possible exposure to sexually while searching for answers to questions like “why did this
transmitted diseases, exposure to HIV, and unwanted happen to me?” It may be impossible to find out why
pregnancy someone else intended to hurt them.
II. Mental
 Slowed thinking  Guilt or self-blame – blaming one is common. Many victims
 Confusion believe they were “in the wrong place at the wrong time.” If
 the victim does not have someone to blame, they will often c. Re – organization Stage
blame themselves. Guilt is also common when no offender is
found. Later on, when reflecting upon the crime, victims C. Fear
might feel guilty for not doing more to prevent what Many people fear crime, especially the elderly the poor and
happened. Lastly, some victims will experience ‘survivor minority group members. Their fear is escalated by lurid news
guilt’ – they feel guilty that they survived while someone else accounts of crime and violence. While hearing about crime
was injured or even killed. If a loved one is murdered, causes fear, those who experience it are even more likely to be
surviving family and friends may even blame the victim. Too fearful and charge their behaviors. Victims of violent crime are the
often, society blames victims as well. most deeply affected, fearing a repeat of their attack.

 Shame and humiliation – Sadly, some victims blame D. Anti-Social Behavior

themselves, particularly victims of sexual abuse/assault or There is growing of correlation between crime and
domestic violence. In crimes involving sexual acts, offenders victimization. Kids are victims share many of those same
often degrade the victim by making them do humiliating characteristics as those who are delinquent, such as antisocial
things. Victims of rape, for example, have long-lasting behavior tendencies and impulsive personalities.
feelings of “being dirty”, and those feelings cannot be
“washed away.” Some victims even feel self-hatred because Victims may seek revenge the people who harmed them or
they believe that they can no longer be loved by those who who they believe are at fault for their problems. In some cases,
are close to them. these feelings become generalized to others who share the same
characteristics of their attackers.
 Grief or Sorrow – Intense sadness is often the most
powerful long-term reaction to crime. It is common for victims Characteristics of Victims
to become depressed after a crime occurs. A. Gender
Characteristics of child sexual abuse victims were
Some ideas that may help you cope with the trauma or loss: determined through a high comparison of 87 victims of
 Find someone to talk with about how you feel and what you are lone female perpetrators to 93 victims of lone male
going through. Keep the phone number of a good friend nearby to perpetrators according to age, gender, and relationship of
call when you feel overwhelmed or feel panicked. perpetrator to victim. Lone female perpetrators abused
 Allow yourself to feel the pain. It will not last forever. children 3.3 years younger (M = 6.0 years) than lone
 Keep a journal. female perpetrators (M = 9.3. years). Both lone female
 Spend time with others, but make time to spend time alone. and male perpetrators abused more girls (62%, 76%,
 Take care of your mind and body. Rest, sleep, and eat regular, respectively) than boys. Female perpetrators were more
healthy meals. likely to be caretakers than male perpetrators, whereas
 Re-establish a normal routine as soon as possible, but don’t over- male perpetrators were more likely to be strangers the
do. female perpetrators. Lastly, lone female perpetrators, lone
 Make daily decisions, which will help to bring back a feeling of male perpetrators, and male/female co – perpetrators did
control over your life. not differ regarding severity of abuse. Thus, contrary to
 Exercise, though not excessively and alternate with periods of popular assumption, abuse by female perpetrators was
relaxation. not less severe than abuse by male perpetrators. Males
 Undertake daily tasks with care. Accidents are more likely to are more likely than females to be the victims of violent
happen after severe stress. crime. Men are almost twice as likely as women to
 Recall the things that helped you cope during trying times and experience robbery. Women are six times more likely than
loss in the past and think about the things that give you hope. men to be victims of rape, domestic violence, and sexual
Turn to them on bad days. These are things to avoid: assault.
 Be careful about using alcohol or drugs to relieve emotional pain.
Becoming addicted not only postpones healing, but also creates B. Age
new problems. For females of most age categories, nonfatal
 Make daily decisions, but avoid making life changing decisions in intimate partner victimization declined over time. In
the immediate aftermath, since judgment may be temporarily general, females ages 12 to 15 and age 50 or older were
impaired. at the lowest risk of nonfatal intimate partner violence.
 Don’t blame yourself—it wasn’t your fault. During 2005, females ages 35 to 49 were at a greater risk
 Your emotions need to be expressed. Try not to bottle them up. of nonfatal intimate partner violence than older females.
For some victims and families of victims, life is forever changed. With the exception of males and females age 65 or older,
Life may feel empty and hollow. Life doesn’t “mean” what it used average annual rates from 2001 through 2005 for nonfatal
to. Part of coping and adjusting is redefining the future. What intimate partner victimization were higher for females than
seemed important before may not be important now. Many victims males within each age category. Female ages 20 to 24
find new meaning in their lives as a result of their experience. It is were at the greatest risk of nonfatal intimate partner
important to remember that emotional pain is not endless and that violence. In general, males ages 12 to 15 and age 65 or
it will eventually ease. It is impossible to undo what has happened older experienced the lowest rates of nonfatal intimate
but life can be good again in time.  partner violence. Young people face a much greater
victimization risk than do older persons. Victim risk
For family and friends of a victim of crime: diminishes rapidly after age 25: teens 16 to 19 suffer 45
violent crimes per 1, 000, whereas people over 65
 Listen carefully. experience only 2 per1,000. Teens and young adults
 Spend time with the victim. experience the highest rates of violent crime. Violent
 Offer your assistance, even if they haven’t asked for help. crime rates declined in recent years for most age groups.
 Help with everyday tasks like cleaning, cooking, caring for the
family, minding the children. C. Social Status
 Give them private time. The poorest people are also the most likely victims
 Don’t take their anger or other feelings personally. of violent and property crime. Homeless people suffer very
 Don’t tell them they are “lucky it wasn’t worse”—traumatized high rates of assault. This association occurs across all
people are not consoled by such statements. gender, age, and racial groups.
 Tell them that you are sorry such an event has occurred to them
and you want to understand and help them. D. Ethnicity
1. Stages of Crisis African Americans are more likely than whites to
a. Impact Stage be victims of violent crime because of income inequality.
b. Re – call Stage Racial and minority group members are often forced to
live in deteriorated urban areas beset by alcohol and drug
 abuse, poverty, racial discrimination, and violence. Their sexual violence against women. They have proposed that
lifestyle places them in the most at – risk population the root causes of sexual violence lie in the social structure
group. However, this seems to be declining and the racial characterized by severe inequality, in which the male is
gap seems to be narrowing. dominant and the female exploited. Feminists also hold that
the weak institutional arrangements in place to address
E. Repeat Victimization consequences of sexual violence, as well as unfair treatment
Households that have experienced victimization of the victims or survivors, an alternatively proposed
in the past are the ones most likely to experience it again terminology are direct reflections of the ways in which
in the future. Most repeat victimization occur soon after a society regards men, women and the sexual relations
previous crime has occurred, suggesting that repeat between them. Furthermore, feminist critique has led to a
victims share some personal characteristics that makes closer convergence between feminism and psychology in the
them a magnet for predators. Repeat victimization refers study of sexual violence. Conveying a connection between
to the repeated criminal victimization of person, gender – based sexual violence and concepts of power –
household, place, business vehicle or other target seeking and subordination was pioneered in 1970s and has
however defined. Near repeat victimization or near proven to be very influential. Within this context, rape has
repeats refer to targets with similar characteristics or been assessed as a foremost toll of intimidation used by
situations also in virtual repeats. Repeats can be the men against women. Similarly, domestic violence can be
same or different crime types. It is generally accepted that viewed as a particularly severe from of patriarchal
a small proportion of any population of potential targets domination and oppression. Feminist interpretation of
experience a vastly disproportionate amount of the crime pornography also suggest a link between rape and
because they are repeatedly victimized. Even within the pornography, by which pornography that degrades,
population of repeats, a smaller set of super targets humiliates and exercises violence upon the female body
experience chronic crimes. The significance for many feeds a culture which validates this kinds of behavior.;
policy purposes, but particularly crime prevention, is that however, there is little evidence to prove this.
focus upon repeats can greatly increase the efficiency
with which resources are used. Most repeat victimization i. Sexual Violence
research relates to how it can be prevented, so crime Sexual violence is any sexual act or attempt to
prevention is the backdrop for much of this bibliography. obtain a sexual act by violence or coercion, unwanted sexual
comments or advances, acts to traffic a person or acts
Types of victims directed against a person’s sexuality, regardless of the
A. Homicide Victims relationship to the victim, in any setting. It occurs in times of
Homicide is an act of a human killing another peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread and is
human. Criminal homicide takes several and includes certain considered to be one of the most traumatic, pervasive, and
unintentional killings. The crime committed in a criminal most common human rights violations. Sexual violence is a
homicide is determined by the state of mind of the defendant serious public health problem and has a profound short or
and statutes defining the crime. Murder, for example, is long – term impact on physical and mental health, such as
usually an intentional crime. In some jurisdictions, certain an increased risk of sexual and reproductive health problems
types of murders automatically qualify for capital or an increased risk of suicide or HIV infection. Murder
punishment, but if the defendant in capital cases is occurring either during a sexual assault or as a result of an
sufficiently mentally disabled in the United States he or she honor killing in response to a sexual assault is also a factor
may not be excluded, for reasons described in Atkins v. of sexual violence. Though women and girls suffer
Virginia, similar to those utilizing an insanity defense. disproportionately from these aspects, sexual violence can
Varying by jurisdiction, a homicide that occurs during the occur to anybody at any age; it is an act of violence that can
commission of a felony may constitute murder regardless the be perpetrated by parents, caregivers, acquaintances and
felon’s state with regard to the killing. This is known as the strangers, as well as intimate partners. It is rarely a crime of
felony murder rule. Much abbreviated. And incomplete, the passion, and is rather an aggressive act that frequently aims
felony murder rule says that one committing a felony may be to express power and dominance over the victim. Sexual
guilty of murder if someone, including the felony victim, a violence remains highly stigmatized in all settings, thus level
bystander or a co – felon, dies as a result of his acts, of disclosures of the assault vary between regions. In
regardless his intent – or lack thereof – to kill. general, it is a widely underreported phenomenon, thus
available data tend to underestimate the true scale of the
B. Female as Victims problem. In addition, sexual violence is also a neglected
Sexual violence against women and girls can take area of research, thus deeper understanding of the issue is
many forms and is carried out in different situations. The imperative in order to promote a coordinated movement
WHO’s world report on violence and health lists the following against it.
ways in which sexual violence against females can be
committed. Systematic rape during armed conflict, rape ii. Theories of sexual violence
within marriage or dating relationships, rape by strangers, 1.Sexual Motivation
unwanted sexual advances or sexual harassment, including Some theorists charge that the
demanding sex in return for favors, sexual abuse of mentally acceptance of these sexual practices increase sexual
or physically disabled people. Sexual abuse of children, violence against women by reinforcing stereotypical views
forced marriage or cohabitation, including the marriage of about women, who are seen as sex objects which can be
children, denial of the right to use contraception or to adopt used and abused by men, and by desensitizing men; this
other measures to protect against sexually transmitted being one of the reasons why some theorists oppose the sex
diseases, forced abortion, violent acts against the sexual industry. They argue that pornography eroticizes the
integrity of women, including female genital mutilation and domination, humiliation, and coercion of women, and
obligatory inspection for virginity and forced prostitution and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in
trafficking of people for the purpose of sexual exploitation. rape and sexual harassment. The anti – pornography
Sexual violence is one of the most common and widespread feminist, Andre Dworkin, has famously argued this point in
violations to which women are subject in wartime. It also her controversial pornography – men possessing women
figures among the most traumatic experiences, both (1981).
emotionally and psychologically, women suffer during
conflict sexual conflict, in particular rape, is often considered 2.Socialization
as a method of warfare: it is used only to “torture, injure, Factors operating at a societal level that
extract information, degrade, displace, intimidate, punish or influences sexual violence include laws and national policies
simply destroy”, but also a strategy to destabilize relating to gender equality in general and to sexual violence
communities and demoralize men. Feminist scholars and more specifically, as well as norms relating to the use of
activists have made unique contributions to the discourse on violence. While the various factors operate largely at local
level, within families, schools, workplaces and communities, violence were acceptable ways of maintaining a relationship.
there are also influences from the laws and norms working at Past relationships during development would have been
national and even international level. There is evidence to impersonal and short – lived. Researchers have found that
suggest that sexual violence is also a learn behavior in some perpetrators develop either along an “impersonal sex
adults, particularly as regards child sexual abuse. Studies on pathway” or a “hostile masculinity pathway”. There has been
sexuality abused boys have shown that around one in five considerable research in recent times on the role of cognitive
continue in later life to molest children themselves. Such variables among the set of factors that can lead to rape.
experiences may lead to a pattern of behavior where the Sexually violent men have been shown to be more likely to
man regularly justifies being violent, denies doing wrong, consider victims responsible for the rape and are less
and has false and unhealthy notions about sexuality. knowledgeable about the impact of rape on victims. Such
Childhood environments that are physically violent, men may misread cues given out by women in social
emotionally unsupportive and characterized by competition situations and may lack the inhibitions that act to suppress
for scarce resources have been associated with sexual associations between sex and aggression. They may have
violence. Sexually aggressive behavior in young men, for coercive sexual fantasies, and overall are more hostile
instance, has been linked to witnessing family violence, and towards women than are men who are not sexually violent.
having emotionally distant and uncaring fathers. Men raised In addition to these factors, sexually violent men are
in families with strongly patriarchal structures are also more believed to differ from other men in terms of impulsively and
likely to become violent, to rape and use sexual coercion antisocial tendencies. They also tend to have an
against women, as well as to abuse their intimate partners, exaggerated sense of masculinity. Sexual violence is also
than men raised in homes that are more egalitarian. associated with a preference for impersonal sexual
relationships as opposed to emotional bonding with having
3. Biological Factors many sexual partners and with the inclination to assert
The unfortunate prevalence of the personal interests at the expense of others. A further
“impulse” model has been fostered, in part, by the recent association is with adversarial attitudes on gender, that hold
resurgence of more sophisticated biological theories of women are opponents to be challenged and conquered.
sexual assault. These theories assert that while there is no
“gene” that causes men to rape, the existence of a 5. Culture of Violence
predisposition to rape may be a consequence of evolution. Our families are torn by violence. Our
According to this theory, men who are predisposed to rape communities are destroyed by violence. Our faith is tested
may have more reproductive success such as a higher by violence. We have an obligation to respond. Violence – in
number of offspring. Over long periods of time, this our homes, our schools and streets, our nation and world –
reproductive advantage results in a widespread is destroying the lives, dignity and hopes of millions of our
predisposition to rape among males. Other theorists argue sisters and brothers. Fear of violence is paralyzing and
that predisposition to rape is not an adaptation itself, but the polarizing our communities. The celebration of violence in
side – effect of reproductive adaptations, such as the pursuit much of our media, music and even video games is
of a number of partners. Paired with these biological poisoning our children. Beyond the violence in our streets is
explanations of the perpetrator’s behavior have been the violence in our growing culture of violence. Verbal
biological explanations of the behavior of a victim of sexual violence in our families, communications and talk shows
assault. For women, sexual activity with a limited number of contribute to this culture of violence. Pornography assaults
partners is desirable and thus women have evolved to resist the dignity of women and contributes to violence against
rape. Further, these theorists argue, the experience of them. Our social fabric is being torn apart by a culture of
“trauma” associated with sexual assault was a reproductively violence that leaves children dean on our streets and
successful response because women who experienced such families afraid in our homes. Our society seems to be
trauma subsequently avoided being raped. Although some growing numb to human loss and suffering. A nation born in
biological theorists maintain that acknowledging a biological a commitment to “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” is
basis for rape does not excuse rape, such theories can hunted by death, imprisoned by fear and caught up in the
contribute to and perpetuate beliefs that excuse perpetrators elusive pursuit of protection rather than happiness. A world
from responsibility their actions and blame the victims. For moving beyond the cold war is caught in bloody ethnic, tribal
example, some proponents of biological theories argue that and political conflict. It doesn’t have to be this way. It wasn’t
because men cannot control their irresistible impulses to always this way. We can turn away from violence; we can
rape, it is women’s responsibility to avoid dressing build communities of greater peace. It begins with a clear
provocatively. According to this view, women who are raped conviction: respect for life.
must have put themselves in circumstances that led to rape
and the appropriate response is to teach them how to avoid C. Child Victims
being raped. Biological explanations for rape also tend to
“naturalize” the perpetrator’s behavior – thus leading to the i. Theories regarding Child Abuse
conclusion that it is “acceptable” and potentially 1. Theory of Physical Abuse
unchangeable. These theories also diminish the victim’s pain Child abuse has been noted to have many causes:
and suffering. Further, biological theories have significant as a childhood symptom of mental illness in parents, as the
implications for criminal justice responses to rape. If rape is culmination of a lifelong experience of violence toward the
a biological adaptation, responses should include monetary caregiver, of environmental and social stresses on the
penalties; further, such theories would call for chemical family, and of society’s acceptance and promotion of
castration or hormonal treatments that can themselves physical violence. Contained in each causal explanation is a
constitute human rights violations. Finally, biological theories theory of etiology. And within each theory, researchers
also lack explanatory power – they do not explain why men extract from the complexity of families’ live those particular
rape women who cannot bear children, or why they rape factors that are believed to be causal agents for violence
their intimate partners and spouses. This model proposes against children. Clinicians are frequently frustrated by the
that over time, natural selection and evolution have favored limited focus and use of the diverse theories on child abuse.
rape, because it led to an increase in reproductive success In order to select which factors to study, researchers must
for the male. According to this theory, women have more exclude other factors. Clinicians, facing a variety of
mating choices, thereby causing them to be more selective distinctive life events, personal characteristics and unique
when choosing a mate. For males, rape was a tool to circumstances of the families and children they serve, are
circumvent that female selectiveness and increase their not always content with the explanations for the origin abuse
mating and reproductive success throughout history. found in the research literature.

4. Psychological Factors 2. Theory of Child Neglect

This theory suggests that men who Child abuse and child neglect are catch – all
sexually assault have harsh histories where coercion and euphemisms for a variety of childhood injuries that are
 believed to be derived from parental acts of omission or state of the abuser or an external event rather than
commission. The diagnostic tags focus attention on something the victim has done. During this period the victim
symptoms and propose entirely too simple formulations of takes actions to survive the abuse. These may include
etiology. Child abuse refers to the many problems suggested accommodating the abuser’s demands or trying to escape.
by child abuse and child neglect. This is to focus more on Calm or Honeymoon Phase – following the
the causes than on the manifestations of child maltreatment. violent crisis phase of the cycle, the abuser moves into a
calmer period sometimes referred to as the Honeymoon
3. Theory of Child and Sexual Abuse Phase. This phase may last from days to weeks or
Child sexual abuse or child molestation is a form sometimes months. During this phase, the abuser may
of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent uses a become apologetic, beg for forgiveness, and promise it will
child for sexual stimulation. Forms of child sexual abuse never happen again. The victim wants to believe this is true.
include asking or pressuring a child to engage in sexual The abuser may look vulnerable, causing the victim to feel
activities regardless of the outcome, indecent exposure of guilty and responsible for the welfare of the abuser. The
genitals, female nipples, etc. to a child with intent to gratify victim may feel worn down and children may became
their own sexual desires or to intimidate or groom the child, caretakers, taking on responsibility to keep the peace.
physical sexual contact with a child, or using a child to
produce child pornography. Child sexual abuse can occur in 2. Psychological
a variety of settings, including home, school, or work places Sexual violence can result in both short – term and
where child labor is common. Child marriage is one of the long – term harm, including psychopathology in later life.
main forms of child sexual abuse (UNICEF has stated that Indicators and effects include depression, anxiety, eating
child marriage “represents perhaps the most prevalent form disorders, poor self – esteem, somatization, sleep
of sexual abuse and exploitation of girls”. The effects of child disturbances, and dissociative and anxiety disorders
sexual abuse can include depression, post – traumatic including post – traumatic stress disorder. While children
stress disorder, anxiety, complex post – traumatic stress may exhibit regressive behaviors such as a return to thumb
disorder, propensity for further victimization in adulthood, – sucking or bed – wetting, the strongest indicator of sexual
and physical injury to the child, among other problems. abuse is sexual acting out and inappropriate sexual
Sexual abuse by a family member is a form of incest, and knowledge and interest. Victims may withdraw from school
can result in m ore serious and long – term psychological and social activities and exhibit various learning and
trauma, especially in the case of parental incest. behavioral problems including cruelty to animals, attention
deficit / hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), conduct disorder, and
D. Elder Victims oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Teenage pregnancy
i. Theories of Elder Abuse and risky sexual behaviors may appear in adolescence. A
1. Cycle of Violence causal relationship has been found between elder sexual
Cycle of violence refers to repeated and abuse and various adult psychopathologies, including crime
dangerous acts of violence as a cyclical pattern, associated and suicide, in addition to alcoholism and drug abuse. Males
with high emotions and doctrines of retribution or revenge. who were sexually abused as children more frequently
The pattern, or cycle, repeats and can happen many times appear in the criminal justice system than in clinical mental
during a relationship. Each phase may last a different length health setting.
of time and over time the level of violence may increase. A
cyclical nature of domestic violence is most prevalent in 3. Social Exchange Theory
intimate terrorism (IT), which involve a pattern of ongoing This theory is based on the belief that certain
control using emotional, physical and other forms of societal attitudes toward older people make it easier for
domestic violence and is what generally leads victims, who abuse to occur without remorse on the part of the caregiver.
are most often women, to women’s shelters. It is what These attitudes can also reduce the likelihood of outside
traditionally the definition of domestic violence and is detection or intervention. Negative attitudes can lead to
generally illustrated with the “Power and Control Wheel” to devaluation and lack of respect for older people, who are
illustrate the different and inter – related forms of abuse. often stereotyped as frail, incompetent and powerless. When
Intimate terrorism is different from situational couple regarded in this way, there can be social failure to recognize
violence, which are isolated incidents of varying degrees of the importance of assuring dignity, support and safety for
intensity. every older person.
The cycle of violence is a model developed to Social Exchange Theory explains interactions
explain the complexity and co – existence of abuse with between people as a process of negotiated exchanges. The
loving behaviors. It helps those who have never experienced theory has roots in economics and psychology and was
domestic violence understand that breaking the cycle of developed by sociologist George Caspar Homans in the
violence is much more complicated than just “getting out” or 1950s. social behavior is considered an exchange of
leaving. material and non – material goods. Material goods include
There are three phases in the cycle of things like money, living arrangements, inheritance, and non
violence: – material goods.
1. Tension – building Phase;
2. Acute or Crisis Phase, 4. Family Stress Theory
3. Calm or Honeymoon Phase Family Stress Theory states that the family go
through four stages when face with a crisis. These stages
Without intervention, the frequency and severity of are crisis, disorganization, recovery and reorganization.
the abuse tends to increase over time. Based on the premise that providing care for an elder
induces stress within the family. The “family stress theory”
Tension Phase – this usually lasts for a period of asserts that elder abuse is caused by the stress and
time, perhaps weeks or months. Stress builds and additionally, a victim complaining that something was stolen
communication breaks down. The abuser often verbally from him or her.
abuses their partners and “minor” incidents may occur.
Victims sense a growing danger and often refer to feeling as 5. Neutralization Theory
though they are “walking on eggshells” during this period, Neutralization theory holds that internalized social
trying to anticipate the abuser’s mood. Family and friends norms and moral standards are neutralized within the doer of
may deny or minimize the danger at this time. deviant acts through a process of rationalization or
Acute or Crisis Phase – in this phase, the justification of the acts. Some techniques of neutralization
tension has built up and finally erupts into violence. This is are denial of responsibility, denial of injury to the victim,
an explosive and unpredictable period, usually lasting blame attributed to the victim, condemnation of those who
between 24 and 72 hours, which may result in serious disapprove of the abuse, appeal to higher loyalties, the
injuries or death. The incident is a result of the emotional defense of necessity, and the rationalization that the abuse
 is but a minor deviation from a life filled with good deeds.  Drunk Driving
The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of  Vehicular Manslaughter
neutralization theory for the treatment of the abused elderly  Hate Crimes
victim and the treatment of the abuser. Was originally
developed by Sykes and Matza to explain juvenile What Expenses Can VCP Help Pay?
delinquency in our society. VCP may help pay for expenses related to a crime such as:

E. Hate Crimes  Medical and dental treatment

Hate crime is also known as bias – motivated  Mental health services
crime. It is a usually violent, prejudice motivated crime that
 Income loss
occurs when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or
 Funeral and burial expenses
her perceived membership in a certain social group.
Examples of such groups include but are not limited to:  Loss of support for dependents when a victim is killed or
ethnicity, gender identity, language, nationality, physical disabled because of a crime
appearance, religion, or sexual orientation. Hate crime  Home or vehicle modifications
generally refers to criminal acts that are seen to have been  Home security
motivated by bias against one or more of the types above, or  Relocation
of their derivatives. Incidents may involve physical assault,  Crime scene cleanup
damage to property, bullying, harassment, verbal abuse or
insults, or offensive graffiti or letters or hate mail.
A hate crime occurs when a person is targeted
because of hostility or prejudice towards their:
 Disability Who may apply for compensation?
 Race or Ethnicity
 Religion or belief  A person who was unjustly accused convicted and
 Sexual orientation imprisoned and subsequently released by virtue of a
 Transgender identity judgment of acquittal;
 A person who was unjustly detained and released without
This includes a person’s property, as well as the being charged;
person themselves and a victim does not have to be a  A person who is a victim of arbitrary detention by the
member of the group at which the hostility is targeted. In authorities as defined in the Revised Penal Code under a
fact, anyone could be a victim of a hate crime. Being a victim final judgment of the court; or
of this kind of crime can be a particularly frightening  A person who is a victim of a violent crime which includes
experience as you have been victimized because of who you rape and offenses committed with malice which resulted in
are, or who or what your attacker thinks you are. death or serious physical and/or psychological injuries,
permanent incapacity or disability, insanity, abortion,
Hate incidents can feel like crimes to those who serious trauma, or committed with torture, cruelty or
suffer them and often escalate to crimes or tension in a barbarity.
community. You can report such incidents, but the police can
only prosecute when the law is broken. In order to prevent When should a claim be filed?
any type of escalation of the situation, police can work with
other organizations. The claim should be filed with the Board by he person entitled to
compensation under this Act within six (6) months after being released
Hate crimes can have significant and wide – from imprisonment or detention or from the date he suffered damage
ranging psychological consequences, not only upon the or injury; otherwise he is deemed to have waived his claim. 
direct victim but others as well.
 Effects on people – psychological and affective How is a claim filed?
disturbances; repercussion on the victim’s identity and self –
esteem; both reinforced by the degree of violence of a hate A claimant may file a claim with the board by filling up an application
crime, usually stronger than that of a common one. form provided for the purpose with the Secretariat of the Board of
 Effect on the targeted group – generalized terror in the Claims, Department of Justice, Padre Faura Street, Ermita, Manila.
group to which the victim belongs, inspiring feelings of Thereafter, he will be interviewee
vulnerability over the other members, who could be the next
victims. How much is given to a qualified applicant?
 Effect on other vulnerable groups – ominous effects over
minority groups or over groups that identify themselves with For the victims of unjust imprisonment, the compensation shall be
the targeted one, especially when the referred hate is based based on the number of months of imprisonment and every fraction
on an ideology or doctrine that preaches simultaneously thereof shall be considered one month, but in no case shall such
against several groups. compensation exceed ONE THOUSAND PESOS (P1,000.00) per
month.
A. Victims Services Programs
1. Victim Compensation Program In all other cases the maximum for which the Board may approved a
can help pay bills and expenses that result from claim shall not exceed TEN THOUSAND PESOS (P10,000.00) or the
certain violent crimes. Victims of crime who have been amount necessary to reimburse the claimant the expenses incurred for
injured or have been threatened with injury may be eligible hospitalization, medical treatment, loss of wage, loss of support or
for help. other expenses directly related to the injury, whichever is lower to be
determined by the Board.
Who Qualifies for Victim Compensation?
VCP can help victims of crimes such as: 2. Public Education
 Domestic Violence
 Child Abuse Victim Services makes presentations upon request to schools,
 Assault groups and communities on topics related to victims of crime. 
 Sexual Assault
 Elder Abuse 3. Crisis Intervention
 Homicide
 Robbery
 Crisis intervention is a proven effective method that is used by of the session is to “guide the release of the emotional steam,” provide
trained advocates to assist individuals who have been victimized  or an opportunity for peer group validations of individual reactions,
have experienced a traumatic event.  The purpose of providing crisis establish social support within the group, rebuild a sense of community
intervention is to allow the victim to begin regaining the control that bond, educate the group about trauma and its aftermath, and affirm
was lost as a result of their victimization. hope for the future.

Crisis intervention entails two simple yet crucial actions, POLICE AND INCIDENT REPORT FOLLOW UP
listening and talking. This includes but is not limited to, assessing the
victims’ safety and creating safety plans, normalizing the victims’ The Police Department provide Victim Assistance Program
emotions, assessing basic needs such as clothing, food and shelter, with police and incidents reports on a daily basis. Advocates, interns
and informing the victim about the investigative and judicial process. and volunteers contact victims listed on the reports to assess their
safety, see how they are doing and offer any assistance that can
According to a study conducted by the National Institute of provide
Justice, “when advocates can offer coordinated, early, victim-focused
interventions, victims are more likely to  participate in court- 4. Victim Offender Reconciliation Program
proceedings, access community-based advocacy programs and report
decreases in distress, post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms, Has been bringing victims and offenders together in safe
depression and fear.” mediation or family group conference settings to permit the offender to
take responsibility for his or her actions, to make things as right as
Victim Assistance Program provides crisis intervention through possible with the victim, and to be clear about future intentions. 
a variety of ways:
B. Empowering Victims
One common feeling experienced by victims of
crime when they become involved in the criminal justice system is
CRIME SCENE RESPONSE helplessness. Victim service providers can assist victims in
overcoming this feeling of helplessness by providing them with
While on scene, a police officer has tasks to complete and the advice regarding the different ways that they may become involved
victim cannot be the officer's primary focus. Therefore, officers request in the system
advocates to help alleviate some of the victims’ emotional concerns 1. MEDIA
and questions. Advocates have been trained to help the victim in The media have the ability to bring crime directly into our
conjunction with the officer. The investigation is of the utmost living rooms. It is therefore critical for victim service providers to
importance and advocates will not interfere or hinder the investigation; understand how the media works and how to effectively
we are not there to provide any facts about the case to the victim. communicate with them.
Responsible agencies are there to provide emotional support,
education about the police and investigative process, act as a liaison 2. Relations with the Media
with the police and provide crisis intervention.  Occasional conferences between the victim services
provider and the news director of the television, or radio
In addition to the police, fire departments, medical examiner’s station, and the editor or publisher of the newspaper
offices and local hospitals contact the responsible office or unit to  Establishing an ongoing relationship with the media is
meet with victims in their jurisdiction. necessary
 Based on trust and mutual respect
DEATH NOTIFICATION
3. Preparing for and conducting the Interview
The Medical Examiner or the local police department has the job  Understanding the goal of the media assists in the
of telling loved ones that a family member has died. Due to the trauma preparation
that many family members endure from hearing such devastating  Preparation before the interview can help relieve some
news, Victim Assistance staff is often asked to accompany law anxiety
enforcement to someone’s home, the hospital or the medical  Knowledge about the facts of the incident and the agency’s
examiner’s office to support the victim and, in some cases, provide the position can enhance the communication
notification.  Speak clearly in everyday language and avoid jargon
 Be professional
The advocate’s primary goal after providing or witnessing a
death notification is to ensure the individual has a dependable support 4. LEGISLATION
system in place. It is strongly suggest individuals are not left alone
after hearing such news, advocates may help individuals contact family The Legislative Process
members or friends and ask them to come to the individual’s aid.There - How a bill becomes a law
are many details to consider surrounding the burial and/or investigation Advocacy
surrounding a death. The advocate will contact the family the following Most common form is lobbying
day to address any immediate questions or concerns. - Purpose is to inform, educate, and persuade elected
officials to support certain legislative goals
INDIVIDUALIZED CRISIS INTERVENTION
5. PUBLIC SPEAKING
Crisis intervention occurs both in person and via phone. Preparing for the Speech
Volunteers, interns and staff answer a 24-hour crisis hotline, which is  Rules of communication change when moving from one-on-
based out of main office in to provide crisis intervention based on the one to a group setting
caller’s needs.  Possible equipment malfunctions

GROUP CRISIS INTERVENTION Drafting the Speech

 Prepare an outline of the topics to be discussed
Victim Assistance Program facilitates structured group  Draft an outline of the main points of discussion
intervention sessions, adopted from the National Organization for  Revise the outline several times
Victim Assistance, which have been proven to be effective in helping  Remember, we write differently than we speak
communities address the aftermath of a victimization and/or tragedy.  Prepare an outline and deliver the speech based on the
Scheduled group interventions address communities or large groups outline
(ideal size is 20-25) but can be provided to groups of varying sizes.  When writing a speech, start at the middle or end
Depending on the group, a session can last anywhere from 1 ½ hours
to 3 hours to ensure everyone has the opportunity to speak. The goal
 Some Do’s and Don’ts of Public Speaking - Some agencies send their reports to collection points in
 Understand the topic of the speech where the data is summarize and then sent to the NBI
 Know the audience and direct the speech to their interests
and knowledge level - Error occurs in the summarization process. Some of the
 Humor is excellent, but it can backfire reports are incomplete. Some incidents are counted more
 Always be on time and dress appropriately than once by several competing jurisdictions
 Do not read the speech verbatim
 Understand how long the speech is to last and stay within
that time limit 3. The hierarchy rule is used to classify crimes committed in
 When possible, use visual aids to assist in making your a single incident.
points
 Rehearse as often as possible - If a robbery is committed and a rape occurs during the
 Ask for honest feedback from the person that requested the incident, only the rape is counted in the UCR (Uniform Crime
speech Report) the
most serious crime
6. Fundraising
Some victim assistance programs receive a
WAYS OF MEASURING CRIMES
steady flow of funds to administer their programs. However, most
must participate in fundraising activities.
1. Measuring Crime through Surveys
Types of Fundraisers
 Grants
- Using surveys have several advantages
 Cash donations, by either the federal or state government, or
private foundations, for specific projects
1. Collect information not reported to police
Local fundraising events 2. Measure crime not officially recorded by police
 Dinners 3. Provides data on individual units of analysis
 Banquets 4. When conducted properly, surveys have high
 Auctions reliability
 House or garden tours
 Sporting events - Using surveys have several disadvantages

MEASURING OF CRIME AND ITS EFFECT

1. Victim may not remember the incidence
2. Telescoping may occur. Forward telescoping
How is crime measured? How much crime is there? What
occurs when victims report crimes that occurred
strategies are available for measuring crime? Crime is a fundamental
more than six months ago; backward telescoping
dependent variable, also can be an independent variable.
means the victim will recall a recent crime as
occurring at an earlier time
Crime measurement involves devising valid and reliable
3. Especially problematic when there are multiple
measures designed to calculate the amount and trends of criminal
offenses involved
activity: How much crime occurs annually? Who commits it? When and
where does it occur? Which crime are the most serious?
- Domestic violence, assaults involving friends, non-
stranger crimes, viewed as a personal problem,
Measuring the actual crime rate is not easy. There is a dark
may feel shame or embarrassment
side of crime, those crimes undetected. From this chapter let us
examine some available measures of crime along with their strengths
and weaknesses and explore some independent measures of crime. 2. Drug Surveillance Systems

- Three general purposes in measuring crime are the following:  Alternative measures have been sought to overcome validity
and reliability issues
1. Monitoring
- Same as we monitor stock market, HIV infection rates, 3. Police Reports
population
- monitoring crime is necessary to develop policy and
ensure the basic public safety based on resource  Most measures of crime are based on police records
allocation  This means crimes not reported are unknown
2. Agency accountability  Police detect crime in two ways:
- Also is necessary for agency accountability or
performance evaluation 1. Observation
3. Research - Traffic offenses and victimless crimes like drug sales,
- Provides necessary information for basic research prostitution
data
2. Reports by other people
- Victims and witnesses
Some factors affecting the crime measurement are the following:

 Crimes measured by police observation are not valid

1. Not all crimes counted. There are a large number of measures because many crimes are not observed
crimes unreported. Part are reported and counted such  All crimes are not reported 
as motor vehicle robbery, murder, manslaughter, - Petty thefts, certain assaults between non-strangers are
forcible rape etc. These crimes are counted only if there not reported
is an arrest involved. - Many feel the crime is not important enough, or won’t do
2. Crimes are difficult to collect because different states any good to report because offender will not be caught or
define these various crimes differently. The operational property recovered
definitions are different. This produces more  Police do not always make reports
measurement error - Assaults between non-strangers considered private matter
 - Victim many urge police not to report because it may cause
an unwanted arrest to occur The effect of family influences appear to be greatest during
- Victims of higher social class more often reported the early years of a child’s life and reduces as they get older,
- If the event fits a certain stereotype, it is more likely to be although poor parental supervision and low levels of warmth
reported between parents and their teenage children have also been
identified as a contributing risk factors for future offending.
A. Crime Statistics
Education
-attempt to provide statistical measures of the crime in
societies. Given that crime is usually secretive by nature, Education has an important role in influencing an individual’s
measurements of it are likely to be inaccurate. Several methods for opportunity for success in society. Non-participation in school level
measuring exist, including household surveys, hospital or insurance education is a risk factor for later delinquency and criminal activity.
records, and compilations by police and similar law enforcing agencies. Education changes the relative opportunities afforded by crime, and in
particular property crime, compared to legitimate employment. Greater
B. Importance of Crime Statistics levels of education ensure greater returns from employment, making it
Crime statistics are used by different groups for more attractive than crime.
different things. On a political level, it provides a measure for the
success or failure of certain criminal justice policies. On an operational A low level of parental education (neither parent
level, it provides important information on how best to allocate state having a school qualification) have also been identified as a
resources. From a civil society perspective, it provides indicators risk factor for future offending for children aged under 13
against which to measure criminal justice performance and therefore years.
an important tool to hold accountability the various role-players in the
criminal justice system. Economic
The precinct level statistics should also be used by Economic factors that influence criminal behavior
community safety and security practitioners to develop, implement and include relative wealth (disparity), poverty (deprivation) and
measure the success of social crime prevention initiatives. It is critical unemployment.
that the crime statistics are credible and reliable else national,
provincial, local and community level decision-makers and crime The balance of evidence suggests a link between
prevention/reduction practitioners may plan and act inappropriately to disparity and violent crime. The strength of this relationship is
crime problems. debated but international analysis suggests that a
In 2006, the British Home Office reviewed the United Kingdom`s relationship exists after controlling for other factors.
Official Crime Statistics because:
The Home Secretary is concerned that public trust in the Evidence suggests that deprivation is associated with
crime statistics produced by the Home Office has declined to such an criminal offending across the spectrum. Analysis from the Christchurch
extent that it is no longer possible to have a debate about alternative Health and Development Study argues that socio-economic deprivation
criminal justice policies on the basis of agreed facts about the trends in is associated with self-reported crime and officially recorded
crime. He wishes to be advised on what changes could be made to the convictions, even after controlling for parental, individual, school, and
production and release of crime statistics so that public trust is re- peer factors.
established. Unemployment is a predictor of involvement related to crime,
Therefore, without accurate crime statistics, criminal justice but in particular property crime and not violent crime. The strength of
policies and their impact cannot be quantified. However, crime the relationship between unemployment and crime is contested; it is
statistics alone cannot provide all the answers but they do assist us to unclear how significant this relationship is compared to other social
plan and monitor local level and national level crime prevention and economic factors.
initiatives.
Community and peers
Community and neighborhood effects on criminality are hard to
C. Socio Economic Factors Affecting the Crime measure but they do appear to exert an influence on antisocial
behaviour and crime. Neighborhood effects become more important as
Social risk factors for involvement in crime a child gets older.
Many studies have shown that antisocial peer groups
This brief provides an introductory discussion of five areas of play an important part in the development of deviancy and
social risk factors for involvement in crime: family, education, violence.
economics, community and peers, and alcohol and other drugs.
D. Generation of Crime Statistics
Family
Study: Second generation immigrants commit more crimes than
Parental behaviors play a strong role in shaping a child’s risk
their parents
of later involvement in criminality. Parental criminality appears to be
“These studies never take into consideration that new
strongly correlated with an increased risk of a child of developing
immigrants who commit crimes are removed from the country and
conduct problems and later criminal involvement. The influence of
therefore they are not around to be counted in things like this,” she
parental criminality is complex because of the multiple mechanisms
continued. “Criminal immigrants are the first priority for immigration
(shared environmental factors, genetic and other biological risk
enforcement and are flushed out of the system as soon as they are
factors, negative modeling by parents) involved that potentially pass
convicted of a crime… That tends to suppress the numbers of new
on a parent’s risk of criminal involvement to their child.
immigrants who commit crimes within the larger population.”

Poor parenting practices, such as poor parental supervision The study has important implications for U.S. immigration
and parents’ rejection of a child, are modest predictors of policy.
subsequent delinquency by the child. Children who experience
severe or harsh parental practices have increased rates of conduct “We need to be very careful about who we are admitting as
problems, substance abuse, depression and anxiety and violent immigrants,” she concluded.
crime in early adulthood, compared to those whose parents did not
use physical punishment. Pew cited an expert who claimed the crime statistics were
the negative side of assimilation.
Family violence and maltreatment of children have significant
inter-generational effects on an individual’s likelihood of becoming “Second generation immigrants appear to be catching up to
involved in crime. Some research suggests that maltreatment during and resemble the typical native-born (white) population, at least in
childhood doubles an individual’s probability of engaging in many regard to their offending profile,” wrote Bianca E. Bersani, a sociologist
types of crime. at the University of Massachusetts-Boston.
 PNP spokesman Chief Superintendent Generoso Cerbo
E. Statistical Formula attributed the high crime rate in Metro Manila to a higher population
density in the capital region, as well as the presence of organized
I. Crime Volume crime.
Total Crime Volume = Index + Non-index Crimes "Aminado kami na talagang percentage-wise malaki ang
crime volume sa populated areas like Region 3, 4A, 7 at Metro Manila,
II. Index Crimes for example. Even NCRPO umamin na tumaas crime volume sa Metro
Index crimes: Murder, homicide, physical injury Manila (We admit that percentage-wise, crime volumes in populated
and rape (crimes against persons) and robbery and theft areas like Regions 3, 4A, 7 and Metro Manila are high. Even the
(crimes against property) NCRPO admits that the crime volume in Metro Manila has gone up),"
Cerbo said. He added that the PNP has doubled its efforts to record
III. Non – Index Crimes crime incidences in the country, and a more efficient recording system
Non-index crimes: Crimes against persons in highly populated areas also factor into their reports.
(parricide/infanticide, maltreatment, kidnapping); crimes against
property (estafa and falsification, malicious mischief and damage to 2. Percentage share of the occurrence of a type of crime
property); crimes against morals and order (prostitution, vagrancy,
alarm and scandal, assault/resistance to authority, corruption of public NPD had fewest robbery cases in Metro Manila
official, gambling, slander and libel, threat and coercion and The Northern Police District (NPD) composed of the cities of
trespassing), crimes against chastity (abduction, seduction, lascivious Caloocan, Malabon, Navotas and Valenzuela posted the fewest
acts) and other crimes (illegal possession of firearms, explosives and robbery and theft cases in Metro Manila from January to November
ammunition, concealment of deadly weapons, smuggling, car napping last year. According to data from the Philippine National Police, the
and prohibited drugs) NPD accounted for 9 percent, or 4,840, out of 52,529 robbery and theft
cases recorded in the metropolis.—Marielle Medina, Inquirer
Research
IV. Crime Solution Efficiency
The percentage of solved cases out of the total number of
crime incident handled by law enforcement agencies for a given period Philippine Daily Inquirer
of time. 11:50 pm | Sunday, January 12th, 2014
CSE = solve cases / crime volume x 100%
3. Variance
V. Crime rate A method for analyzing the differences in the means of two
The number of crimes committed per 100,000 population. or more groups. Specifically, this procedure partitions the total
(crime rate) the ratio of crimes in an area to the population of that area; variation in the dependent variable into two components: between-
expressed per 1000 population per year group variation and within-group variation. It allows researchers to
determine if the differences between a control group and a
Crime rate= crime volume/(population/100,000) treatment group are attributed to the independent variable or
treatment.
VI. Average Month Crime Rate
SITUATIONER (Period Covered: September to December 2012)
It need to calculate the monthly crime committed for all crime
depending on individual states then compare it with the previous month
  I. INTRODUCTION
crime rates to see if there is a increase or decrease.
This report contains information relevant to the peace and
security situation of Tacloban City for the period of September to
Number of crimes committed in a year divided by 12.
December 2012.
VII. Crime Analysis
  II. GENERAL SITUATION
Crime analysis is a law enforcement function that involves
A. Threat to Internal Security (CNN)
systematic analysis for identifying and analyzing patterns and trends in
crime and disorder. Information on patterns can help law enforcement
There are no indicators on the presence of a guerrilla and/or
agencies deploy resources in a more effective manner, and assist
military component of the CPP/NPA/NDF (CNN). However, Tacloban
detectives in identifying and apprehending suspects. Crime analysis
City is tagged as a safe haven for the insurgents. Much of the
also plays a role in devising solutions to crime problems, and
propaganda and info-dissemination are done in the city by militant
formulating crime prevention strategies. Quantitative social science
groups affiliated with CNN as it is where they air their grievances to the
data analysis methods are part of the crime analysis process; though
government by conducting lightning rallies and mobilization works.
qualitative methods such as examining police report narratives also
B. Comparative Crime Statistic
play a role.

1. Percentage share of crime volume of certain area

Crime down nationwide, but dramatically higher in Metro Manila

By: Abigail Kwok, InterAksyon.com

MANILA, Philippines - The Philippine National Police said on

Tuesday that crime has gone down all over the country, except in
Metro Manila, where the incidence rate has actually skyrocketed over
the first half of 2012.
From January to June, there were 29,231 crimes recorded in
the National Capital Region, or an increase of more than 10,000
incidents over the same period in 2011.
    
C.    Criminality Situation
This was the highest crime volume in the country. Crime
  CRIME VOLUME
volume includes index crimes (crimes against persons and property)
From 01 September to 31 December 2012, this Office
and non-index (petty) crimes.
recorded a total of 133 incidents, manifesting a decreased of 124
During President Benigno Aquino III's State of the Nation
cases compared to 257 incidents of the same period of last year. Of
Address Monday, he boasted of a lower crime rate and a significant
the 133 crime volume, 106 were Index Crimes and 27 were Non-Index
decline from 2009's more than 500,000 cases to around 247,000 cases
Crimes. 
in 2011.
Aquino also boasted that the past years have seen
carjacking incidences go down.
 Crime Rate (AMICR) decreased by 10.66 from 21.22 to 10.56
incidents of the same period of last year.(Figure 5)

Crime
Solution
Efficiency

Index Crimes for the period has accounted for a total of 106 with a Significantly we were able to increase our CSE by 19.77% compared
decreased of 107 compared to the 213 incidents of the same period of to the same period of last year. (Figure 6)
last year.
Crime Clearance Efficiency
Non-Index Crimes posted 27 from 01 September to 31 December
2012, indicating a

decrease of 17 incidents as compared to last year’s figure of 44 Crime Clearance Efficiency increases by 17.54% compared to the
incidents. (Figure 2) same period of last year. (Figure 7)                    
Index crimes are broken down as follows; 28 are
crimes against persons and 78 on crimes against property. Of the III. ASSESSMENT
crimes against persons, physical injuries registered with 21 incidents, 5        The peace and order situation in Tacloban City remain
cases for murder and 2 incidents for the crime of homicide. (Figure 3) peaceful.The trend in the continuous decrease in the crime volume,
particularly on crimes against property, is attributable to the responsive
On Crimes against property, Twenty-one (21) were adjustments made by our police stations, MPU and CPSC in the
robbery cases, while theft accounted a total of Fifty Seven (57) cases. strategic realignment/deployment of more personnel to area of
Significantly, Crime against property figure posted a decrease of 95 convergence to conduct mobile and beat patrols.
incidents compared to same period of last year. (Figure 4)

Victims Compensation Program R.A. 7309

A. What is the law creating the Board of Claims?

Republic Act No. 7309 is the law creating the Board of
Claims under the Department of Justice Granting compensation for
victims of unjust imprisonment or detention and victims of violent
crimes.

B. Who may apply for compensation?

 A person who was unjustly accused convicted and

imprisoned and subsequently released by virtue of a
judgment of acquittal;
 A person who was unjustly detained and released without
being charged;
 A person who is a victim of arbitrary detention by the
authorities as defined in the Revised Penal Code under a
final judgment of the court; or
 A person who is a victim of a violent crime which includes
AMCR and AMICR rape and offenses committed with malice which resulted in
death or serious physical and/or psychological injuries,
permanent incapacity or disability, insanity, abortion, serious
trauma, or committed with torture, cruelty or barbarity.

C. How much is given to a qualified applicant?

 For the victims of unjust imprisonment, the compensation

shall be based on the number of months of imprisonment
and every fraction thereof shall be considered one month,
but in no case shall such compensation exceed ONE
THOUSAND PESOS (P 1,000.00) per month.
On the Average Monthly Crime Rate (AMCR) for the period, it was  In all other cases the maximum for which the Board may
posted at 13.25 incidents per 251,000 populations reflecting a approved a claim shall not exceed TEN THOUSAND
decrease of 12.35 as compared to last year’s record of the same PESOS (P10,000.00) or the amount necessary to reimburse
period with 25.60 incidents. Relatively, the Average Monthly Index the claimant the expenses incurred for hospitalization,
 medical treatment, loss of wage, loss of support or other themselves from abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation or discrimination
expenses directly related to the injury, whichever is lower to because of a physical or mental disability or condition;
be determined by the Board.
(b) “Child abuse” refers to the maltreatment, whether habitual or not,
Anti – Violence against Women and Their Children Act of 2004 of the child which includes any of the following:
R.A. 9262 (1) Psychological and physical abuse, neglect, cruelty,
sexual abuse and emotional maltreatment;
A. Section 3. Definition of terms – As used in this Act. (2) Any act by deeds or words whish debases, degrades or
demeans the intrinsic worth and dignity of a child as a human being;
(a). “Violence Against Women and their Children” refers (3) Unreasonable deprivation of his basic needs for survival,
to any act or a series of acts committed by any person against a such as food and shelter; or
woman who is his wife, former wife, or against a woman with whom the (4) Failure to immediately give medical treatment to an
person has or had a sexual or dating relationship, or with whom he has injured resulting in serious impairment of his growth and development
a common child, or against her child whether legitimate or illegitimate, or in his permanent incapacity or death.
within or without the family abode, which result in or is likely to result in
physical, sexual, psychological harm or suffering, or economic abuse (c) “circumstances which gravely threaten or endanger the
including threats of such acts, battery, assault, coercion, harassment survival and normal development of children” include, but are not
or arbitrary deprivation of liberty. It includes, but is not limited to, the limited to, the following:
following acts: (1) Being in a community where there is armed conflict or
being affected by armed conflict – related activities;
 “Physical Violence” refers to acts that include bodily or (2) Working under conditions hazardous to life, safety and
physical harm; normal which unduly interfere with their normal development;
 “Sexual Violence” refers to an act which is sexual in (3) Living in or fending for themselves in the streets of urban
nature, committed against a woman or her child. It includes, or rural areas without the care of parents or a guardian or basic
nut is not limited to: services needed for a good quality of life;
- rape, sexual harassment, acts of lasciviousness, (4) Being a member of an indigenous cultural community
treating a woman or her child as a sex object, and/or living under conditions of extreme poverty or in an area is
making demeaning and sexually suggestive underdeveloped and/or lacks or has inadequate access to basic
remarks, physically attacking the sexual parts of services needed for a good quality of life;
the victim’s body, forcing her/him to watch (5) Being a victim of a man- made or natural disaster or
obscene publications and indecent shows or calamity; or
forcing the woman or her child to do indecent acts (6) Circumstances analogous to those above – stated which
and/or make films thereof, forcing the wife and endanger the life, safety or normal development of children.
mistress/lover to live in the conjugal home or sleep
together in the same room with the abuser; (d) “Comprehensive program against child abuse, exploitation
- acts causing or attempting to cause the victim to and discrimination” refers to the coordinated program of services
engage in any sexual activity by force, threat of and facilities to protected children against:
force, physical or other harm or threat of physical (1) Child prostitution and other sexual abuse;
or other harm or coercion; (2) Child trafficking;
- prostituting the woman or child. (3) Obscene publications and indecent shows;
(4) Other acts of abuses; and
 “Psychological Violence” refers to acts or omissions (5) Circumstances which threaten or endanger the survival
causing or likely to cause mental or emotional suffering of and normal development of children.
the victim such as but not limited to intimidation, harassment,
staking, damage to property, public ridicule or humiliation, Program on Child Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination
repeated verbal abuse and mental infidelity. It includes
causing or allowing the victim to witness the physical, sexual B. Section 4. Formulation of the Program. These shall be a
or psychological abuse of a member of the family to which comprehensive program to be formulated, by the Department of
the victim belongs, or to witness pornography in any form or Justice and the Department of Social Welfare and Development in
to witness abusive injury to pets or to unlawful deprivation of coordination with other government agencies and private sector
the right to custody and/or visitation of common children. concerned, within one (1) year from the affectivity of this Act, to protect
children against child prostitution and other sexual abuse; child
trafficking, obscene publications and indecent shows; other acts of
 “Economic Abuse” refers to acts that make or attempt to
abuse; and circumstances which endanger child survival and normal
make a woman financially dependent which includes, but is
development.
not limited to the following:
- withdrawal of financial support or preventing the
Anti – Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003 R.A. 9208
victim from engaging in any legitimate profession,
A. Section 3. Definition of Terms – As used in this Act:
occupation, business or activity, except in cases
wherein the other spouse/partner objects on valid,
(a) Trafficking in Persons – refers to the recruitment, transportation,
serious and moral grounds as defined in Article 73
transfer, or harboring, or receipt of persons with or without the victim’s
of the Family Code;
consent or knowledge, within or across national borders by means of
- deprivation or threat of financial resources and the
threat or use of force, or other forms of coercion, abduction, fraud,
right to the use and enjoyment of the conjugal, deception, abuse of power or of position, taking advantage of the
community or property owned in common; vulnerability of the person, or, the giving or receiving of payments or
- destroying household property; benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another
- controlling the victim’s own money or properties or person for the purpose of exploitation which includes at a minimum,
solely controlling the conjugal money or the exploitation or the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual
properties. exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery, servitude or the removal
or sale of organs.

Protection against child abuse, exploitation and discrimination The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of a child
R.A. 7610 for the purpose of exploitation shall also be as “trafficking in persons”
even if it does not involve any of the means set forth in the preceding
Definitions of Terms. paragraph.
(a) “Children” refers to person below eighteen (18) years of age or
those over but are unable to fully take care of themselves or protect Human trafficking and the prostitution of children are significant
legal and moral issues in the Philippines, due to control and power of
organized crime syndicates. Enforcement of penal laws is, however, inside the room where the investigation or medical or physical
reported to be inconsistent. examination is being conducted.

R.A. 9208 is only one of the laws which give protection to workers, For this purpose, a women’s desk must be established in every police
children, and women, inter alia. The Philippines has a long history of precinct throughout the country to provide a police woman to conduct
legislation aimed at protecting the rights and welfare of children. The investigation of complaints of women rape victims. In the same
1974 Labor Code of the Philippines (Presidential Decree No. 441) set manner, the preliminary investigation proper or inquest of women rape
the minimum age of employment at 15 years and prohibited the victims must be assigned to female prosecutor or prosecutors after the
employment of persons below 18 years of age in hazardous police shall have endorsed all the pertinent papers thereof to the same
undertakings. Presidential Decree No. 603 (The Child and Youth office.
Welfare Code) permits the employment of children aged 16 years and
below only if they perform light work, which is not harmful to their Anti – Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 R.A. 7877
safety. A. Section 2. Declaration of policy – the State shall value the dignity
of every individual, enhance the development of its human resources,
The Philippines is a source, transit, and destination country for men, guarantee full respect for human rights, and uphold the dignity of
women, and children trafficked for the purposes of sexual exploitation workers, employees, applicants for employment, students or those
and forced labor. A significant number of Filipino men and Women who undergoing training, instruction or education. Towards this end, all
migrate abroad for work are subjected to conditions of involuntary forms of sexual harassment in the employment, education or training
servitude in Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Malaysia, Hong environment are hereby declared unlawful.
Kong, Singapore, Japan, South Africa, North America, and Europe.
Women and children are also trafficked within the Philippines, primarily B. Section 3. Work, Education or Training – Related, Sexual
from rural areas, such as the Visayas and Mindanao, to urban areas Harassment Defined – Work, Education or Training – Related, Sexual
for forced labor as domestic workers, and factory workers, and in the Harassment is committed by an employer, employee, manager,
drug trade, and for sexual exploitation. A smaller number of women are supervisor, agent of the employer, teacher, instructor, professor,
occasionally trafficked from the People’s Republic of China (P.R.C), coach, trainer, or any other person who, having authority, influence or
South Korea, Japan, and Russia to the Philippines for sexual moral ascendancy over another in a work or training or education
exploitation. The government of the Philippines failed to fully comply environment, demands, requests or otherwise requires any sexual
with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking, but made favor from the other, regardless of whether the demand, request or
significant efforts. requirement for submission is accepted by the object of said Act.

Rape Victims Assistance and Protection Act of 1998 R.A. 8505 (a) In a work – related or employment environment, sexual
A. Section 2. Declaration of Policy – it is hereby declared the policy harassment is committed when:
of the State to provide necessary assistance and protection for rape - The sexual favor is made as a condition in the
victims. Towards this end, the government shall coordinate its various hiring or in the employment, re – employment or
agencies and non – government organizations to work hand in hand continued employment of said individual, or in
for the establishment and operation of a rape crisis center in every granting said individual favorable compensation,
provinces and city that shall assist and protect rape victims in the terms of conditions, promotions or privileges; or
litigation of their cases and their recovery. the refusal to grant the sexual favor results in
limiting, segregating or classifying the employee
B. Section 3. Rape Crisis Center – the Department of Social Welfare which in any way would discriminate, deprive or
and Development, the Department of Health, the Department of the diminish employment opportunities or otherwise
Interior and Local Government, the Department of justice, and a lead adversely affect said employee;
non – government organization with proven track record or experience - The above acts would impair the employee’s rights
in handling sexual abuse cases, shall in every province and city a rape or privileges under existing labor laws; or
crisis center located in a government hospital or health clinic or in any - The above acts would result in an intimidating,
other place for the purpose of: hostile or offensive environment for the employee.
(a) Providing rape victims with psychological counseling,
medical and health services, including their medico – legal
examination; (b) In an Education or training environment, sexual
(b) Securing free legal assistance or service, when harassment is committed:
necessary, for rap victims; - Against one who is under the care, custody or
(c) Assisting rape victims in the investigation to hasten the supervision of the offender?
arrest of offenders and the filling of cases in court; - Against one whose education, training,
(d) Ensuring the privacy and safety of rape victims; apprenticeship or tutorship is entrusted to the
offender;
(e) Providing psychological counseling and medical services - When the sexual favor is made a condition to the
whenever necessary for the family of rape victims;
giving of a passing grade, or the granting of
(f) Developing and undertaking a training for law
honors and scholarships, or the payment of a
enforcement officers, public prosecutors, lawyers, medico – legal
stipend, allowance or other benefits, privileges or
officers, social workers, and barangay officials on human rights and
consideration; or
responsibilities; gender sensitivity and legal management of rape
- When the sexual advances result in an
cases.
intimidating, hostile or offensive environment for
(g) Adopting and implementing programs for the recovery of
the student, trainee or apprentice
rape victims.
The DSWD shall be the lead agency in the establishment and
Any person who directs or induces another to commit any act of sexual
operation of the Rape Crisis Center.
harassment as herein defined, or who cooperates in the commission
thereof by another, without which it would not have been committed,
C. Section 4. Duty of the police Officer – Upon receipt by the police
shall also be held liable under this Act.
of the complaint for rape, it shall be the duty of the police officer to:
(a) Immediately refer the case to the prosecutor for
inquest/investigation if the accused is detained; otherwise, the rules of
court shall apply; Homosexuality
(b) Arrange for counseling and medical services for the From the meaning “same”, and meaning “sex” is attraction,
offended party; and or between members of the same or as an homosexuality refers to “an
(c) Immediately make a report on the action taken. enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectionate, or
It shall be the duty of the police officer or the examining physician, who romantic attractions” primarily or exclusively to people of the same sex.
must be of the same gender as the offended party, to ensure that only There is no substantive evidence which suggest parenting or early
persons expressly authorized by the offended party shall be allowed childhood experiences play a role when it comes to sexual orientation;
when it comes to same sex sexual behavior, shared or familial
environment plays no role for men and minor role for women. Israel is considered the most tolerant country in the Middle
East and Asia to Homosexuals with being named “the gay capital of
The most common term for Homosexual people are for the middle east”, and is considered one of the most gay friendly cities
females and for males, though gay is also used to refer generally to in the world. The annual in support of homosexuality takes place in Tel
both homosexual males and females. The number of people who Aviv.
identify as gay or lesbian and the proportion of people who have same
– sex sexual experience are difficult for researchers to estimate reliably On the other hand, many governments in the Middle East
for a variety of reasons, including many gay people not openly often ignore, deny the existence of, or criminalized homosexuality.
identifying such due to homophobia. Homosexuality is illegal in almost all Muslim countries. Officially carries
the death penalty in several Muslim nations: Saudi Arabia, Iran. Iranian
History of homosexuality President during his asserted that there were no gay people in Iran.
The term homosexuality was invented in the 19th century, However, the probable reason is that they keep their sexuality a secret
with the term heterosexuality invented later in the same century to for fear of government sanction or rejection by their families.
contrast with the earlier term. The term bisexuality was invented in the
20th century as sexual identities became defined by the predominate Ancient Persia
sex to which people are attracted and thus a label ws needed for those In Persia homosexuality and homoerotic expressions were
who are not predominantly attracted to one sex. tolerated in numerous public places, from monasteries and seminaries
to Taverns, Military camps, bathhouses, and coffee houses. In the
This points out that the history of sexuality is not solely the early era (1501 – 1723), male houses of (armrad khane) were legally
history of different – sex sexuality plus the history of same – sex recognized and paid taxes. Persian poets, wrote poems replete with
sexuality, but a broader conception viewing of historical events in light homoerotic allusions. The two most commonly documented forms
of our modern concepts of sexuality taken at its most broad and or were commercial sex with transgender young males or males enacting
liberal definitions. transgender roles exemplified by the spiritual practices in which the
practitioner admired the form of a beautiful boy in order to enter
Historical personalities are often described using modern ecstatic states and glimpse the beauty of god.
sexual identity terms such as straight, or those who favor the practice
say that this can highlight such issues as discriminatory, historiography Ancient Greece
by, for example putting into relief the extent to which same – sex Men could also seek adolescent boys as partners as shown
sexual experiences are excluded from biographies of noted figures, or by some of the earliest documents concerning same – sex
to which sensibilities resulting from same – sex attraction are excluded relationships. Though slaves boys could be bought, free boys had be
from literary and artistic consideration of important works, and so on. courted, and ancient materials suggest that the father also had to
As well as that, an opposite situation to possible in the modern society; consent to the relationship. Such relationship did not replace marriage
between man and woman, but occurred before with it.
Africa
Homosexual expression in native Africa was also present Some research has shown that Ancient Greeks believed
and took a variety of forms. Anthropologist reported that women semen to be the source of knowledge, and that these relationships
engaged in social sanctioned “long term, erotic relationships” called served to pass wisdom on from the erastes to the eronemos.
motsoalle, also recorded that male warriors in the northern routinely
took on young male lovers between the ages of twelve and twenty,
South Pacific
who helped with household tasks and participated in with their older
In many societies of especially in same – sex relationship
husbands. The practiced had died out by the early 20 th century after
were an integral part of the culture until the middle of the last century.
Europeans had gained control of African countries.
In many traditional Melanesian cultures a pre pubertal boy would be
paired with an older adolescent who would become his mentor and
The first recorded homosexual couple in history is commonly
who would “inseminate” him (orally, anally, or topically, depending on
regarded as an Egyptian male couple, who lived around the 2400 BC.
the tribe) over a number of years in order for the younger to also reach
The pair are portrayed in a nose kissing position, the most intimate
puberty. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become hostile
pose in Egyptian art surrounded by what appear to be their heirs and
towards same – sex relationships.
wives. This is contested, as may archeologists, including David
O’connor, believed these two to be blood relatives, most likely twins.
Orientation and Behavior
Sexual orientation is commonly discusses as a
Americans
characteristics of the individual, like biological sex, gender identity, or
Among indigenous peoples of the Americans prior to
age. This perspective is incomplete because sexual orientation is
European colonization, a common form of same – sex centered around
always defined in relational terms and necessarily involves
the figure of the two – spirit individual. Typically this individual was
relationships with other individuals. Sexual acts and romantic
recognized early in life, given a choice by the parents to follow the path
attractions are categorized as homosexual or heterosexual according
and if the child accepted the role, raised in the appropriate manner,
to the biological sex of the individuals involved in them, relative to each
learning the customs of the gender it had chosen, Two – Spirit
other. Indeed, it is by acting or desiring to act with another person that
individuals were revered as having powers beyond those of ordinary
individuals express their heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality.
shaman. Their sexual life was with the ordinary tribe members of the
This includes actions as simple as holding hands with or kissing
same sex.
another person. Thus, sexual orientation is integrally linked to the
intimate personal relationships that human beings from with others to
Europe
meet their deeply felt for love, attachment, and intimacy. In addition to
In regard of male homosexuality such documents depict a
sexual behavior, these bonds encompass nonsexual physical affection
world in which relationships with women and relationships with were
between partners, shared goals and values, mutual support, and
the essential foundation of a normal man’s life. Same – sex
ongoing commitment.
relationships were a social institution variously constructed over time
and from one city to another. The formal practice, an erotic yet often
Coming out of the closet
restrained relationships between a free adult male and a free
Coming out of the closet is a phrase referring to one’s
adolescent, was valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of
disclosure of their sexual orientation or gender identity, and it
population control, though occasionally blamed for causing disorder.
described and experienced variously as a psychological process or
journey. Generally, coming out is described in three phases. The first is
Middle East
that of “knowing oneself”, and the realization emerges that one is open
There are handful of accounts by Arab travelers to Europe
to same – sex relations. This is often described as an internal coming
during the mid – 1800s. two of these travelers, Rifa al – Tahtawi and
out. The second phase involves one’s decision to come out to others
Muhammad as – Saffar, show theirsurprise that the French sometimes
like family, friends, or colleagues. The third phase more generally
deliberately mistranslated love poetry about a young boy, instead to a
involves living openly as an LGBT person. In the United States today,
young female, to maintain their social norms and morals.
people often come out during high school or college is not accepted in countries neither ban nor support LGB service members. A few
society. Sometimes their own families are not even informed. countries to ban homosexual personnel outright.

Gender Identity A. Crimes committed against homosexual or lesbian (LGBT)

Transgender people maybe attracted to men, women or
both, although the prevalence of different sexual orientations is quite  Hate crimes (Murder, Homicide and Robbery)
different in these two populations. An individual homosexual,
heterosexual or bisexual person maybe masculine feminine or and in B. Percentage of crimes committed against homosexual or
addition, many members and supports of lesbian and gay communities lesbian (LGBT)
now see the “gender – conforming heterosexual” and the “gender –  Afraid: “Killings of LGBT’s in the Philippines on the rise”
nonconforming homosexual” as negative. However, studies have found By: Joseph Holandes Ubalde, Inter
out that a majority of gay men and lesbians report being gender – Aksyon.com
nonconforming during their childhood years. June 27, 2011 5:30 p.m.

Same – Sex Relationship Manila, Philippines – There has been a steady and alarming
Research indicates that many lesbians and gay men want rise in violence against members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and
succeed in having committed and durable relationships. Survey data transgender (LGBT) community in the Philippines over the past 15
indicate that between 40% and 60% of gay men and between 45% and years, new research conducted by an LGBT advocacy group suggest,
80% lesbians are currently involved in a romantic relationship. Survey in line with a call for the Police and the Commission on Human Rights
data also indicate that between 18% and 28% of gay couples and to acknowledge and formally look into the troubling trend.
between 8% and 21% of lesbian couples in the U.S. have lived
together ten or more years. Studies have found same – sex and For the first half of 2011 alone, as of June 17, the Philippine
opposite – sex couples to be equivalent to each other in measures of LGBT Hate Crime Watch says it has documented 28 killings within the
satisfaction and commitment in relationships, that age and gender are gay community. This figure already nearly equals homicide and murder
more reliable than sexual orientation as a predictor of satisfaction and figures for 2010, which is pegged at 29.
commitment to a relationship, and that people who are heterosexual of
homosexual share comparable expectations and ideas with regard to “Expanding the timeframe to as early as 1996, a total of 103
romantic relationships. (killings of LGBTs have been monitored)”. Of the 103 cases that group
considers hate crimes, 61 attacks were against gay men, 26 against
Gender and Fluidity transgender, 12 against lesbians, and four targeted bisexuals.
In a 2004 study, the female subjects (both gay and straight
men) became sexually aroused when they viewed heterosexual as well “Homophobia and transphobia (negative attitudes against
as lesbian erotic films. Among the male subjects, however the straight transexualism) present among most of the victims’ families also made
men were turned on only by erotic films with women, the gay ones by it possible to procure sworn statements, narratives which would have
those with men. The study’s senior researcher said that women’s expounded on the situations surrounding each murder”.
sexual desire is less directed toward a particular sex., as compared
with men’s and it’s more changeable over time. Lacsamana, who founded the group after two of his gay
friends were brutally killed in 2009, said the victims’ relatives would
Parenting rather have the police tag the incident as “mere robberies” than an
Scientific research has been generally consistent in showing overt and targeted attack on homosexuals. The victims’ families also
that lesbian and gay parents are as fit and capable as heterosexual feel stigmatized when the media sensationalize such crimes.
parents, and their children are as psychologically healthy and well –
adjusted reared by heterosexual parents, according to scientific “They feel ashamed that their loved one is gay”. ”They often
literature reviews, there is no evidence to the contrary. decide not to pursue the case anymore especially when the tabloids
sensationalize the crime in the headlines”. With these obstacles in
A review study suggested that the children with lesbian or sight, Lacsamana said the figures they have may be incomplete, but
gay parents less traditionally gender – typed and are more likely to be they definitely represent just a “tip of the iceberg”.
open to homoerotic relationships. Partly due to genetic (80% of the
children being raise by same –sex couples in U.S. are their biological In 2009, following the tragic deaths of his friends – one was
children and family socialization process, (children grow up; in killed in March, the other in August – Lacsamana, a librarian by
relatively more tolerant school, neighborhood, and social contexts, profession, started collecting reports and archival data on hate crimes.
which are less heterosexual), even through majority of children raised Lacsamana, who is also openly gay, said there is a need for legislation
by same – sex couples identify as heterosexual. One study suggested protecting the LGBT community from these brutal crimes. Based on
that children of gay and lesbian parents were more likely adopt non – the group’s study, victims of hate crimes endure deaths like being
heterosexual identities, especially daughters of lesbian parents (inter stabbed multiple times, tortured, suffocated, and dismembered or
generational transfer was not significant in some analysis for son). being burned alive. Labilles is calling on Congress to investigate these
crimes and to make people more aware of the LGBT community’s
Gay and Lesbian Youth vulnerability to such attacks.
Gal and lesbian youth bear an increased risk of suicide
abuse, school problems, and isolation because of a “hostile and Currently, the Anti – Discrimination Act of 2010 or House Bill
condemning environment, verbal and physical abuse, rejection and 1483, filed by Rep. Teddy Casino of Bayan Muna, remains pending in
isolation from family and peers”. Further, LGBT youths are more likely Congress. The proposed law seeks to protect LGBTs against unlawful
to report psychological and physical abuse by parents of caretakers, discrimination in employment, education, health services, commercial
and more sexual abuse. Suggested reasons for this disparity are that and medical establishments including protection from police and
(1) LGBT youths may be specifically targeted on the basis of their sex military harassment.
or gender no – conforming appearance and (2) that “risk factors
associated with sexual minority status, including discrimination, Without a law in the country that explicitly deals with hate
invisibility, and rejection by family members, may lead to an increase in crimes, most killings involves the LGBTs are simply reported
behaviors that are associated with risk for victimization, such as generically as murders or homicides, with no provisions for
substance abuse, sex with multiple partners, or running away from deconstructing and analyzing the reports along the sector’s concerns.
home as a teenager”.
The group is reaching out to the Commission on Human
Military Service Rights and the Philippine National Police to help them verify each of
Policies and attitudes toward gay and lesbian personnel vary the reported cases and to help identify other victims of hate crimes.
widely around to world. Some countries allow gay men, lesbians, and While the group attests that a more thorough analysis of the reported
bisexual people to serve openly and have granted them the same cases is needed to verify that these are indeed prejudiced or hate
rights and privileges as their heterosexual counterparts. Many crimes, they consider the killed individuals as victims because they are
members of a minority group.
 For their part, the CHR welcomes the study from the Hate
Crime Watch and invited them to send their study to them. “It’s a cause
for the CHR”’ said lawyer Chris Ocampo, CHR executive assistant.
“The CHR is already attending various for a on LGBT rights with these
reported cases”.

C. Government action for the protection of (LGBT)

 Philippine police backs special desk for crimes against

LGBTI people

Manila: The Philippine National Police (PNP) has thrown its

support behind a House measure seeking the creation of a special
desk in all police stations across the country so as to tackle crimes
against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people. The desk is to
administer and attend to ceases involving crimes against sexual
harassment, hate crimes and other forms of abuses committed against
the LGBT community (tempo.com.ph).

Police Senior Superintendent Juanita S. Nebran, chief of the

PNP Women and Children Protection Center told that the Philippine
National Police supports the House Bill 2571, which was filed by
House Representative Sol Aragones. HB 2571 seeks to be in line with
the Republic Act 8551 that mandates the creation of Women’s desks in
all police stations to ensure that the crimes and abuses committed
against women and their children are duly addressed.