MATH14 – ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Lecture Note

Lesson No. 3: Permutation & Symmetry Groups

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. define permutation, permutation groups and symmetry groups, and related terms
2. solve problems permutation groups and symmetry groups

Definition
A permutation of a set A is a function, S A , from A to A that is bijective. A permutation
group (symmetry group) of a set A is a set of permutations of A that forms a group under
function composition.

Notations

 Standard notation: (12 23 45 6

31 5 6 4 )
 Cyclic Notation:( 1 ,2 , 3 ) ( 4 ,5 , 6 )

Theorem
 |Sn|=n !
 Every permutation of a finite set can be written as a cycle or as a product of disjoint
cycles.
 Disjoint cycles in Sn commute. If the pair of cycle α =( a1 ,a 2 , ⋯ ,a m ) and β=( b1 ,b 2 , ⋯ ,b n )
have no entries in common then, then αβ =βα
 The group Snis nonabelian for all n ≥ 3.
 The order of a permutation of a finite set written in disjoint cycle form is the least
common multiple of the length of the cycles.

Example: Show that f ( x )=x +1 is a permutation of ℝ.

Proof:
To show that f ( x )=x +1 is a permutation of ℝ, we have to show that f ( x ) is bijective.
f ( x ) is one-to-one, because

f ( x 1 ) =f ( x 2 )
x 1+ 1=x 2+1
 x 1=x 2

and it is onto, since

f ( x )=x +1
y=x +1
x= y −1

Example: Convert the ( 14 23 45 6

32 5 1 6 )
to disjoint cyclic notation.

Solution:

Since 1 σ 4 σ 5 σ 1 σ 4 σ 5 ⋯ and 2 σ 3 σ 2 σ 3 ⋯, then

→ → → → → → → → ( 14 23 45 6
32 5 1 6 )
=( 1 , 4 , 5 )( 2 , 3 )

Example: Convert ( 1 , 6 , 4 ) ( 2 ,5 , 7 ) in S7 to standard notation.

Solution:

Working backwards, we have (16 23 45 67

53 17 4 2
. )
Example: Compute the following product (function composition) involving permutations in S6 .

( ) (
α = 1 2 3 4 5 6 , β= 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 13 5 4 6 6 12 4 3 5 )
a. αβ
b. β 2
c. β 2 α
d. β−1
e. ⟨α⟩
f. ¿ ⟨ β 2 ⟩∨¿

Solution:
a. Function composition must be read from right-to-left order. For instance, in αβ , we first
apply α and then α .

(
αβ = 1 2 3 4 5 6
6 21 53 4 )
2
b. β =ββ= (15 23 45 6
6 1 42 3 )
 2
c. β α= (16 23 45 6
51 24 3 )
d. The inverse β−1 is determined in reverse order. β =
−1
(12 23 4 5 6
35 4 6 1 )
e. The following are the elements generated by ⟨ α ⟩

(
α= 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 13 5 4 6 )
(
α 2= 1 2 3 4 5 6 =e
1 23 45 6 )
Hence, ⟨ α ⟩ =\{ e , α \}

g. To determine the order, ¿ ⟨ β 2 ⟩∨¿, we have to determine the group generated by β 2

β= (16 23 4 5 6
12 4 3 5 )
β =(
3)
2 1 23 4 5 6
5 61 4 2
3
β =β β =β β=
2 2
( 13 23 4 5 6
56 4 1 2 )
4 2 2
β =β β =β β=β β =
3 3
( 12 23 45 6
35 46 1 )
5 4
β =β β=β β =β β =β β =
4 2 3 3 2
( 11 23 45 6
23 45 6
=e )
Since ⟨ β 2 ⟩ =\{ β , β 2 , β 3 , β 4 , β 5=e \}, then ¿ ⟨ β 2 ⟩∨¿5

Definition
A cycle of length 2 is a transposition. That is,
(a 1 , a2 , ⋯ , a n)=(a1 , an )¿

A permutation of a finite set is even or odd according to whether it can be expressed as

a product of an even number of transpositions or the product of an odd number of
transpositions, respectively.

Theorem
  Any permutation of a finite set containing at least two elements is a product of
transposition.
 No permutation in S6 can be expressed both as a product of an even number of
transpositions and as a product of an odd number of transpositions.
 The set of even permutations in Snforms a subgroup of Sn .

Definition
The subgroup of Sn consisting of the even permutations of n letters is the alternating
group An on n letters.

Example: Express α = (13 23 45 67 8

8 6 7 4 15 2 )
as a product of disjoint cycles and transpositions.

Solution:

(
α= 1 23 4 5 67 8
3 8 6 7 4 15 2 )
¿ ( 1 ,3 , 6 )( 2 , 8 ) ( 4 , 7 , 5 )
¿ ( 1 ,6 )( 1 , 3 ) ( 2, 8 ) ( 4 ,5 )( 4 , 7 )

Note that it can be expressed as a product of 5 transposition; hence, it is an odd permutation.

Dihedral Groups
Let n ≥ 3. Then Dn is the set of all one-to-one functions ϕ :Z n × Z n that map onto Z n with
the property that the line segment between vertices i and j is an edge in Pn iff the line segment
between ϕ ( i ) and ϕ ( j ) is an edge of Pn. The nth dihedral group is the set D n with binary
operation function composition.

Theorem
 For any n ≥ 3, ⟨ D n ,∘ ⟩ is a group.
 For any n ≥ 3, the order of the dihedral group D n is 2 n.

Symmetries of D 3 (Equilateral Triangle)

There are 2(3) = 6 elements for D 3.

No movement
 ρ0 = (11 22 33)

Rotations

ρ1= (12 32 31)

(
ρ2= 1 2 3
3 12 )

Mirror Images

μ1 = (11 23 32)

μ2= (13 22 31)

μ3= (12 12 33)

The Cayley’s table below shows the multiplication table for D 3.

ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 μ1 μ2 μ3
ρ0 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 μ1 μ2 μ3
ρ1 ρ1 ρ2 ρ0 μ3 μ1 μ2
ρ2 ρ2 ρ0 ρ1 μ2 μ3 μ1
μ1 μ1 μ2 μ3 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2
μ2 μ2 μ3 μ1 ρ2 ρ0 ρ1
μ3 μ3 μ1 μ2 ρ1 ρ2 ρ0

The subgroups are:

 Improper Subgroup – \{ ρ0 , ρ1 , ρ1 , μ1 , μ 2 , μ3 \} (order 6)
 Proper Subgroup – \{ ρ0 , ρ1 , ρ2 \} (order 3), \{ ρ0 , μ1 \} (order 2), \{ ρ0 , μ2 \} (order 2),
\{ ρ0 , μ3 \} (order 2)
 Trivial Subgroup – \{ ρ0 \} (order 1)

Lattice diagram:

Symmetries of D 4 (Square): Octic Group

There are 2(4) = 8 elements for D 4 .

No movement

(
ρ0 = 1 2 3 4
1 23 4 )
Rotations

ρ1= (12 23 4
34 1 )

(
ρ2= 1 2 3 4
3 41 2 )

(
ρ3= 1 2 3 4
4 12 3 )

Mirror Images

(
μ1= 1 2 3
2 14
4
3 )

(
μ2= 1 2 3 4
4 32 1 )

Diagonal Flips

( 13
δ 1=
23 4
21 4 )
 δ 2= ( 11 23 4
43 2 )

The Cayley’s table below shows the multiplication table for D 4 .

ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 ρ3 μ1 μ2 δ 1 δ 2
ρ 0 ρ 0 ρ 1 ρ 2 ρ 3 μ1 μ 2 δ 1 δ 2
ρ1 ρ1 ρ2 ρ3 ρ0 δ 1 δ 2 μ2 μ1
ρ 2 ρ 2 ρ 3 ρ 0 ρ 1 μ2 μ 1 δ 2 δ 1
ρ 3 ρ3 ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 δ 2 δ 1 μ1 μ2
μ 1 μ 1 δ 2 μ2 δ 1 ρ 0 ρ 2 ρ 3 ρ 1
μ 2 μ2 δ 1 μ 1 δ 2 ρ 2 ρ 0 ρ 1 ρ 3
δ 1 δ 1 μ1 δ 2 μ 2 ρ 1 ρ 3 ρ 0 ρ 2
δ 2 δ 2 μ 2 δ 1 μ1 ρ 3 ρ 1 ρ 2 ρ 0

The subgroups are:

 Improper Subgroup – \{ ρ0 , ρ1 , ρ1 , ρ3 , μ1 , μ2 , δ 1 , δ 2 \} (order 8)
 Proper Subgroup – \{ ρ0 , ρ1 , ρ2 , ρ3 \} (order 4), \{ ρ0 , ρ2 , μ1 , μ2 \} (order 4),
\{ ρ0 , ρ2 , δ1 , δ 2 \} (order 4), \{ ρ0 , ρ2 \} (order 2), \{ ρ0 , μ1 \} (order 2), \{ ρ0 , μ2 \} (order 2),
\{ ρ0 , δ 1 \} (order 2), \{ ρ0 , δ 2 \} (order 2)
 Trivial Subgroup – \{ ρ0 \} (order 1)

Lattice diagram:
Lesson No. 4: Cosets and the Theorem of Lagrange

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. discuss cosets and related terms
2. illustrate the Theorem of Lagrange
3. solve problems involving cosets and the Theorem of Lagrange

Definition
Let H be a subgroup of a group of G . The subset aH =\{ ah∨h ∈ H \} of G is the left
coset of H containing a , while Ha=\{ ha∨h∈ H \} of G is the right coset of H containing a .
The number of left cosets of H in G is index ( G : H ) of H in G .

Theorem of Lagrange
Let H be a subgroup of a finite group G . Then, the order of H is a divisor of the order of
G.
Corollary: Every group of prime order is cyclic.

Theorem
 The order of an element of a finite group divides the order of the group.
 Suppose H and K are subgroups of a group G such that K ≤ H ≤ G, and suppose
( H : K ) and ( G : H ) are both finite. Then, ( G : K ) is finite, and ( G : K )=( G : H )( H : K ).

Example: Exhibit the left cosets and the right cosets of the following subgroups. Then,
determine its index.
a. 4 Z of ℤ
b. ⟨ 18 ⟩ of Z36
c. \{ ρ0 , ρ2 \} of D 4

Solution:
a. Note that 4 Z=\{ … ,−8 ,−4 , 0 , 4 ,8 , … \}.
Left Cosets: 0+ 4 Z=\{ … ,−8 ,−4 ,0 , 4 , 8 , … \}
1+4 Z=\{ … ,−7 ,−3 , 1 ,5 , 9 , … \}
2+ 4 Z=\{ … ,−6 ,−2 , 2 ,6 ,10 , … \}
3+ 4 Z =\{ … ,−5 ,−1 , 3 ,7 ,11 , … \}
The index is 4.
Right Cosets: 4 Z +0=\{ … ,−8 ,−4 ,0 , 4 , 8 , … \}
4 Z +1=\{ … ,−7 ,−3 , 1 ,5 , 9 , … \}
4 Z +2=\{ … ,−6 ,−2 , 2 ,6 ,10 , … \}
4 Z +3=\{ … ,−5 ,−1 , 3 ,7 ,11 , … \}

b. Note ⟨ 18 ⟩ of Z36 is ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{ 0 , 18 \}

Left Cosets: 0+ ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{ 0 ,18 \} 9+ ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{ 9 ,27 \}
1+ ⟨ 18 ⟩=\{ 1 ,19 \} 10+ ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{ 10 , 28 \}
2+ ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{ 2 , 20 \} 11+ ⟨ 18 ⟩=\{ 11 ,29 \}
3+ ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{3 , 21 \} 12+ ⟨ 18 ⟩=\{ 12 ,30 \}
4 + ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{ 4 , 22 \} 13+ ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{ 13 , 31 \}
5+ ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{5 , 23 \} 14+ ⟨ 18 ⟩=\{ 14 , 32 \}
6+ ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{ 6 ,24 \} 15+ ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{ 15 , 33 \}
7+ ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{7 ,25 \} 16+ ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{16 , 34 \}
8+ ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{ 8 ,26 \} 17+ ⟨ 18 ⟩ =\{17 , 35 \}
The index is 18.
Right Cosets: ⟨ 18 ⟩ +0=\{ 0 ,18 \} ⟨ 18 ⟩ +9=\{ 9 ,27 \}
⟨ 18 ⟩ +1=\{ 1 ,19 \} ⟨ 18 ⟩ +10=\{ 10 , 28 \}
⟨ 18 ⟩ +2=\{ 2 , 20 \} ⟨ 18 ⟩ +11=\{ 11 ,29 \}
⟨ 18 ⟩ +3=\{3 , 21 \} ⟨ 18 ⟩ +12=\{ 12 ,30 \}
 ⟨ 18 ⟩ + 4=\{ 4 , 22 \} ⟨ 18 ⟩ +13=\{ 13 , 31 \}
⟨ 18 ⟩ +5=\{5 , 23 \} ⟨ 18 ⟩ +14=\{ 14 , 32 \}
⟨ 18 ⟩ +6=\{ 6 ,24 \} ⟨ 18 ⟩ +15=\{ 15 , 33 \}
⟨ 18 ⟩ +7=\{7 ,25 \} ⟨ 18 ⟩ +16=\{16 , 34 \}
⟨ 18 ⟩ +8=\{ 8 ,26 \} ⟨ 18 ⟩ +17=\{17 , 35 \}

c. Since H=\{ ρ0 , ρ2 \} of D 4 , then

Left Cosets: ρ0 H=\{ ρ0 , ρ 2 \} Right Cosets: H ρ0=\{ ρ 0 , ρ 2 \}
ρ1 H=\{ ρ1 , ρ3 \} H ρ1=\{ ρ1 , ρ3 \}
μ1 H=\{ μ 1 , μ2 \} H μ 1=\{ μ 1 , μ2 \}
δ 1 H =\{ δ 1 , δ 2 \} H δ 1 =\{ δ 1 , δ 2 \}
The index is 4.

WRITTEN WORK (Reflection Log)

Directions:
1. Read the following articles.
a. That strikes a chord! An illustration of permutation groups in music theory.
https://www.msudenver.edu/media/content/rowdyjournal/documents/Roonaccepteda
sis.pdf
b. Plane and Frieze symmetry group determination for educational purposes.
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00093
c. Optimal check digit systems based on modular arithmetic.
https://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2179-84512017000100105

2. Choose one article and make a 2-paragraph summary. Include the learning and insights
you gained from the article.
 3. Recreate the study by applying the concepts you gained.

WORKSHEET NO. 3

Directions: Solve the following problems completely.

1. Given the following permutation in S6.

α= 1
3 ( 23
14
45
56
6
2 )
τ=
1
2 ( 23
41
45
36
6
5 )
μ= 1
5 ( 23
24
45
31
6
6 )
Compute the following:
a. τα
b. τ 2 α
 c. μ α 2
d. α −2 τ
e. α −1 τα
f. |⟨ α ⟩|
g. |⟨ τ 2 ⟩|
h. α 100
i. μ100

2. Determine whether the given function is a permutation of the set of real numbers.
a. f ( x )=x 3−x 2−2 x
b. f ( x )=e x

3. Determine whether the following permutations are even or odd in S7 .

a. (1, 3, 5)
b. (1, 3, 5, 6)
c. (1, 3, 5, 6, 7)
d. (1, 2)(1, 3, 4)(1, 5, 2)
e. (1, 2, 4, 3)(3, 5, 2, 1)

4. Exhibit the left cosets and the right cosets of the following subgroups. Then, determine its
index.
a. 4 Z of 2 Z
b. ⟨ 3 ⟩ of Z24
c. \{ ρ0 , μ2 \} of D 4
d. ⟨ 3 ⟩ of D 4

5. Suppose that K is a proper subgroup of H and H is a proper subgroup of G . If ¿ K∨¿ 42 and

|G|=420 , what are the possible orders of H ?