Deciphering Indus script as a cryptogram

yajnadevam
������

Abstract
Indus inscriptions hold the key to unlocking the history of pre-Iron age India and
all Indo-European peoples but remains undeciphered for over a century. All prior
attempts have been unsatisfactory and non-falsifiable. We decipher the Indus script by
treating it as a large cryptogram. We solve every sign one by one using an exhaustive
dictionary search and use set-intersection to obtain the exclusive value of each sign.
Indus script is discovered to be proto-abugida segmental with signs for consonants and
vowels. Indus inscriptions are in Sanskrit language including one verse in 7x4 ushnik
meter. Variants of 81 allograms constitute most signs. Composite signs constitute
the rest. Our decipherment can read every inscription and we translate the 100
longest inscriptions along with 400+ short inscriptions including 100+ inscriptions
with composite signs. Brahmi glyphs are discovered to be standardized Indus signs.
We find significant continuation of Indus linguistic features and cultural elements in
post-bronze age India.
Keywords: Indus, Epigraphy, Brahmi, Sanskrit

1 1. Introduction
2 Indus script was in use from first half of the 4th millenium BCE[1] to 50 CE[2]
3 in India. Indus script continued to be used on coins from Varanasi 800 BCE[3]
4 to Maurya era[4]. Findings at Keezhadi[5] show usage of both Brahmi and Indus
5 symbols. B. B. Lal noted that 89 percent of megalithic symbols go back to Indus
6 symbols[6]. Megalithic sites show Indus signs up to 50 CE[7]. This provides evidence
7 of broad geographical usage of Indus symbols all over India and 650 years overlap for
8 the possibility of Brahmi script evolving from Indus script.
9 Attempts to decipher the Indus script have started with some assumptions regard-
10 ing the language and epigraphy. Mahavedan[8] and Parpola[9] assume a logosyllabic
11 script encoding Tamil. S. R. Rao[10] assumes an abjad script encoding Sanskrit.
12 Sue Sullivan[11] derives Sanskrit encoded in a script featuring complex logosyllabic,

Preprint submitted to Academia May 9, 2022

13 phonetic and segmental features. The fundamental flaw of logosyllabic and abjad
14 interpretations is that they can never be acceptable without a rosetta stone. The
15 readings themselves are also dubious. For example, Mahadevan translates the sign �
16 as pali, ”city”[12]. This claim is non-falsifiable and one could as well read it as ”egg”
17 or ”wheel” or ”chair”. All logographic scripts that only read short inscriptions are
18 invalidated without a rosetta stone for the simple reason that assigning random words
19 to a set of signs will create an adjective-noun pair like ”chicken fort” or ”pregnancy
20 bangles”. The real test of decipherment is in reading a set of long inscriptions that
21 all fall into a coherent theme without the introduction of unattested mythology.
22 S. R. Rao and Sue Sullivan start with a set of similar-to-Indus semitic signs with
23 known values and deduce in the values for rest of the signs using an ad-hoc dictionary
24 search. This method results in a dramatic improvement in the length and the number
25 of readable seals but continues to give meaningless results for anything but short
26 inscriptions. Like their logosyllabic counterparts, they also fail for unusual patterns
27 such as seal M-1123 �����. The reason for the improvement is that they have the
28 right value for common symbols and the reason for failure on long inscriptions is that
29 some of their starting symbols are incorrect, resulting in incorrect values on deduced
30 symbols.

31 2. Methods
32 The fundamental flaw in prior approaches to deciphering inscriptions is to first
33 guess the sound/meaning of a sign based on appearance and then attempt to read
34 inscriptions. These guesses are usually wrong for pictorial signs and impossible for
35 abstract signs. We invert this and determine the sound value of a sign first and then
36 optionally interpret what object the sign represents. This eliminates entire chains of
37 assumptions regarding sound values of each sign.

38 2.1. Undeciphered scripts as cryptogram puzzles

39 Cryptograms are popular puzzles that encode a sentence (usually famous quotes)
40 in a completely new script. The new script is usually just a rearranged alphabet but
41 can be numbers, runes, arbitrary symbols or even Morse code. Cryptograms without
42 spaces or punctuation are harder to solve since there are no clues on word boundaries.
43 Solving cryptograms is a known art and we will only touch upon the techniques used
44 for deciphering the Indus script.
45 The first step to solve a cryptogram is to guess the language itself. If the language
46 is incorrect, we reach a dead end very soon and move on to the next language.
47 Hypothetically, we could try every known language and the correct language will

2
48 eventually be self-evident unless the script is written in a lost language. Realistically,
49 the Indus script is from ~3700 BCE to 50 CE and our best chances are Sanskrit and
50 old Tamil. Other Indic languages have been attested much more recently and their
51 ancient forms are relatively less known.
52 The second step is to guess or determine one or two letters using unusual patterns
53 in the text that will enable us to read one or two syllabic words. We can rely on the
54 fact that every seal is one or more complete words and choose the shortest available
55 seals to avoid the issue of detecting word boundaries on longer inscriptions.
56 We can then use the known letters to decipher the next unknown sign by exhaustive
57 search on a dictionary using regular expressions. With sufficient inscriptions that
58 only have a single common undeciphered sign, we can uniquely determine its value.
59 Regular expressions enable us to solve for individual signs regardless of nature of the
60 script.

61 2.2. Initial signs

62 The sequence in which the signs are solved depends on the reachability, specificity
63 and stability of the initial chosen signs. Signs that are rare usually have high
64 specificity but may not have a path to solving every sign sequentially. Signs that
65 are very common may have low specificity and we may not be able to determine a
66 unique value using regular expressions. Signs tend to get abstract over time and we
67 should pick signs that are stable across the entire timespan of the inscriptions. Based
68 on the above criteria, the best two symbols to start with are � �. While an optimal
69 reachability graph can be constructed analyzing the seals, we can use the heuristic of
70 solving them in the descending order of frequency with a few detours as needed.
71 We consider the following seals:

H-764B ���
H-150A �����

72 The symbol � is the most frequent sign, often appearing as terminal symbol of
73 many seals. Seal H-764 can be either अननन् or ददद the only two words in Sanskrit
74 that are triple repetitions of the same syllable. Of these, only अन् makes sense as a
75 terminal symbol. H-764 therefore is probably अननन् . The � symbol therefore could
76 be द, and seal H-150 reads ददद अन्त, ”thunderous end”. This symbol is likely to be a
77 variant of the sign �. This gives us our initial guesses � = त and � = द (neglecting
78 aspiration). These are guesses and not proof, but sufficient for us to try solving other
79 signs. We will prove the values of these signs proceeding in sequence. If we fail to
80 make progress, we would need to retry with different values for the initial two signs.

3
81 2.3. Strengths and limitations
82 A sufficiently long cryptogram (>100 letters) is believed to be unsolvable in two
83 different ways, the likelihood of which is akin to a hash collision. With this method,
84 incorrectly decoded sign will not match further downstream and quickly result in a
85 dead end making this approach self-correcting. This approach does not depend on
86 symbol shape, evolution history of a sign, assumptions on cultural aspects, geography,
87 etc. Indeed, because none of these aspects are inputs, they can be credibly deduced
88 as outputs once sufficient signs are deciphered. Cryptogram method is superior to
89 frequency analysis, since it’s immune to frequency changes due to passage of time[13].
90 Any lost words (not found in dictionary) in the inscription may result in false
91 negatives and occasionally false positives. Dictionary may need to be augmented with
92 sandhi, gender and number declined forms. As long as there are enough inscriptions,
93 these limitations are generally not an issue except for signs with limited number of
94 distinct attestations (say less than 10).

95 2.4. Formalization
96 Let G = {g0 , g1 , g2 ...} be the set of symbols whose sound value is known.
97 Let X = {x0 , x1 , x2 ...} be the set of all symbols.
98 Let S = {s0 , s1 , s2 ...} be the set of inscriptions where si is a vector from symbols
99 in X

100 1. Let two inscriptions sa = gi xa gk xc ... and sb = gj xa gl xf ...

101 2. Let set of symbol matches Gxa = /gi (.+)gk . + / ∩ /gj (.+)gl . + /
102 3. Repeat intersection with new inscription above until Gxa is of unit length
103 4. x a = G xa
104 5. G = G ∪ xa
105 6. Repeat until G = X

106 3. Results
107 Indus script is made of 81 allograms representing the most common signs shown
108 in table 1. The complete derivation can be traced in section 5. A compact one-pager
109 is given in table 2. Composite signs and long translations are listed in sections 7
110 and 8 respectively. Some signs have variants that mark reading direction or word
111 boundaries and they are listed in table 3. Consonant clusters using syncope are shown
112 in table 4. Table 6 shows Indus signs standardized into Brahmi.

4
 Name Meaning Symbols
अ अयुग one � 1

आयु man � 2

अग mountain � 3

अङ्क curve � �� � � � � � 4

आज�न stick ��� 5

अज horn �� 6

आ repeated अ � � �� ��
� 7

इ इषीक stalk of grain � 8

ई doubled इ �� 9

उ उद्घाटक rope �� 10

उद्भट tortoise �� 11

ए अइक one � 12

ओ ओपश lock of hair �� 13

अन् |अं अनुतष� drinking vessel �������� 14

अस् |अः अष्टापद eight legged/spider �������� 15

अष्ट eight �� 16

क|ख काष्ठ wood ������ 17

कोष्ठ inner room ��� 18

खट axe �� 19

खट plough ���� 20

ग|घ गडु |गडु र spear; bent � 21

च|छ चतुर four � 22

छत्त्र mushroom � 23

ज|झ झर waterfall; cascade �� � 24

झ rain and wind �� 25

त|थ|ट|ठ ताडु ल्य drum � 26

ताडु ल fighter � 27

तण्डु ल rice plant � 28

ताल small cymbal � 29

5
 Name Meaning Symbols
तरु|त�� tree|wooden ladles �� 30

तद� Indian blackbird ���� 31

त्र three � 32

त tail � 33

ट hollowed coconut

�
34

द|ध|ड|ढ दण्डार bow ������ 35

दन्त teeth �� 36

धात्र receptacle ��� 37

डमरु hourglass drum ����� 38

न नलप��का reed mat � 39

नाल stalk ������ 40

नल reed � 41

नव nine � 42

नाव boat � 43

प|फ पञ्चन् five �� � 44

पञ्चन् hand � 45

ब|भ भक्षपत्र betel leaf ���� 46

भक्षत्र oven � 47

म मदार मस्त elephant head ��������� 48

मदार मस्त boar head � 49

मत्स्य fish � 50

मन्दार hibiscus flower � 51

म�न्दर dwelling � 52

मय horse �������� 53

य यवश्रे �ष्ठ barley merchant ���� 54

यव barley ��� 55

य�ष्ट pearl necklace; pillar ��� 56

य�ष्ट twig; arm � 57

6
 Name Meaning Symbols
र रथपद chariot wheel ����� 58

रक्तफल Indian fig ���� 59

रथ chariot ������� 60

रद split; forked ���� 61

ल लता lightning; lash of whip � 62

लता creeper � 63

व वरण्ड lamp wick � 64

वण्ड spear � 65

वरट wasp � 66

वट banyan tree �� 67

स|श|ष|ह शाखमृग squirrel ������ 68

�शखर mountaintop ��� 69

शुक्र seed ��� 70

शुक्र chitraka flower �� 71

स|श|ष|ह शशाद falcon � 72

षष् |षड् six �� 73

सप्त seven �� 74

शस repeating (merger of � �) � 75

Common Composites
�� अक twisted � 76

�� अ�ण point of arrow � 77

�� अम power ��������� 78

�� उष् dawn �� 79

�� तर beyond �� 80

�� �व two � 81

Table 1: Saraswati script allograms

7
दे वनागरी �������
अ �� �� � � � � � � � � �
आ �� � ��� �� ��
इ �
ई ��
उ ����
ऋ �
ए �
ओ ��
अन् अं ��������
अस् अः ����������

कख ��������������
गघ �
ङ �
चछ ��
जझ �� � ��
ञ �
तथटठ �����������
�

दधडढ ����������������
नण � � � � � � �� � �
पफ �� � �
बभ �����
म ��������������������
य ���������
र ������������������
ल ��
व �����
शषसह � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � ��

अक �
अ�न �
अम ���������
उष् ��
तर ��
�व �
Table 2: Saraswati script signs with common composites

8
 Sign Marked Variants
अ � � � � � � �� � ��
अ � ���
अन् � � � � � �
अन् � � � � �
अस् � � �
त � �
द � �
द � �
द � �
द � �
न � �
ब � �
म � �
म � �
य � �
र � �����
र � ����
व � ��
Table 3: Directional and word-boundary variants

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-43 ��� वक्र Mars क्र
Ns-79 �� � �वश्व to pervade श्व
H-904 ��� � �वद्वान् learned द्व
M-1316 ������� वाव वल्लभ दाद verily god-given ल्ल
Table 4: Examples of writing consonant clusters using schwa and double syncope

Indus Sign Meaning Vedic Altar

� falcon श्ये न
� mountain प्रौग
� solid wheel प्र�धयुक्त रथचक्र
� spoked wheel सारा रथचक्र
� tortoise वक्राङ्ग कूम�
� tortoise प�रमण्डल कूम�
Table 5: Signs corresponding to Vedic altars

9
 अ a इ i उ u ए e ओ o
� � � � �
क k ख kh ग g घ gh ङ ṅ

� � � � �
च c छ ch ज j झ jh ञ ñ
� � � � �
ट ṭ ठ ṭh ड ḍ ढ ḍh ण ṇ
� � �
त t थ th द d ध dh न n
� � � �
प p फ ph ब b भ bh म m
� � � � �
य y र r Brahmi ल l व v
� � vs � �
श ś ष ṣ Indus स s ह h
� � � �
Table 6: Indus signs standardized into Brahmi

113 4. Discussion
114 SSC script is a segmental script that is best described as proto-abugida. The
115 major differences from Brahmi seem to be that retroflexes use the same signs as
116 dentals and aspirated and unaspirated stops use the same signs. With a couple of
117 exceptions, letters have a default vowel of अ unless overridden by an immediately
118 following vowel sign. No diacritics are used.
119 Signs retain the same sound value on even major rendering variations presumably
120 because the script has unlimited options for creating new signs and has no need to
121 rely on a minor stroke variation to denote phonetic distinctions.
122 While signs are obviously distinct in most cases, occasional ambiguities do exist,

10
 Name Sign Meaning Operator Operand
अयुग � one
आयु � man खण्डन अयुग
अग � mountain प्रत्याहार अयुग
अइक � one साम्य अयुग
अङ्क � curve अपभ्रं श अइक
काष्ठ � wood
कोष्ठ �� inner room अपभ्रं श काष्ठ
खट �� axe प्रत्याहार काष्ठ
खट ���� plough साम्य खट
Table 7: Allogram derivation for अ and क

123 which are discussed below. Signs may be classed into several groups based on
124 characteristics specific to them.

125 4.1. Allograms

126 Saraswati script has 81 total allograms for the most common signs (including 6
127 common composite signs) with a median of three allograms. These allograms seem
128 to have occurred accidentally when orally transmitting the sign name or deliberately
129 as a प्रत्याहार based on the fact that many allograms are simply the first and last letter
130 of a longer name. Occasionally a synonym or homonym transmutation occurs, which
131 we call साम्य. A comprehensive allogram chart is in table 1. An average of a little over
132 4 variants per allogram for 81 allograms explains the approximately 400+ total signs.
133 Allogram derivation examples are shown in table 7.

134 4.2. Line strokes and Numeric signs

135 A numeric sign does not encode an actual number, but rather the first syllable of
136 its name. The sound values are shown in table 8. A sign with eleven strokes does not
137 exist, suggests the Indus civilization used a decimal system. The name for a single
138 numeric stroke, अयुग represents the अ sound. अयुग may have mutated into अइक which
139 may have been used as the diphthong अइ. The word एक evidently evolved from अयुग
140 via अइक. The other signs are self-explanatory of which only �व has the non-default अ
141 vowel.
� � � � � � � � � ��
अ �व त च प ष स अस् न द
Table 8: Numeric signs

11
 � � � � � �
अ व ज ज न ष
Table 9: Non-numeric line stroke signs

142 In addition to numeric signs, line strokes denote several signs shown in table 9.
143 Non-numeric signs seem to be invented earlier than numeric signs, evidenced from
144 workarounds to comply with non-numeric signs. Evidence for this is that other अ
145 signs can be doubled to form आ but not the � vertical stroke since it would be read
146 as व and inscriptions work around this by inserting � between the two to create ���.
147 The sign � often written as � representing rain, is not a numeric sign. Its allogram
148 � is not to be confused with the numeric sign �read as त.

149 4.3. Vowels

150 A vowel sign overrides the default अ vowel just as in abugida. Repeated vowel
151 signs make a long vowel. In practice, a leading अ can be either अ or आ. An अ in
152 addition to the default अ vowel makes it आ. The only long vowels attested are आ
153 and ई. Other vowels such as ऊ simply use the same sign � to indicate both long and
154 short vowels. ऋ uses signs for र and presumably so do the unattested ॠ ऌ ॡ1 .

155 4.4. Diphthong

156 The sequence अइ exists as a diphthong in some seals indicating that is possibly
157 used for ऐ as in H-1056 ���� � जमनै . An equivalent diphthong for औ is not attested
158 but may be reconstructed as ��.

159 4.5. Proto-vowels

160 The signs for अन् � and अस् � seem to have eventually evolved into अं and अः
161 respectively. The � sign is used for both न ण and ङ sounds. The � variant seems to
162 be preferred for ञ but in principle, all jar-like signs are interchangeable.

163 4.6. Sibiliant fluidity

164 All signs for श ष स ह seem to be interchangeable including अस् signs. These four
165 phonemes were possibly allphones, vestiges which can be seen in later Sanskrit with
166 equivalent words with the same meaning but different sibiliants such as तुस = तुष for

1
Its uncertain how many phonemes present in Vedic literature were used by Indus civilization or
if these sounds had even differentiated. This paper does not take a position on these issues

12
167 husk. At some point post-Indus script invention, these consonants seem to have
168 differentiated2 .

169 4.7. Base consonants

170 Base consonants here refers to signs that represent ordinary consonants with the
171 default vowel अ. Retroflex and dentals use the same signs, similar to usage of Latin
172 alphabet to write Sanskrit. Aspirated and unaspirated sounds also use the same
173 signs.

174 4.8. Shorthand signs

175 The sign � अ�न|अ�ण meaning arrowpoint which is very often found as a terminal
176 sign is a shorthand for ��, which also reads as अ�न|अ�ण. This was an innovation to
177 address running out of space at the end of the inscription. This evidently led to the
178 invention of other supplementary signs to the consonant+vowel system. The sign �
179 for phoneme �व is a numeric, but may be seen as a shorthand for ��. The introduction
180 of �as a shorthand, probably led to the introduction of other numeric signs to stand
181 for their respective initial syllables.

182 4.9. Composite signs

183 Composite signs are created by combining two (or rarely more) signs and represents
184 the sounds of the combined signs. The most common are अक � combining ��, उष्
185 � combining �� and signs for अम. The sign for अम can take a variety of forms
186 by vertically assembling a rotated � and one of the म signs, given many possible
187 signs, � being the most common. In addition to these, there are over 100 rarely used
188 composites that are deciphered in Section 7

189 4.10. Sign disambiguation

190 Numeric signs in general take all strokes as a single sign. Spacing, stroke size
191 differences and incline differences are used to distinguish two adjacent numeric signs
192 or signs made of simple line strokes.
193 For example, the sign M-734 reads � � ��� वरण जज, ”protecting warrior.” The
194 clear space between � � is unambiguously read as two � ज signs, rather than a single
195 �� ष sign, which would need to be read as वरणष, ”excellent protector.” Seal M-1822
196 ��� uses incline differences to distinguish � � वा to avoid being read as � ज.

2
This may imply that the Indus language at the point of script invention was pre-RUKI and the
*s>*h change presently found in Iranic languages is also due to a preferred allophone.

13
197 When strokes are arranged in rows, if the upper row has equal or higher number
198 of strokes than the lower row, then the sign is read as representing the total number
199 of strokes. Inscriptions use spacing to ensure clear separation between distinct signs.
200 For example, the sign M-1904 reads � जज, ”warrior.” Three strokes representing
201 the first syllable is marked as distinct from the other by horizontal and vertical
202 spacing. If there was no clear spacing, the seal would look like � and be read as ष,
203 ”excellent.”
204 When the upper row has fewer strokes than the lower row, spacing or other
205 indications of separateness become important for an accurate reading. For example,
206 M-948 reads ����� अव�वजय ”desiring victory”, rather than अवपाय ”desiring water”
207 due to slight offset of two rows of strokes. While signs with five or more strokes can
208 appear in one or two rows, signs with two and four always appear in a single row. If
209 they appear in two rows, they are a distinctly different sign with a distinctly different
210 sound value. Note the differences between ��व � ज � च versus� न �त � श.

211 4.11. Ligatured signs

212 Occasionally adjacent signs are joined by a small stroke to create a ligatured
213 character pair for clarity. Either one of the signs is vertical bar sign � (आज�न) and
214 could be easily missed without the ligature as in � or if a sign was carved in later for
215 space or other reasons as in �. These are described in detail in 7.

216 4.12. Directional markers

217 We know that the direction of writing is generally right-to-left based on the fact
218 that in some inscriptions signs have been squeezed near the left end of the inscription.
219 Unlike pottery graffiti and tablets, seals themselves are mirrored left-to-right in
220 order to produce the desired right-to-left inscription. However a small percentage
221 of inscriptions are left-to-right. Since the vast majority of signs are symmetric and
222 sometimes even the asymmetric signs are inscribed mirrored horizontally, there is a
223 chance that the inscriptions are read in the wrong direction. For large inscriptions,
224 this is usually not a problem, since they would be unreadable the wrong way. However,
225 short inscriptions have the risk of being read incorrectly.
226 Indus signary evolved to address this challenge by deliberately adding asymmetry
227 to some signs. For example, the elephant’s ears and the wasp’s eyes were made
228 asymmetric. The signs are read from the pointed-side to blunt-side:
� elephant ears, trunk, tusks
229 � wasp eyes
230
� tree branching

14
 Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation Direction
H-1711 ��� ��� कान्तदान delightful gift ←
M-1353 ���� अन्नादन eating food ←
M-1304 ���� अनवरन् equal or superior ←
H-1801 ���� अनवरन् equal or superior ←
M-862 ��� अनरन् superhuman ←

M-1470 �������� अण्डावानन् protector of the universe ←

M-420 ���� अनाचार unconventional ←
M-1822 ��� अण्डवा Name of Shiva ←
M-1700 ���� अन्धै in darkness ←

Ns-86 �� अनु human →

M-1336 ���� आणवम् small; fine →
M-2062 �� चर (line 1) follow ←
�� अन्व (line 2) →
Table 10: Directional markers on jar sign

231 The most common sign, the � jar sign repeated sufficiently within inscriptions
232 to enable a directional marker of its own, by adding one to four small strokes inside
233 the jar. The strokes appear in non-ascending order. The first jar always has the
234 highest number of strokes and the next sign can either decrease or maintain the
235 number of strokes. Typically, the final jar sign will end up with no strokes. This
236 pattern holds for over two hundred inscriptions with just a handful of exceptions.
237 The improbability of these strokes to have any kind of phonetic meaning is easily
238 verified by testing the inscriptions against a dictionary. These strokes are evidently a
239 directional marker similar to a fuel gauge, tracking the remaining text portions from
240 full to empty. The directional mark is placed on a nearby sign if the starting sign is a
241 numeric or otherwise unsuitable for a directional indicator.
242 A directional marker may be used even when its the only jar sign in the inscription
243 to avoid accidental reading in the wrong direction.
244 When the leftmost sign has a directional marker and the rightmost sign doesn’t,
245 the seal may be preferentially read left-to-right. This is most useful for multi-line
246 boustrophedon inscriptions but occasionally also occurs in single line seals.

247 4.13. Word boundaries

248 The jar sign directional marker breaks its rule in only a handful of signs among
249 over a thousand. Evidently, a secondary use of directional markers is to indicate

15
 Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation
M-378 ������ वनन अपर unsurpassed prayer
H-454 ����� अनवरन् excellent
M-968 ����� वरण आन holding breath
Ns-78 �� रण delight
H-1075 ��� उषपन् the Sun
Table 11: Directional marker used as word boundary

250 word boundaries. The leftmost sign’s marker could be a word boundary rather than
251 a directional marker, so some judgement is needed for a correct directional read.
252 Fortunately, these exceptional inscriptions are rare. These are shown in table 11

253 4.14. Directional sign variants

254 Signs other than jar sign can also have one to four strokes to indicate direction
255 or word boundary. Usually, these are the first character of an inscription and act
256 as a directional indicator but occasionally occur mid-inscription and act as a word
257 boundary. These are listed in table 3

258 4.15. Consonant clusters

259 Clustered consonants are simply written adjacent but are pronounced with a
260 schwa syncope. Doubled consonants are written as a single consonant. Examples are
261 shown in table 4.

262 4.16. Evolution

263 Signs that take up horizontal space undergo rotation to fit them in large inscrip-
264 tions. Complex and time consuming signs undergo abstraction and simplification.
265 Boldface versions are identical to normal versions.

����� rotation
����� rotation
�������� abstraction of elephant head to trunk and tusk
��� simplification
��� simplification

266 4.17. Evolution to Brahmi

267 Indus seals stopped being produced around 1900 BCE, but Indus inscriptions
268 continued on Mauryan coins and pottery graffiti in Kheezhadi and South Indian
269 megalithic sites until 50 CE.

16
270 When we arrange Brahmi signs with their closest corresponding Indus script
271 allogram, we notice that every Brahmi sign other than the sign for इ, seem to be a
272 minor variant or simplification of a pre-existing Indus sign. Indus script glyphs are
273 closer to Brahmi than Brahmi glyphs are to modern Devanagari script.
274 Table 6 is an accurate snapshot of the Indus signs chosen to be standardized into
275 Brahmi using the observation that retroflexes and dentals are interchangeable as a
276 group as are non-labial nasal consonants.

277 4.18. Religious continuity

278 We see several linguistic and cultural features that continued post Indus phase.
279 The Indus signs that have corresponding Vedic altars[14] are remarkably similar in
280 appearance shown in table 5
281 The deities in Indus inscriptions are the same as Vedic. Sun, Varuna, Soma,
282 Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Indra, Agni, Ushas, Ashlesha and Bharani constellations,
283 ashva, Ardhanareeshwara (seals depicting one breasted human), pipal tree, Sun
284 embryo, 5 elements पञ्चभूत continue to be revered to this day. Soma worship is
285 congruent with the vedic ritual, Viṣṇu as protector of sacrifice is congruent with the
286 Śivapurāṇa.

287 4.19. Vestiges of Indus linguistic forms

288 Iron pillar[15] presently in Qutub complex retains some of the archaic language
289 features of Indus inscriptions. It uses a lone consonant to represent a doubled
290 consonant (mūrtyā instead of mūrttyā) and the anusvara अं is denoted अन् as opposed
291 to अम् (pranśu instead of praṃśu). Indus script provides evidence that Qutub
292 inscription was not an aberration, but rather that अं was once read as अन् .
293 The many occurrences of इन्दर for इन्द्र in the Rig Veda could be influenced by the
294 schwa syncope syntax of Indus inscriptions.
295 The usage of common signs for अ-ए, अ-ओ aspirated-unaspirated dental-retroflex
296 and sibiliants-/h/ phonemes in a writing system with large number of signs may
297 point to the possibility that these were allophones at the time the writing system
298 was invented (4000-3700 BCE). Eventually they differentiated by having certain
299 words prefer one allophone, separating into individual phonemes. Sanskrit seems
300 to have retained vestigial evidence in the form of dozens of word pairs representing
301 pre-differentiation that can be found in any Sanskrit dictionary. Given that many of
302 these are verbs, its unlikely that they are borrowings or reborrowings and there is no
303 reasonable need to borrow a slightly changed existing word. This is speculative at
304 this point but may be a good candidate for further research.

17
 Aspirate Pair Meaning Sibiliant Pair Meaning
कद् खद् hurt; injure से ल् शे ल् shake; tremble
कल् खल् gather राश् रास् make noise
वख् वक् go; move अनु�षच् अनु�सच् to sprinkle
घुड् गुड् defend; guard अष् अस् shine
छु ड् चुड् conceal अवष्वन् अवस्वन् smack lips
छृ प् चृप् kindle अनुहृ अनुसृ follow
झट् जट् matted hair दह् दस् destroy
झॄ जॄ become old ग्रस् ग्रह् seize
थुव्� तुव्� hurt; seize �वश �वस lily fibres
उक्थ उक्त spoken �वस �वष lotus fibres
द�द द�ध giving
दन्व् धन्व् move Vowel Pair Meaning
मकुष्ठ मकुष्ट moving slowly पल् पे ल् go; move
रुठ् रुट् oppose; pain न�म ने �म edge
�भल् �बल् split कठर कठोर hard
कुम्भ् कुम्ब् cover छ छो cut
Table 12: Examples of vestigial allophone pairs in Sanskrit

305 4.20. Falsifiability

306 Anyone can attempt to falsify this decipherment with a dictionary of their choice.
307 The same decipherment sequence may be followed to save sign reachability analysis.
308 A successful decipherment in a language known to not exist in 2500 BCE such as
309 modern Arabic would be a ideal. A complete falsification using Arabic dictionary
310 would have the following attributes:
311 1. Sound values for all signs using cryptogram method.
312 2. Numeric strokes signs have appropriate value.
313 3. Allogram variants explained.
314 4. Longest 50 inscriptions are meaningfully readable.
315 5. Longest 2 inscriptions are verses in classical meter.
316 6. Inscriptions fall into one or more themes.
317 7. References to Islamic history, religious concepts and personalities.
318 8. A plausible derivation path from Indus script to Arabic.

18
319 5. Derivation
320 5.1. � त from त tail

� = त from initial guess (1)

321 5.2. � द from दण्डार bow

� = द from initial guess (2)

322 5.3. � अन् from अनुतष� drinking vessel

323 We take seals which have the � symbol with one or more of the known symbols
324 and perform a dictionary search. The seal identified as H-93 with the inscription ��
325 and B-8 with the inscription �� are good candidates.
326 Looking up the Monier-Williams dictionary, we find 478 words matching H-93,
327 i.e., ending in ध using regular expression3 /^(.+)Da$/ and 383 matching B-8, i.e.,
328 starting with त using the regular expression /^ta(.+)$/. Of these, only four matches
329 are for both seals4 : अन् | रद्| रु| व्य.

�� �� Intersection
आबध तबलाकृ�त
आबाध तच्छील
... ...
अन्ध तन् अन्
रद्ध तरद् रद्
रुध तरु रु
व्यध तव्य व्य
... ...
योध तष्ट
युद्ध तष्टृ

Table 13: Selected matches for � symbol

330 Only अन् matches a legitimate word when any of the four from Table 13 is
331 substituted for the � symbol in H-764 B ���, giving the word अननन् .

3
SLP-1 encoding only uses ASCII characters enabling regular expression match by any engine,
e.g.: perl -lane 'print "$1" if /^ta(.+)$/' mw.txt mwaux.txt
4
We omit the intersection tables for subsequent symbols except for non-ordinary cases.

19
 Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation
H-93 �� अन्ध darkness
B-8 �� तन् roar
H-764 B ��� अननन् the living one

� = अन् from 1, 2 (3)

332 5.4. � अ from आयु man

333 The regular expression used for M-191 is /^D(.+)\1$/ धा followed by a 2x repeated
334 pattern. This does not match आ by matching two consecutive अ in SLP-1 encoding
335 and requires special handling.

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-191 ��� धा to place
H-1771 ��� अतन pass on; wander

� = अ from 1, 2, 3 (4)

336 5.5. � इ from इषीक stalk of grain

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-87A ��� अ�ध above
H-2244B �� इध् ignite

� = इ from 2, 4 (5)

337 5.6. � श from शुक्र seed

338 Regular expression used to capture the repeat sequence followed by � in seal M-916
339 is /^(.+)a?\1i$/.

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-916A ��� श�श the Moon
M-482A ��� श�न Saturn

� = श् from 3, 5 (6)

20
340 5.7. � अ from आज�न stick

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1545 ��� ददा give
M-830A ���� आइ see

� = अ from 3, 4, 5 (7)

341 5.8. � न from नाल stalk

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-922a ��� अशन reaching across
M-812a ���� अनान् breathing, living

� = न from 3, 6, 7 (8)

342 5.9. �� ई from इइ

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1132a ��� नी leader/guide

�� = ई from 5, 8 (9)

343 5.10. � ज from झर waterfall; cascade

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-246B ��� � जान्धा custom

� = ज from 2, 3, 4 (10)

21
344 5.11. � र from रथ chariot

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-787B ��� रा�ध bountiful
M-1903a ���� धारण sustaining
H-305B � �� अरज dustless (pure)

� = र from 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10 (11)

345 5.12. � र from रद् split; fork

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1745A �� रज pollen
H-585A �� जर ancient
M-1170A �� ईर wind

� = र from 5, 10 (12)

346 5.13. � च from चतुर four

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

D-33544 �� रच create; compose
M-749A �� चर moving
H-215B �� चन् joy

� = च from 3, 12 (13)

347 5.14. � अ from अज horn

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

L-20a ��� अचर immovable
H-70a ��� अजर forever young
H-2173 ���� अर�ण kindling wood

� = अ from 3, 5, 10, 11, 12, 13 (14)

22
348 5.15. � म from मत्स्य fish

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-238a ��� मशन sound
M-1344A ��� मरण death
H-1192A ��� चमन sipping

� = म from 3, 6, 12, 13 (15)

349 5.16. ��व from �व two

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-292A �� र�व the Sun
H-651a � �� अ�वर immortal
M-982a �� � �वरण् play music
M-1297A � �� र�वष the Sun embryo

�= �व from 3, 6, 7, 11 (16)

350 5.17. � र from रथपद chariot wheel

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1119a �� ��� अन् र�वषन् the living, Sun embryo
H-829a � �� अ�वर immortal

� = र from 3, 4, 6, 16 (17)

351 5.18. � ब|भ from भक्षपत्र betel leaf

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-311A �� ��� भानवी Sun’s rays

� = ब from 5, 8, 16 (18)

23
352 5.19. � अक from आयु + काष्ठ composite man + wood
353 This symbol also occurs as आज�न + काष्ठ composite �.

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-211A ���� ��� भा�व माख worshipping with oblation

� = अक from 4, 7, 15, 16, 18 (19)

354 5.20. � अ from अङ्क curve

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1288a ���� अकान silence
M-511B ��� � जा नाभ born in the center

� = अ from 3, 4, 10, 18, 19 (20)

355 5.21. � �न|�ण from अ�ण point of arrow; nail

356 The word शमनी is attested as both ��� and ���� (M-1781a) illustrating that
357 long vowels may be written as short when unambiguous. Usage in �� म�ण is illustrates
358 that retroflex usage is implied in context.

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1781A ��� शमनी night
H-1879A �� � जजनी victorious woman

� = �न|�ण from 6, 10, 15 (21)

359 5.22. � अस् |अश् from अष्टापद eight legged; spider

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1513 �� असन् blood
B-1A ��� ����� ररस्न �वमान Sun traversing the sky

� = अस् |अश् from 3, 4, 8, 15, 16, 17 (22)

24
360 5.23. � अम from अङ्क + मत्स्य composite curve + fish
361 The symbol � placed rotated above �. This vertical assembly occurs with other
362 symbols as well.

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-686a ��� शमनी night
M-748a ��� अम�ष untainted

� = म from 5, 6, 21, 22 (23)

363 5.24.� न from नळ reed

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-59A ��� अश्नन् voracious one
M-1118A ��� नमन salute

� = न from 3, 15, 22 (24)

364 5.25. � न from नाव boat

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1359a ��� नज�न unborn (motherless)
M-928a ��� अनाम unnamed;heat

� = न from 7, 10, 21, 23 (25)

365 5.26. � य from यव+आज�न composite barley + stick

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1953A ����� स्मयमा�न smiling

� = य from 6, 15, 21 (26)

25
366 5.27. � य from यवश्रे �ष्ठ grain merchant
367 This symbol also occurs as � �.
Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation
H-81A �� जय victory
M-209A ��� मान्य respected

� = य from 3, 10, 15 (27)

368 5.28. � व from वण्ड spear

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-586A ��� वरण choice
M-137A ���� नरवन forest human
M-999A ����� वमनमन salutations to Sun
M-514B ��� नजव unhurried

� = व from 3, 10, 11, 15, 17, 24, 25 (28)

369 5.29. � क from काष्ठ wood

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-300B ��� रणक delights in battle
M-134A ��� कवर blended/inlaid/braided

� = क from 8, 11, 28 (29)

370 5.30. � अ from अङ्क boldface variant of curve �

371 Regular expressions used were /S(.+)n/, /m(.+)n/, /j(.+)n/. Boldface vari-
372 ants all symbols are seen to be identical to their regular versions.
Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation
M-917a ��� शान् sharpen
M-945a ��� मान् honor/worship
M-1482a �� � � नजान unborn

� = आ from 3, 6, 10, 15, 25 (30)

26
373 5.31. �� आ from अङ्क variant of curve �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1897A ����� मा�न respected
H-240A ������ स्मवान् the complete one
L-111a ����� अम मान् powerful worship

�� = आ from 3, 5, 6, 15, 23, 28 (31)

374 5.32. � अ from अङ्क variant of curve �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1030a ����� �� र�व आखान Sun, the hero

� = आ from 3, 4, 11, 16, 19 (32)

375 5.33. � म from मदार मस्त variant of elephant head �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-665a ���� कम् चर good conduct
H-2090B ��� रम्र splendour
H-2040 ���� अस्म सन् our prayer

� = म from 3, 6, 11, 12, 13, 17, 22, 29 (33)

376 5.34. � म from मय variant of horse �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1989b ���� मानक measure
M-624 ���� मद अश् obtain joy
M-1233a ��� म�ण gem

� = म from 2, 3, 4, 5, 20, 22, 29 (34)

27
377 5.35. � न from नलप��का reed mat
378 The regular expression used for M-401a allows all vowels after � since there are
379 no words beginning with जश् .

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-382A ��� आनन face
H-1682 � � �� � जनन जय birth of victory

� = न from 4, 10, 27 (35)

380 5.36. � व from वरण्ड lamp wick

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-925A ��� नवन praising
M-1689a ��� वश्य dutiful

� = व from 6, 24, 27 (36)

381 5.37. � श from शाखमृग squirrel

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1080a ��� शाखन् branch (Kartikeya)
M-1829a �� श�न Saturn
H-1830a �� शय sleeping
L-35A ��� मशन noise

� = श from 3, 15, 19, 21, 27 (37)

382 5.38. � म from म�न्दर dwelling; temple

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-832a ��� शमन soothing
H-892B ���� शमनी night
M-1115a ��� �� र�वम् मान् honor the Sun

� = अम् from 3, 5, 11, 15, 16, 37 (38)

28
383 5.39. � र from रक्तफल Indian fig
384 This symbol also occurs as �.

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1975A ����� कम् तरण desiring heaven
M-1908a �� रण pleasure
H-289A ��� चरण feet
M-2024a ���� समरण war

� = र from 1, 3, 6, 13, 29, 33, 38 (39)

385 5.40. � द from डमरु hourglass drum

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1740 �� दद give
M-1088 �� �� र�वदान gift of the Sun
L-112 ��� ��� वद�व नरान् injury remover of men

� = द from 3, 8, 16, 17, 36, 39 (40)

386 5.41. � अ from अयुग one

387 The regular expression used for M-865a is /^r(.*)ma.*$/.

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-865a ������ राममान pleasing show of respect
M-1177A ��� �� र�व अरण distant Sun

� = अ from 3, 4, 11, 15, 16, 17, 23, 39 (41)

388 5.42. � द from दण्डार variant of bow �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-150a ����� ददद अन्त thunderous end
C-15a ���� आ�द अन् first breath

� = द from 1, 3, 5, 7 (42)

29
389 5.43. � य from यव barley

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

Dholavira ASI 16261 � � �� ��� आ�वया अजय pass through to victory
M-218A ��� य�म (Yama’s) twin sister
H-48A �� जय victory
M-1322a ��� अजय undefeated/invincible

� = य from 4, 5, 7, 10, 14, 15, 16, 41 (43)

390 5.44. � र from रद splitting

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

D-9093 �� ���� सन् अ�वचर unwavering in prayer
M’daro 84-2 �� वीर hero
M-361 ��� अरर door

� = र from 3, 4, 13, 16, 17, 37, 41 (44)

391 5.45. � द from डमरु variant of hourglass drum �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-619A �� दाव fire
H-844A �� � �वदान knowing, wise
M-190 ���� वदवय remover of injury

� = द|ड from 3, 10, 16, 27, 28 (45)

392 5.46. � त from ताडु ल्य drum

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-228A ��� मथन् churn
M-459A �� तन् extend
M-2079A �� तदा ever since

� = त from 3, 15, 45 (46)

30
393 5.47. � म from मदारमस्त elephant head

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-286a ��� नामन् name
M-100a ���� �� र�वनमन Sun salutation
H-921A ��� तमन् the dark one

� = म from 1, 3, 4, 11, 15, 16, 25 (47)

394 5.48. � त from ताडु ल fighter

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1743A ����� शान्तधार peace keeper
H-1666A ������ तान आय rising tone (music)

� = त from 3, 4, 7, 12, 27, 37, 45 (48)

395 5.49. � स from सप्त seven

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-673 �� सर moving
Krs-2 ��� समन् come to life
H-9 �� सम equal
H-296 ������ दासमा�न respected servant

� = स from 3, 5, 12, 15, 34, 41, 42 (49)

396 5.50. � र from रथपद variant of wheel �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-668A �� रण् rejoice
H-841A ��� रानी queen
H-1951A ��� � � रजस् नाना various colors

� = र from 3, 5, 10, 22, 35 (50)

31
397 5.51. � श from शाखमृग variant of squirrel �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1202A ������� दशरण्यकन् ten kings
H-771 ��� दाश्व donor

� = श from 3, 19, 26, 28, 45, 50 (51)

398 5.52. � प|फ from पा�ण hand

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-443A ���� अमापन immeasurable
H-758A ��� पाकन् young/innocent
M-967A ����� म परी cycle of seasons
H-101a ��� पारण carrying over
D-19655 �� � � यजफर protector of sacrifice

� = प from 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 15, 19, 39, 43 (52)

399 5.53. � द from दन्त teeth

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-326c ��� दद दा give and protect
H-2336 ���� मादन exhilarating
H-86a ��� अद�न eating

� = द from 3, 7, 14, 15, 21, 45 (53)

400 5.54. � म from मय horse

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1444B �� माख sacrificial
M-1955 ���� �� र�व समादर venerated Sun

� = म from 6, 12, 16, 17, 29, 42 (54)

32
401 5.55. � म from मय variant of horse �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

L-52a �� अश्म mountain
M-965a ������ मानव वरन् blessed man

� = म from 3, 12, 22, 28, 36 (55)

402 5.56. � अ from आज�न variant of stick �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-950a ���� माखन् sacrificial food
M-97A ��� माय illusion
M-189a ��� शान touchstone
L-11a ������ �� र�व अश्रम नव diligent Sun worship

� = अ from 3, 16, 17, 22, 25, 27, 29, 36, 37, 47 (56)

403 5.57. � ल from लता lightning; lash of whip

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-13a ���� दालन decay/destruction
H-390a ���� अमल रम unadulterated joy
M-183A ���� लम् मा�न delight in honor

� = ल from 2, 4, 8, 15, 17, 21, 23, 33, 55 (57)

404 5.58. � त from ताल small cymbal

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1097A ��� तमत desired
M-831A �� यत restrained/governed
M-150a �� तन् posterity

� = त from 1, 3, 26, 54 (58)

33
405 5.59. � अन् from अनुतष� variant of drinking vessel �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-450a ������ � जानन् माखन् knowing sacrificial (rites)
M-1787a �� ��� अ�न्वतन् inherent

� = अन् from 1, 3, 10, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20 (59)

406 5.60. � अ from अग mountain

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-139A ��� अरण refuge
H-157A ��� आनय bringing (sacred thread)
M-1307a ��� अदन eating food

� = अ from 3, 8, 11, 27, 35, 53 (60)

407 5.61. � भ from भक्षत्र oven

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-136A �� � �� मञ्जाभर full of shining
M-742A ������ आभाम् वरा splendorous gift
M-1777a ��� सभान् council
M-492A ����� म शुभान brilliant light

� = भ from 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 15, 20, 25, 28, 33, 49 (61)

408 5.62. � ष from षष् six

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-98A �� ��� शमनीदर nightfall
M-1314A ����� आन शर blowpipe dart
H-514a ��� �� र�वसमय Sun time (dawn)

� = ष from 3, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 27, 41, 42 (62)

34
409 5.63. � श from शुक्र chitraka flower �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-2033A ����� दशरथ य ten chariots moving
M-1095a ���� अम मशन powerful sound

� = श् from 3, 11, 15, 23, 27, 42, 48 (63)

410 5.64. � उ from उद्यम coil of rope

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1773A ���� उदरन् large bellied one (Indra)
Ad-5A ��� उदय dawn

� = उ from 3, 27, 39, 53 (64)

411 5.65. � स from �शखर mountaintop

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-441a ��� समान equal
H-201A ���� मसरान् lentil; intoxicating beverage

� = स from 3, 15, 38, 39 (65)

412 5.66. � व from वरट wasp

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-212A � ��� वा�णज merchant
M-948A � � ��� अव �वजय desiring victory

� = व from 3, 5, 7, 10, 16, 43 (66)

35
413 5.67. � क from खट axe; plough

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-3a ��� ���� अन्न क�व सभान् banquet for the wise
M-56A �������� दाक अस्म अम वरण grant us a powerful protector
H-1076a ��� �� र�वनाकन् Sun in heavens
D-signboard ���������� रक वरारक अररस् diamond gem entrance

� = क from 3,7,11, 16,17,22,23, 25,28,29,33, 35,45,49,50, 61,59,66 (67)

414 5.68. � क from खट variant of axe; plough �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1889A ����� कान्दर mining products
H-1987A ������ वङ्कस् चर flowing riverbend
M-1684a ��� अकर tax-exempt

� = क from 3, 7, 12, 13, 36, 45, 63 (68)

415 5.69. � प from पञ्चन् five

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1909A � ����� अश्व �वपण horse store
M-1202C ���� आदापः towards payment

� = प from 4, 7, 8, 16, 20, 36, 45, 63 (69)

416 5.70. � द from डमरु variant of hourglass drum �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-78 ���� धावमान running

� = ध from 3, 28, 54 (70)

36
417 5.71. � छ from छत्त्र mushroom

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1148 �� छन्न private
M-1129 �� ���� दशाञ्च दान ten goosebump-worthy gifts
H-530a ���� अ�छ�न्न undivided
H-642 ������ � जटधा अचला Shiva’s mountains

� = छ from 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 21, 35, 40, 41, 42, 57, 58, 63 (71)

418 5.72. � भ from भक्षपत्र betel leaf

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1850A ���� भर�ण N. stellar mansion
M-213A �� ��� मर �वभन् appear as death
H-5a �������� नाथ दव भाषण दा lord of fire, speech
and heat (Agni)

� = भ from 3, 5, 8, 12, 16, 22, 25, 28, 39, 42, 48, 54 (72)

419 5.73. � अ from अङ्क variant of curve �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-331 ���� आभास splendour

� = अ from 65, 72 (73)

420 5.74. � त from तरु tree; ladles

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1913 � �� र�वत rain
M-741A �� तय protector

� = त from 11, 16, 27 (74)

37
421 5.75. � म from मदार मस्त variant of elephant head �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1826a ��� दमनी subdued; nightshade
M-1961a �� �� र�वमृ killed by Sun

� = म from 11, 12, 16, 21, 42 (75)

422 5.76. � क from खट variant of axe; plough �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-152a ��� खशय sky; heavens
unknown �� ��� काशानन shining face

� = क from 3, 6, 22, 27, 41 (76)

423 5.77. � ध from धात्र receptacle

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

Ch-5A ��� ��� अनल�वधातान् fire, the creator
BM-123208 ����� छदाश्य covered food

� = ध from 3, 6, 16, 26, 41, 48, 57, 71 (77)

424 5.78. � झ from झ rain and wind

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1308a ������ चर अजवन slow movement
H-57a ���� अजय undefeated
M-836A ��� ज�न woman/wife
M-1848a �� जव speed

� = झ from 3, 5, 8, 12, 13, 20, 27, 28, 41 (78)

38
425 5.79. � म from मय variant of horse �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-648A �������� अमानव मखान्न divine sacrificial food
H-1706A � � ��� मल्ल �वजर strong and young
H-6A ������ भारव अधम bowstring base
K-40A �� ����� धामधा र�व अर Sun, creator of time

� = म from 2,3,4, 7,10,11, 12,15,16, 18,19,20, 28,39,41, 45,57,77 (79)

426 5.80. � त from तद� Indian blackbird

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1204 ����� म माता mother’s welfare
M-214 ����� राता इ ; रा�त ready to go; grant
M-1896 ��� ततर that one of two

� = त from 5, 11, 17, 20, 47, 73, 79 (80)

427 5.81. � म from मदारमस्त variant of elephant head �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-810a ��� आमन affection
M-308A �� ��� मम �वमा�न my specially respected

� = म from 3, 15, 16, 20, 21, 79 (81)

428 5.82. � क from कोष्ठ inner room

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-306A �������� रमण शशाङ्क husband (of night), Moon

� = क from 3, 6, 11, 20, 22, 81 (82)

39
429 5.83. � त from त्र three

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1711 ��� ��� कान्तदान delightful gift
H-1713 ��� � रतजय pleasing victory
H-351 ����� तमवा�ण night message

� = त from 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 28, 33, 43, 45, 68 (83)

430 5.84. � उ from उद्भट tortoise

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1923 ������ शु अपरन् unrivalled elegance
M-1224 ����� उषा री warmth of dawn
Unknown ����� � � उज्झ् मतं मा�न relinquish proud opinions

� = उ from 3, 4, 5, 10, 12, 15, 21, 39, 47, 52, 58, 62, 75 (84)

431 5.85. � उ from उद्भट variant of tortoise �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-720 �� उन्न kind; humane
H-149 �� � ���� �� र�वम तुञ्ज तर sunlight and thunderbolt

� = उ from 1, 3, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 25, 46 (85)

432 5.86. � अ|ए from अयुग|एक one

433 अयुग is also used as एक since both words mean ”one”.

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1087A ����� आश्ले षम moon in Hydra constellation

� = अ|ए from 22, 55, 57 (86)

40
434 5.87. � अष् |अश् from अष्टम eight

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-283A �� अशर invulnerable
H-818 ��� अश्मन् sky

� = अष् |अश् from 3, 12, 38 (87)

435 5.88. � न from नव nine

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-4a ���� अन्तम final
Dholavira �� नय conduct
H-23a ����� नरशाकन् powerful man

� = न from 1, 3, 12, 15, 19, 20, 27, 37 (88)

436 5.89. � र from रथ variant of chariot �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-24a ��� � �� मनज शरण desired refuge
M-255a ��� मरण death
M-1366A ����� तरस् तन् swift and enduring

� = र from 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 25, 37 (89)

437 5.90. � य from य�ष्ट pearl necklace

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-465A ���� आयान arrival
M-324b �� यान travel
M-99A �� ���� राणा �वयान king journey out

� = य from 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 16 (90)

41
438 5.91. � य from य�ष्ट twig; arm

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1922 ������� आस्म आममया�न we were raw
M-290a ��� यमी (Yama’s) twin sister

� = य from 3, 5, 15, 22, 23, 54 (91)

439 5.92. � क from खट variant of axe; plough �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-90A ����� पश्य नाक observe the heavens
C-6 ��� ����� ��� आ�व अमान ककर pain and dishonor on bird
(sacrificial victim of Asvamedha)

� = क from 3, 4, 7, 8, 15, 16, 17, 20, 22, 52, 60, 73, 91 (92)

440 5.93. � झ from झ variant of rain; waterfall �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1691a ������� जन्म मखन् born lively
K-30A �� जज warrior

� = झ from 3, 15, 29, 47, 56, 78 (93)

441 5.94. � ग|घ from गडु र|गडु bent; spear

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1924A ��� गजस् elephant
M-1749a ����� गदाश्म club made of stone
M-972a ���� गान song
Allahdino-4A ������ घनम् आसन sit close by

� = ग from 2, 3, 4, 7, 10, 15, 22, 23, 49, 60, 63 (94)

42
442 5.95. � म from मदारमस्त boar head

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1850a ��� �� र�व नमन worship the Sun
H-391 ������ धामम् मान् worship Dhāmas
M-285 ��� �� र�व मचम् Sun worship

� = म from 3, 7, 11, 15, 16, 23, 24, 33, 42, 71 (95)

443 5.96. � द from दण्डार variant of bow �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-7a ������ ददा एकपद gift of Shiva
M-331a ������� अम अदभ चाप bow to powerful and benevolent
M-159A ������� मदन सन् intoxicating worship

� = द from 3, 13, 14, 18, 20, 29, 34, 41, 40, 49, 53, 69, 73, 75 (96)

444 5.97. � द from दण्डार variant of bow �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-91 ����� कम् दमनी desire satisfier
M’daro 84-6 �� दव wood

� = द from 21, 29, 33, 36, 75 (97)

445 5.98. � म from मन्दार hibiscus flower

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1411 ��� समान honored
H-950 ���� वमसम evenly emitting
M-760 ����� मनस्यम controlled mind

� = म from 3, 6, 15, 26, 28, 49, 63 (98)

43
446 5.99. � श|स|ष from शस repeating

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-260A ���� �� र�व शमन tranquil Sun
H-472a ����� ऋषभन् bull

� = श|स|ष from 3, 4, 11, 15, 16, 17, 20, 61 (99)

447 5.100. � उष् |उश् from उद्भट + अष्टापद composite turtle + spider

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-628a ��� ���� अस् खल �वमूषण live in a theft-free land
H-1708A ��� तुष्व tranquil
M-1262a ������� भ भूषण चर eminent decorated conduct

� = उष् |उश् from 3, 12, 13, 15, 16, 22, 29, 36, 41, 46, 57, 61 (100)

448 5.101. � त from तण्डु ल rice plant

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

B-28 ��� चलत् moving
D-26514 ����� यत अना restrained indeed

� = त from 3, 4, 27, 57, 71 (101)

449 5.102. � श|स from �शखर mountaintop

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

Ns-79 �� � �वश्व universal
M-2063 ��� शान् sharpen

� = श|स from 3, 4, 16, 28 (102)

44
450 5.103. � श|स from �शखर variant of mountaintop �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-264a ��� शासन् destroyer (Indra)
L-98A ����� शशय मा�न abundantly respected
M-1709a ��� �� र�व मासक solar month

� = श|स from 3, 11, 15, 16, 21, 26, 82 (103)

451 5.104. � ल from लता creeper

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-751A ��� लालक playful
Dholavira ����� कमल अस्र lotus juice

� = ल from 12, 22, 29, 33 (104)

452 5.105. � श from शुक्र variant of chitraka flower �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-241a ������� सभान्दावन given to council
M-1674a ������ ��� शर�व मन मान respect protector’s honor
(शरव = protector, Shiva)

� = श from 3, 4, 8, 11, 15, 16, 28, 45, 61, 73 (105)

453 5.106. � म from मदारमस्त variant of elephant head�

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-34A ��� ���� तम र�व समान like sun at night
M-43a ��� ��� मज्ज �वमसन healing bath
M-1823A �� ��� �� अम अ�वचर powerful and steady

� = म from 3, 7, 12, 13, 15, 16, 22, 32, 37, 38, 78, 101 (106)

45
454 5.107. � व from वट banyan tree

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1397 ���� मानव human
M-101 ���� �� र�व वानर forest Sun

� = व from 3, 11, 12, 16, 25, 32, 60, 79 (107)

455 5.108. � स from शशाद falcon

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-222a ��� मयस् delight
M-6 ���� सन रार delighting in prayer

� = स from 8, 11, 17, 47, 91 (108)

5.109. ट from ट hollowed coconut

�

456

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-2118 ���� शयचपट palm with extended fingers
�

= ट from 6, 13, 27, 69 (109)

�

457 5.110. � अस् |अश् from अष्टापद variant of spider �

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-976 ����� रनाकस् heat of the sky

� = अस् from 8, 11, 29, 41 (110)

458 5.111. � ओ from ओपश tuft of hair

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

H-1924 ��� ओजस् vigour

� = ओ from 10, 22 (111)

46
459 5.112. � ह from ह स = ह

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

M-1705 ��� अमहन् splendor
M-1845 ��� अमहन् splendor
M-445 ��� अमहन् splendor
H-474 ����� असहाम् sternal

� = ह from 3, 6, 20, 22, 23, 37, 65 (112)

47
460 6. Derivation Sequence

Indus Sanskrit Name

1 1 � त त tail
2 2 � ध दण्डार bow
3 3 � अन् अनुतष� drinking vessel
4 4 � अ आयु man
5 5 � इ इषीक stalk of grain
6 6 � श शुक्र seed
7 7 � अ आज�न stick
8 8 � न नाल stalk
9 9 �� ई इ+इ composite
10 10 � ज झर waterfall; cascade
11 11 � र रथ chariot
12 12 � र रद् split; fork
13 13 � च चतुर four
14 14 � अ अज horn
15 15 � म मत्स्य fish
16 16 � �व �व two
17 17 � र रथपद chariot wheel
18 18 � ब|भ भक्षपत्र betel leaf
19 19 � अक आयु + काष्ठ composite man + wood
20 20 � अ अङ्क curve
21 21 � �न|�ण अ�ण point of arrow; nail
22 22 � अष् |अश् अष्टापद eight legged; spider
23 23 � अम अङ्क + मत्स्य composite curve + fish
24 24 � न नळ reed
25 25 � न नाव boat
26 26 � य यव+आज�न composite barley + stick
27 27 � य यवश्रे �ष्ठ grain merchant
28 28 � व वण्ड spear
29 29 � क काष्ठ wood
30 30 � अ अङ्क boldface variant of curve �
31 31 �� आ अङ्क variant of curve �
32 32 � आ अङ्क variant of curve �
33 33 � म मदारमस्त variant of elephant head �
34 34 � म मय variant of horse �
35 35 � न नलप��का reed mat
36 36 � व वरण्ड lamp wick
37 37 � शा शाखमृग squirrel

48
 Indus Sanskrit Name
38 38 � म म�न्दर dwelling; temple
39 39 � र रक्तफल Indian fig
40 40 � द डमरु hourglass drum
41 41 � अ अयुग one
42 42 � द दण्डार variant of bow �
43 43 � य यव्य barley field
44 44 � र रद splitting
45 45 � द डमरु variant of hourglass drum �
46 46 � त ताडु ल drum
47 47 � म मदारमस्त elephant head
48 48 � त ताडु ल fighter
49 49 � स सप्त seven
50 50 � र रथ chariot wheel
51 51 � श शाखमृग variant of squirrel �
52 52 � प पा�ण hand
53 53 � द दन्त teeth
54 54 � म मय horse
55 55 � म मय variant of horse �
56 56 � अ आज�न variant of stick �
57 57 � ल लता lightning; lash of whip
58 58 � त ताल small cymbal
59 59 � अन् अनुतष� variant of drinking vessel �
60 60 � अ अग mountain
61 61 � भ भक्षत्र oven
62 62 � ष षष् six
63 63 � श शुक्र chitraka flower �
64 64 � उ उद्यम coil of rope
65 65 � स �शखर mountaintop
66 66 � व वरट wasp
67 67 � क खट axe; plough
68 68 � क खट variant of axe; plough �
69 69 � प पञ्चन् five
70 70 � द डमरु variant of hourglass drum �
71 71 � छ छत्त्र mushroom
72 72 � भ भक्षपत्र betel leaf
73 73 � अ अङ्क variant of curve �
74 74 � त तरु tree; ladles
75 75 � म मदार मस्त variant of elephant head �
76 76 � क खट variant of axe; plough �

49
 Indus Sanskrit Name
77 77 � ध धात्र receptacle
78 78 � झ झ rain and wind
79 79 � म मय variant of horse �
80 80 � त तद� Indian blackbird
81 81 � म मदारमस्त variant of elephant head �
82 82 � क कोष्ठ inner room
83 83 � त्र त्र three
84 84 � उ उद्भट tortoise
85 85 � उ उद्भट variant of tortoise �
86 86 � अ|ए अइक|एक one
87 87 � अष् |अश् अष्टम eight
88 88 � न नव nine
89 89 � र रथ variant of chariot �
90 90 � य य�ष्ट pearl necklace
91 91 � य य�ष्ट twig; arm
92 92 � क खट variant of axe; plough �
93 93 � झ झ variant of rain; waterfall �
94 94 � ग|घ गडु र|गडु bent; spear
95 95 � म मदारमस्त boar head
96 96 � द दण्डार variant of bow �
97 97 � द दण्डार variant of bow �
98 98 � म मन्दार hibiscus flower
99 99 � श|स|ष शस repeating
100 100 � उष् |उश् उद्भट + अष्टापद composite turtle + spider
101 101 � त तण्डु ल rice plant
102 102 � श|स �शखर mountaintop
103 103 � श|स �शखर variant of mountaintop �
104 104 � ल लता creeper
105 105 � श शुक्र variant of chitraka flower �
106 106 � म मदारमस्त variant of elephant head�
107 107 � व वट banyan tree
108 108 � स शशाद falcon
ट ट hollowed coconut
�

109 109

110 110 � अस् |अश् अष्टापद variant of spider �

111 111 � ओ ओपश tuft of hair
112 112 � ह ह स=ह

50
461 7. Variants and Composite signs
462 Variants are stylistic and abstracted evolution of symbols. Composite signs combine two
463 or more signs and are read as adjacent signs: firstly in the direction of writing, secondly top
464 to bottom and lastly the base character followed by ligatured character.

465 1. Ligatured symbols that are simply touching but otherwise written in normal size and
466 position are read as normal. For example, � is simply read as ���.
467 2. Symbols arranged vertically are read top to bottom. � is read as �� �र as opposed to �
468 which is read as �� ईर
469 3. The base character, i.e., the large character is read first and the embedded character
470 is read subsequent. � becomes �� रस् . The terminal � अन् sign can make a useful
471 exception and retain terminal position, i.e., � may be read as �� रन्

Sign Variant Seal-ID Inscription Sanskrit Translation

1 � � स H-967A ���� अश्व आनी leading horse
2 � � स H-916 ���� अश्व आनी leading horse
3 � � स H-917 ���� अश्व आनी leading horse
4 � � ज M-1848 �� जव swift
5 ��� �� आ M-1151 ������� आननमन breath salute
6 � � � � तास M-1721 �� �� र�वतासन pray loudly
7 � �� �ज M-409 ��� स�ञ्ज complete victory
8 � �� जर M-898 �� जरक digestive
9 �� ��� अना M-812 ��� अनान् indeed
10 � � म H-2125 ����� मान् worship
11 � � म H-64 ���� मदमा�न joyfully worshipped
12 � � म M-523 ��� वमर exuding heat
13 � ��� अमा RGR-7230 �� अमा�न modest
14 � � अक H-1410→ ��� अकवम generous light
15 � �� अक M-203 ������ माख अनवरन् excellent sacrifice
16 � �� अकन M-800 ������� चकान अनाश नमन bow to living sun
17 � �� आक M-1887 ���� माम् आकन् my praise
18 � �� आ M-123 ���� मनाइ to devotion
19 � � अ M-403 ���� अ�नतर steady warmth
20
�
� � अ M-875→ ����� आम्र mango
21 � � अ H-777 ��� अचर immovable
22 � �� अन L-218 ��� अनवम superior
23 � � र H-212 ��� र�य wealth
24 ��� ��� य अय M-288 ��������� य अयनन् शरण go to shelter site

51
 Sign Variant Seal-ID Inscription Sanskrit Translation
25 � � म D-51582 ���� आभाम् उष beautiful dawn
26 � ��� दाद Umma �� ��� दाद न�व चर grant laudable conduct
27 � � य M-1628 ��� नयद protector
28 � � य H-951 ���� वनयव wild grain
29 � � य M-831 �� यत controlled
30 � � य H-455 � � � ��� वाय �वन्न ज�न married woman’s guide
31 � � अ H-829→ � �� अ�वर immortal
32 � � अश् H-1994 ��� बाणस् arrow
33 � ��� नमा H-1869 ��� नमान्य praised and respected
34 � �� असल M-1724 � ���
� असलभा जय have conquering arms
35 � � अश् H-1841 ���� मस् दान् measured and cut
36 � � भ M-331 ���� आभास splendour
37 � � च H-214 ���� �चनी lead altar maker
38 � �� अर K-45 ���� यापन अर swift support
39 � � र Salut �� ��� वय �वचर powerful exit
40 � �� �र Desalpur �� ��� अन्ध�ववा�र darkness remover
41 � �� अश M-219 �� अश्म mountain
42 � �� आल M-331 ����� �� आल�वव नमन salute excellent dawn
43 � �� सार D-9824 ���� �� सर�व अमा मञ्ज Sun shining powerfully
44 � �� बद्ध K-53 � बद्ध bound
45 � �� अम M-896 ������ अमावाय young leader
46 � � न H-295 �� वन forest
47 � �� ईर M-1170 � ईर wind
48 � � उ M-20 �� ����� उदशर �वपर sugarcane exchange
49 ↑ � म H-2575 ↑� वम emit
50 � �� आशस् K-17 �� आशसन् desire
51 � �� दा H-7 ������ ददा एकपद Shiva’s gift
52 �� �� दा H-1662 ����� �� � धा�वत तान rush into expanse
53 � � उष् M-2088 �� उष्म hot season
54 � �� अ�श H-679 �� श�श moon
55 � �� मर M-2012 ��� �� मर �वपान death without drink
56 � �� मी M-649 �� मीर ocean
57 � �� अक M-1764 ��� अस्माक our
58 � �� कर M-57 ������ �� करवी अश्मव नमन Asafoetida resin rock
59 � �� कद M-261 ���� कदा तन् when faith
60 � �� रन् H-1988 ������ इमम् रञ्जन this color
61 � �� रन् H-172 ����� पा�ण धरण marriage

52
 Sign Variant Seal-ID Inscription Sanskrit Translation
62 � �� अन्न C-68 ����� अन्न रराण ज let food be bountiful
63 � �� आम H-449 ������� आमरणम् वरन् lifelong groom
64 � ���� ईशन् M-1548 ��� सस ईशन् praise the lord
65 � ��� अन्तर M-639 ���� ��� अन्तर अ�श्वयान मान distance by horse
66 � � र K-18 �� ��� तद् �वरल so scarce
67 � � आर M-713 ����� �� आ र�व दश नमन ten salutes to Sun
68 � �� रा M-84 ������ धन अमरान् wealth to immortals
69 � �� रच C-13 ����� रचम् वमम् emitter’s creation
70 � �� तर H-1192 ����� तमत रा�ण desired queen
71 � �� त्र M-360 ����� अमत्रदान powerful gift
72 � ��� रक्त M-1759 ��� �� रक्त �वद्वान् passionate scholar
73 � �� रस् H-598 ��� ���� रश्मा �वमतन् rein hostility
74 � � र H-510 ����� रम वरन् delightful choice
75 � �� आर M-83 ��� आर अश्र corner angle
76 � � ध M-1793 ������ धामव नमन salute the powerful
77 � �� रक M-120 � ������ मदन बाकन् रक heron enjoys rain
78 � �� रण M-1771 ���� रणान् भान delightful appearance
79 � �� रारा M-1154 ������ पाशम�ण रारा gift of gem necklace
80 � ��� री H-1033→ ��� ��� मा�न �वरी व honor the destroyer
81 � � र H-405 ���� �� र�वष नामन salute sun embryo
82 � ���� ई�र M-151 ��� ई�रणम् desert
83 � � र L-48↔ �������� रणव नमन रक battle prayer to Sun
84 � � र H-299 ��� रणव delightful
85 � �� �र M-918 �� �� र�व रीर Sun (is) Shiva
86 � � र M-1424→ ����� रणबाध war risk
87 � � र H-2214→ ���� रवमय noisy
88 � � अश् M-243 ����� प्रथस्वध expansive destruction
89 � � अ H-792 ��� अ�य vocative particle
90 � � अ M-73 ��� आनी to lead
91 � � अ M-210 ��� अरण refuge
92 � �� ना M-1277 �� नाव boat
93 � �� जस् Ns-4 �� यजस् sacrifice rite
94 � � य C-40 �������� समर रप्य तर through battle injury
95 � ��� साक्ष M-1342 ����� सभासक्षण council at leisure
96 � ��� नाशन M-975 ���� नाशन अनल साक्ष see destructive fire
97 � � साताम् H-325 �� सत्रम् riches
98 � �� ना M-747 ���� ना नाशक knowing destruction

53
 Sign Variant Seal-ID Inscription Sanskrit Translation
99 � ��� अर�व M-1105 � अर�व resembling the Sun
100 � �� आप H-413 � आप water
101 � �� अम M-18 ��� जानम् birth
102 � �� अम M-954 ���� मम नाम my name
103 � � अश् H-1049 �� �� अ�श्वचर on horseback
104 � � क H-66 ���� कामन न desire prosperity
105 � � क H-513 ��� कषण unripe
106 � � अश् H-1513 �� अशन् firmament
107 � � अश् M-821 �� अश्म mountain
108 � � क H-74 � ���� वदा क�व eloquent and wise
109 � �� आभा M-742 ����� आभाम् वरा splendorous, eminent
110 /� \ ��� अदा Ad-6 � �\��� तदा अनदाम
/ then generous
111 � � द H2048 �� मद passion
112 � �� वा H-2192 ����� दवामतन् painless
113 �
�� � द M-777 � ���� अश्मनीद
�� mountainous place
114 � � न M-986 ��� नरान् for men
115 � � क M-1367 �� कर the doer
116 � �� रा K-122 ��� रराम delight in
117 � � अन् M-89 ����� अमवान् उन्न powerful and kind
118 � � न H-228 ����� नायी female leader
119 � � म M-899 ��� मय य moving horse
120 � � त H-142 �������� कामतात आतन् Shiva pervades
121 � � श M-207 �� शद edible plant (fruit)
122 �/ � त K-11 ���� / � अटाय दान mendicant offering
123 � �� त C-8 ����� मदन मशन intoxicating sound
124 � �� व उष M-1106 ��� नव उष द new dawn giver
125 � �� बत Frm-1329 �� बत न not weak
126 � � क M-68↔ �� ������ दमन सन काम subdue old desire
127 � �� लल M-751A �� लालक playful
128 � �� पा H-1024 ���� मवपान watery drink
129 � � व MS-5062 ���� अवभास् shining
130 � �� धी M-605 � धी splendour
131 �� �� रक K-15/2 ����� अरकार speed maker
132 � � त M-1082 �� ��� त�न्व अमत्त calm woman
133 � � त M-1792 ������ अन्तं मरण until death
134 � � म Louvre �������� आमज्ज अयतस् unrestrained ascent
Table 15: Variants and Composite signs

54
472 8. Long and unusual inscriptions

copper plate उ�ष्णक् तथा नममपर सनापता पानाञ्ज ।

2500 BCE 7×4 महसाकाश काश आशा पान रासन ॥
��������� / तथा नममपर तथा Hereby अपर unsurpassed नमं salutations
� ���������� सनापता पानाञ्ज सनापता Ever protect पान the draught of अञ्ज Soma
����� महसाकाश महसा By power of आकाश heavenly
��������� काश आशा पान काश splendor आशा consume (this)
���� रासन रासन tasty पान drink.
Table 16: Ushnik verse on Indus copper plate, 2500 BCE

M-314 गायत्री 6×3 र�व अमम मा�न । सकाशन रण । जठलधार रण् ॥

���� �� र�व अमम् मा�न र�व Sun, अमम् the powerful, मा�न highly honored,
���� सकाशन रण सकाशन self-illumined रण delight,
�������� जठलधार रण् जठलधार Ocean sustainer, रण् be pleased.
Table 17: Akshapankti verse on M-314, longest Indus seal

Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation

1 M-23 ��������� दाम म�णक सन lustre of the crown jewel
������ नदन रस्न sounding object
2 M-234 ��������� दाम म�णक सन lustre of the crown jewel
������ नदन आशाच्छ sounding towards desire
3 M-626 ���������� कम् माखङ्क महन् desire mark of great sacrifice
������ नदन ताड sounding thump
4 H-1657 ����� � ���� ��� दक �ववम् अमस् जाववरण giver of sunshine and power,
protector of offspring
5 M-355 ������� ������� तदा दा�नम् र�व अम मञ्ज then by generosity, the Sun
वरण powerfully shining protector
6 M-38 �������� ������ वतदा र�व अमम् वम माखं giver of speech(Agni), the Sun,
giver of power to the sacrifice
7 M-391 ������� � �� ���� दासस् र�व समज आर Shiva near multitudes of beasts
अङ्कीधर and near the servant of Sun
8 M-1954 ����� � ���� �� र�व आश्यं अञ्जरा वरण Sun, the Soma sacrament giver
and protector (Indra)

55
 Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation
9 M-1688 ���� ������� � � वाजस् अना अम अ�श्व मादा speed is indeed a vigorous
horse owner’s passion
10 H-130 ��� � ��� ������ ददा तव �वह मञ्ज द वर grant your heavenly shine,
warmth and favor
11 M-359 ������ ����� तन भव �वहा मम वरण offspring and prosperity,
my protector in heavens
12 H-280 ����������� स्यम मद माख वरण cry out in joy to the protector
of the sacrifice (Vishnu)
13 M-369 ����������� दमनस् यमं माखं tranquil dutiful sacrifice
14 M-623 ������� ���� रह् ल�व आश्यम् ससारम् cut the edible portion
forcefully using a knife
15 M-10 �������� ��� शत �वह मञ्ज वम तर 5
emitting the shine
of a hundred heavens
16 M-1169 �� ���� वतत अ�व मम to the eclipsed Sun, my
� � ��� �नज नमव personal reverent salutations
17 Ns-60 �������� ������ इड अचल �वह नामन् अस fire, earth, air, water,
अन्तर shining sky
18 M-714 ��� � ���� ��� कर �वशस् मञ्ज सभां sacrifice in pure assembly
19 M-677 ���� � ��� ��� आ र�वम् वम मञ्ज आन towards shining face of
the exuding Sun
20 M-577 �� ���� अदन �वचर abstaining from food
���� ��� नवव आनन youth-like face
21 M-665 ���� ��� मठ �वच्छद अहन् house-warming day
��� रन्ता festivities
22 Lh-1 ������ ����� दाव र�व अम दान रण warmth of Sun,
a powerful enjoyable gift
23 K-10 ���� ������ नवव र�ण्व माखं youthful joyful sacrifice
24 H-8 � ��� � ��� द क�व अञ्ज वरण च
� � give Soma and protection
to the wise
25 M-119 ��� �������� धावतधार �वस्मय wonderful swift-flowing stream
26 H-103 ���� � � � ����� शयम् दान अञ्जनी आय obtain sleep inducing
medicinal plants
27 M-494 ������������ अना अनव�स् आय कद indeed, the irresistible
arrival of clouds

5
तर is an intensifier

56
 Seal-Id Inscription Sanskrit Translation
28 H-268 ��� � �� ���� दशम �वषञ्ज सभां one tenth fixed on assembly
29 M-396 ����������� अस्माम् तु आतमतस् I beg for my desired (things)
30 M-1676 ������ ���� सम व �वमतम् मरण uniform as if
disagreements are dead
K-15 मम रतरस्च धा�न my enjoyable tasty grain
�
31 ������ ���
����� अरकार swift maker
32 M-1690 ���������� यमकं अं शवम् मा�न honored Soma with ghee
33 Ns-9 ���� ������ त अचल ठ �वमान Sun crossing over mountains
34 H-12 �������� �� र�व अमम् महमाखं sacrifice to the Sun,
the powerful and lustrous
35 M-495 ������������ अना अन रव सायकम् indeed, this roar of thunderbolt!
36 M-900 �������� �� र�व शस्य मम वरण Sun, my excellent protector
37 M-52 �������� ��� दम �वसं यमवान् subduer of the unrestrained
38 C-24 ��� � ���� रस�वव नमन salute the essence of brightness
��� � वीणाधार lightning holder
39 H-20 ���������� अश्म सवं माख सन् sacrifice and prayer
to cloud and Sun
40 Krs-1 ����� � ���� न मीम जठल शाय steadfast with Vishnu
41 M-49 ����� ����� अह चल �ववं महं indeed, move with brilliant lustre
42 M-1052 ���������� आम वासव मानक Indra’s fine wine
43 M-634 ���������� रत रथ राय मानक delightful chariot is
the measure of a king
44 H-129 ������ ���� भास र�व अम आमन्त्र invite the powerful shining Sun
45 M-1834 ������� रारा दान उदं joy of giving water
��� � जन नल people’s canal
46 Nd-1 ��������� सं शरणागतं र fully surrendered to desire
47 M-1892 ��� ������� अर वर अररस् नाना quick diverse food choice door
48 H-270 ���������� नानां शस्यं झषं range of excellent warmth
49 H-10 ��������� भभ धा अश्व वल र light of lights, grant horses
strong and swift
50 M-1123 ����� रारा राराय delight in the delightful

Table 18: 50 long and unusual inscriptions

57
473 References
474 [1] B. News, ’Earliest writing’ found, 1999. Last accessed 18 March 2022.

475 [2] A. B. Jones, J. M. Smith, Article Title, Journal Title 13 (2013) 123–456.

476 [3] EducationDiary, BHU’s young numismatist clinches prestigious INSA project to
477 study 2800 year old coins, 2022.

478 [4] CoinIndia, The coin galleries: Mauryan empire, 2010.

479 [5] Tamil Nadu Tourism, Keeladi: Tracing the roots of Tamil culture, 2020.

480 [6] B. B. Lal, From the megalithic to the Harappa: tracing back the grafitti on the
481 pottery, Ancient India 16 (1960) 4–24.

482 [7] N. R. Banerjee, S. K. V. Rajan, Sanur 1950 1952: A megalithic site in district
483 Chingleput, Ancient India 15 (1960) 2–28.

484 [8] I. Mahadevan, Interpreting the indus script: The dravidian solution, 2015.

485 [9] A. Parpola, Deciphering the Indus script, Cambridge University Press, 1994.

486 [10] S. R. Rao, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 61 (1980)
487 157–188.

488 [11] S. Sullivan, Indus script dictionary, Sue Sullivan, 2011.

489 [12] I. Mahadevan, Akam and puram : ‘address’ signs of the indus script, 2010.

490 [13] M. L. Moreno, Frequency analysis in light of language innovation, 2005.

491 [14] R. P. Kulkarni, Layout and construction of citis, Bhandarkar Oriental Research
492 Institute, 1987.

493 [15] Iron pillar of Delhi, ????

58
494 Appendix A. Evolution of Brahmi signs

59