M O D U L A R S Y S T E M

REPRODUCTION
AND DEVELOPMENT

Zeki DENGÝZ
Bayram KENCÝ
Soner EFE
 Copyright © 2005 Zambak Basým
Yayýn Eðitim ve Turizm Ýþletmeleri
Sanayi Ticaret A.Þ.
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 Biology is a rapidly developing branch of science. The major advances that are
made, continuously affect our life on earth. Some of these important advances are
included here.
The results of a recent survey on the attitudes to existing literature available to
high school students showed that many were unhappy with the material used in
teaching and learning. Those questioned identified a lack of the following accompa-
nying supplementary material to main text books, current information on new devel-
opments, clear figures and diagrams and insufficient attention to design and planning
of experiments.
This book aims to improve the level of understanding of modern biology by inclu-
sion of the following; main texts, figures and illustrations, extensive questions, articles
and experiments.
Each topic is well illustrated with figures and graphs to ease understanding.
Supplementary material in the form of posters, transparencies and cassettes will
shortly be available.
Profiles on common diseases are included in each chapter to inform, generate
further interest and encourage students to explore the subject further. The 'Read me'
articles supply up-to-date information on important issues related to each unit but
outside the requirements of the current curriculum.
The chapter summary and review questions are expanded enough to make under-
standing better and easier.
It is the intention and hope of the authors that the contents of this book will help
to bridge the current gap in the field of biology at this level.
I’m grateful to all the people who have helped with this book. I owe thanks to:
Osman ARPACI, Ali Ertuðrul TÜRKELÝ, Ýrina ALBERTOVNA,
Valentina SEMENOVNA, Musa ÖZET, for support and I thank my father Hacý
Yusuf DENGÝZ and wife for their patience
Zeki DENGÝZ
Reproduction 1.3.3. Reproduction in

1.1. Asexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . .8 Gymnosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

1.1.1. Types Of Asexual Reproduction 9 Read Me . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

1. Binary Fission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 Development

2. Budding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 2. Plant Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
3. Sporulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 2.1. Seed Dormancy . . . . . . . . . . .31
4. Vegetative Propagation . . . . . . . . . . .11 2.2. Germination . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
5. Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 2.3. Seedling Development . . . . . . .32
6. Tissue Culture is Used in 1. Development of the Root . . . . . . . . .32
Biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 2. Development of the Stem . . . . . . . . .32
1.2. Sexual Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . .14 2.4 Primary Growth . . . . . . . . . . . .33
1.2.1. Isogamy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 1. Primary Growth of Roots . . . . . . . . . .33
1.2.2. Heterogamy . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 2. Primary Growth of Shoots . . . . . . . . .33

1.2.3. Other Reproduction Strategies15 2.5. Secondary Growth . . . . . . . . . .33

1. Conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 2.6. Control of Plant Growth . . . . . .33
2. Metagenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
3. Parthenogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Self Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
1.3. Plant Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . .15 3. Animal Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
1.3.1. Reproduction in Nonflowering 3.1. Asexual Reproduction in Animals43
Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 3.2. Sexual Reproduction in Animals 43
1.3.2. Reproduction in Seed-Bearing 3.3. Reproduction in Invertebraters .44
Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 3.4. Vertebrate Reproductive System45
Structure of a Flower . . . . . . . . . . .19 1. Reproduction in Fish and Amphibia . .46

Steps of Plant Reproduction . . . . . .20 2. Reproduction in Reptiles and Birds . . .46

1. Gametogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 3. Reproduction in Mammals . . . . . . . . .46

2. Pollination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 4. Animal Development . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

3. Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 4.1. Fertilization: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

4. Seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 4.2. Cleavage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
5. Fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 4.3. Gastrulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
6. Dispersal of Fruit Seeds . . . . . . . . . . .26 1. Gastrulation in Amphibia . . . . . . . . . .50
 2. Gastrulation in Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 6.2. Birth and Postnatal Development73
4.4.Differentation and organogenesis 51 6.3. Changes in Normal Human
1. Ectoderm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
2. Mesoderm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
1. Premature Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
3. Endoderm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
6.4. Birth Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5. Generation of Tissues . . . . . . .52
Cloning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6. Extraembryonic Membranes
1. High Fallure Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
and the placenta . . . . . . . . . . .54
2. Problems During Later
1. The Chorion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
2. The Amnion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
3. The Allantois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 3. Abnormal Gene Expression

4. The Yolk Sac or Vitellus . . . . . . . . . . .55 Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

5. The Placenta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 4. Telomeric differences . . . . . . . . . . . .81

4.7. Development in Marsupials 6.5. Birth Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82

Pouched Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . .56 6.6. Sexually Transmitted Diseases .83
4.8. Egg-Laying Mammals . . . . . . . .56 6.7. Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Read Me . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Child Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
5. Human Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
5.1. Male Reproductive System . . . .58
7. Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
1. Male Reproductive Organs . . . . . . . . .58
7.1. Plant Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
2. Spermatogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
7.1.1. Meristematic Tissues . . . . . . . . . .95
3. Formation of Semen . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
7.1.2. Permanent Tissues . . . . . . . . . . .96
5.2. Female Reproductive System . .60
1. Female Reproductive Organs . . . . . . .61 7.2. Animal Tissues . . . . . . . . . . .101

2. Oogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 7.2.1. Epithelial Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . .101

3. Menstrual Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 7.2.2. Connective Tissue . . . . . . . . . . .105

5.3. Hormonal Control Of The 1. Connective Tissue Proper . . . . . . . .107

Reproductive System . . . . . . .65 2. Cartilagenous Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . .109
1. The Pitultary Hormones . . . . . . . . . . .65 3. Bone Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
2. Gonad Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 4. Blood Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111

5.4. Infertility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 5. Muscular Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111

6. Human Development . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 6. Nervous Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112

6.1. Prenatal Development . . . . . . .71 Self Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114

Reproduction and
Development
 1. REPRODUCTION
All living things have a fixed, natural life span (Table–1.1). Before the end of
its natural life, an organism must take steps to ensure that its species continues
to exist. It can only achieve this by producing a new copy of itself before it dies.
Reproduction is a fundamental requirement for every living thing. Without any
exception, every individual of a species originates from a preexisting individual
(except the first one). Since the offspring are genetically similar to their parents,
continuity of the species is maintained. Reproduction is the only possible way,
in both unicellular and multicellular organisms, to provide continuity.
Unicellular organisms reproduce by the division, or fission, of their entire struc-
ture to form two daughter cells. Division in multicellular organisms, however, is
limited to the specialized cells of the reproductive organs, or gonads. Whether
the organism chooses to reproduce or not has no effect on the length of its life
span. If an organism with a unique gene combination does not reproduce, its
genotype will be permanently lost when it dies, influencing the genetic conti-
nuity of that species (Figure–1.1).

Figure-1.1.: Dinosaurs became extinct.

Living things make copies of themselves in two ways: asexual or sexual
Perhaps they could not reproduce reproduction. Both are essential to the natural population balance of our plan-
successfully et.

1.1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Asexual reproduction is the production of offspring from a single parent by
simple division. The offspring are genetically identical in every aspect since they
Plant

are produced by simple division. There are no male and female strains as in sex-
ual reproduction, and no meiotic cell division or fertilization. Consequently there is

8
no variation between successive Table–1.1.: Average life span of different organisms
generations. This of course pre-
Typical Maximum Length
serves useful characteristics, Organism
however lack of variation in the Length of Life of Life (Years)
genetic makeup of the species Cypress 1,500
means that there can be no Plants Sequoia gigantea 3,215
adaptation to changes in the
Bristlecone pine 4,600
environment and consequently
no progress. Asexual reproduc- Actinia
Coelenterata 70
tion is generally confined to uni- mesembryanthemum
cellular organisms, sponges, Lobster ca. 20
coelenterates, worms, bacteria, Arthropoda
Ant ca. 20
fungi and lower plants. There are
Mollusca Oyster 15
some organisms, however, that
can only complete their life cycle Vasa parrot 54
by reproducing both sexually Condor 52
and asexually. This alternation of Domestic pigeon 30
sexual and asexual reproduction
Marion’s tortoise 152+
during a life cycle is known as
metagenesis, or alternation of Bullfrog 36
generations, and it is seen in Elephant 77
some lower plants like mosses Vertebrates Rhinoceros 49
and ferns. Chimpanzee 39
Cat 31
Laboratory mouse 39 months
1.1.1. TYPES OF ASEXUAL
Horse ca. 50
REPRODUCTION Dog 34
Asexual reproduction can be Man 120
studied in two groups as:
natural asexual reproduction

Reproduction and Development

artificial asexual reproduction
Natural asexual reproduction: The reproduction of organisms by themselves.
Natural asexual reproduction exists in different forms in nature. These include
binary fission, budding, sporulation and vegetative propagation. The different
forms are characterized according to their complexity.

1. Binary Fission
Binary fission is the simplest form of asexual reproduction. Bacteria and blue-
green algae reproduce by this method. Additionally, all eukaryotic cells use binary
fission to increase their number within a multicellular organism. The cell divides
by amitosis and mitosis. The nucleus divides first, then the cytoplasm of the cell
is cleaved. The daughter cells are genetically identical, but may vary in size
(Figure–1.2). Cell division also helps in maintaining the volume/surface area bal- Figure-1.2.: Organisms such as para-
ance, which may be one of the reasons for cell division (Figure–1.3). mecium divide by binary fission to
form two daughter cells of similar size.

9
 Figure-1.3.: As the volume of an organism increases, its relative surface area decreases. The
organism can not obtain sufficient nutrients through its cell membrane so it divides to increase
its surface area to volume ratio.

2. Budding
Figure-1.4.: Organisms such as hydra repro-
duce by budding. Unlike binary fission, only Budding is a form of asexual reproduction seen in yeast, sponges, coelen-
certain parts of the organism divide mitotically
to generate a new individual. terates and in some nonflowering plants. The cell or cells divide mitotically
forming a bud on the parent organism. The bud has the same genetic com-
position as its parent. However, as the volume of cytoplasm is less, the bud is
smaller in size. After its formation, the bud may either remain attached to its
parent or may leave to form a separate colony. It too forms new buds and the
Spores (n) Sporangium cycle is repeated (Figure–1.4).

3. Sporulation
Spores
germinate Bacteria, plasmodium, fungi and all nonflowering plants sporulate as their
method of reproduction. When environmental conditions become unfavorable,
they all form a spore which is a cell covered with a thick protective layer.
Bacterial spores, for example, are formed in order to ensure survival and
genetic continuity under high temperature, drought, starvation and pH varia-
Sporangium
tion, rather than as a mechanism of reproduction. When conditions improve,
the spore capsule disintegrates and normal growth resumes. In haploid organ-
isms such as algae, spores result from mitotic cell division. In diploid organ-
isms such as ferns and bryophytes, spores result from meiotic cell division,
thus are classed as reproductive cells. They are different from haploid spores
as they need to be fertilized for new growth to be stimulated.
Spores are named according to their structure and type. Bacteria, for
example, produce endospores, fungi produce exospores and aquatic plants
Plant

Figure-1.5.: Bread mold produces spores from such as rhodophyta, phaeophyta and chlorophyta produce flagellated
which new mold develops. zoopores (Figure–1.5).

10
 4. Vegetative Propagation
Vegetative propagation is seen mostly in flowering plants. A branch or
bud from the parent organism grows into an independent new plant either
on the plant body itself or some distance away using either stem tubers or
runners.

a. Stem Tubers
Stem tubers are formed by projections of the lowest axillary buds. The
stems that are produced grow downward into the soil. Food molecules such
as starch accumulate at the tips of these stems, increasing their size to form
tubers. A stem tuber is characterized by many axillary buds (eyes) and scale-
like leaves. A good example of a stem tuber is a potato. If one tuber is plant-
ed in moist soil, each bud develops into a new potato plant (Figure–1.6).

b. Stolons and Runners Figure-1.6.: Tubers are specialized stems. They are
the means of generating many new individuals
Stolons and runners are horizontal stems that develop from axillary buds. from a single parent. A tuber also enables a plant
to survive in unfavorable conditions.
They extend over the surface of the soil forming new plants a distance away
from the parent. A runner produces one new plantlet at the tip or apex of the
stem whereas a stolon produces plantlets at regular intervals.
The plantlets remain attached to the plant during their early development.
Strawberry plants, for example, reproduce using stolons (Figure–1.7).

c. Rhizomes
Rhizomes are thick, horizontal root-like
stems. They extend from the base of a plant,
growing almost always underground.
Banana plants, for example, produce rhi-
zomes that generally grow under the soil,
producing several new shoots from a single
rhizome. Since bananas produce new

Reproduction and Development

shoots, farmers can increase their stock of
plants by breaking off these shoots and
planting each one separately. If they are irri-
gated frequently and protected from intense
light until the new rhizomes have developed,
they will grow into new viable banana plants.

Artificial asexual reproduction

Artificial asexual reproduction is the method commonly used in
agriculture and biotechnology. In agriculture it is used to produce the
same plants in order to keep quality unchanged and to increase their
number.

Figure-1.7.: Stolons and runners are an effective means of A new plant may be artificially produced from its parent plant by
increasing the size of a population without competition
different techniques such as budding, grafting or taking cuttings.
between plants.

11
 d. Cuttings
Many trees and bushes are reproduced using artificial propagation. A root or
shoot of the parent plant, known as a cutting, is severed and used to form a new
plant. The cutting quickly produces new roots to absorb water from the soil. This
method is most successful if the stem used has no secondary growth and includes
a meristem. The process of root
formation can be accelerated by
applying artificial growth hor-
mones to the base of the cut
stem before it is planted in soil.
Once roots develop, the cutting
grows into a mature plant.
Willow, poplar and quince trees
are all produced commercially
Figure-1.8.: Cuttings are used to produce new trees
by this method (Figure–1.8).

e. Bud and Stem Grafting

Grafting involves the artificial joining of the stem of one plant to the roots or
rootstock of another. By this technique, the stem of one species may be grafted
to another of the same genus. This technique is used commercially in the propa-
gation of fruit trees.
Budding is a form of grafting where a bud is grafted onto a stock as illustrated
in Figure–1.9.

An underground rhizome and bulb give rise

to a number of new plants. Each is identical
to the original plant.

Good and Bad News

An old man visits his doc-
tor and after thorough
examination the doctor tells Figure-1.9
him: "I have good news and bad
news, which would you like to hear Advantages of Vegetative and Artificial Propagation
first?"
Patient: "Well, give me the bad news Genetic continuity is maintained since the new individual has the same
first." genetic traits as its parent. However, this may result in the deterioration of
Doctor: "You have cancer, I estimate the genetic makeup of the plant. The development of new traits is only pos-
that you have about two years left." sible by sexual reproduction, since traits are determined by both parents.
Patient: "Oh no! That's awefull! In
two years my life will be over! What Plants which normally require a long period for seed formation, such as
kind of good news could you possi- bananas and some forms of orange, can be propagated rapidly using this
bly tell me, after this??"
technique. Overall, the time taken to propagate plants artificially is consid-
Doctor: "You also have Alzheimer's.
Plant

erably less than seed formation.

In about three months you are going
to forget everything I told you."

12
 5. Regeneration
The ability to regenerate a missing or damaged part is
possible to varying extents in all organisms. The incidence of
regeneration in plants, however, is more frequent than in ani-
mals. As the complexity of an animal increases, the incidence
and rate of regeneration decrease, from lower invertebrates
to upper vertebrates (Figure–1.10).
For instance, invertebrates such as planaria, earthworms
and sea stars are capable of forming complete new individu-
als by regeneration. Vertebrates are incapable of such large
scale regeneration, however salamanders can regenerate
their appendages. Higher, more complicated vertebrates
such as amphibia lack this ability.
Although vertebrates can not reproduce by regeneration,
they are able to repair superficial damage to their tissues, for
example the healing of damage to the skin or to a bone.

Budding is also seen in fungi. Unicellular fungi, yeast reproduce by

forming small buds which grow and separate from the main cell.
Figure-1.10.: Simple animals such as planaria and seastar have a basic
structure. This enables them to regenerate any part of their body.
6. Tissue Culture Is Used In Biotechnology

Reproduction and Development

Tissue culture enables the propagation of a new plant from a small amount
of the parent tissue. The technique involves placing a shoot tip or callus of
parenchyma tissue into a special medium containing high concentrations of
various growth hormones. The plant fragment remains in the solution until the
shoot and roots have formed (Figure–1.11).
Tissue culture is commmonly being used with animals and humans, too.
Scientists are trying to produce the cells of certain tissues under laboratory
conditions by culturing. By this method, healthy tissue can be produced and
then used to replace unhealthy tissue in the body.
Today umbilical cord tissue is being kept for future use. If a person needs,
certain tissue can be produced by using this tissue as donor for tissue culture.
(Read Me: umbilical cord) Cloning is another example of tissue culture appli-
cation which provides many identical individuals. Figure-1.11.: Given the correct environment
and nutrients, a fragment of a plant can be
induced to produce roots, a stem and leaves.

13
 Sexual reproduc- 1.2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
tion provides genet- Sexual reproduction is the production of new offspring by the fusion of the
ic variation, which is nuclei from a pair of reproductive cells. Both must be produced by sexually differ-
very important in producing ent organisms of the same species. The reproductive cells of each parent are
adaptation under different known as gametes and the process by which the gametes fuse is known as fertil-
conditions. ization. The cell produced by fertilization is termed the zygote and it is the first cell
of the new individual. Sexual reproduction differs from asexual reproduction in the
following respects:
the need for two parents
its dependence on meiosis and fertilization
the formation of new gene combinations
the production of new individuals with different gene combinations that can
withstand changes in the environment.
Gametes are produced by the reproductive organs, or gonads. A single gonad
may produce either male or female gametes, but not both. Most plants and a
small number of animals have both male and female gonads and are known as
hermaphrodites.
Various types of sexual reproduction are observed in the natural world. Each
varies according to the method of gamete formation, gamete size and method of
fertilization.

1.2.1. ISOGAMY
In this type of sexual reproduction, two identical gametes fuse. Both are mor-
phologically identical and it is impossible to distinguish them according to their
appearance. They are, however, physiologically distinguishable and are termed
“+” for male gametes and “–” for female gametes. Both types of gametes are flag-
ellated and are dependent on water for movement. Organisms that are isogamous
include fungi and algae, such as chlamydomonas (Figure–1.12).
Plant

Figure-1.12.a: Isogamy in chlamydomonas Figure-1.12.b: Sexual reproduction involves the formation of gametes. Their size varies as shown above.

14
 1.2.2. HETEROGAMY
The fusion of two gametes which differ in size and structure is
known as heterogamy. Generally, the female gamete or ovum is large
and immobile whereas the male gametes, or sperm, are small and
motile. In some cases, however, both gametes are flagellated and the
size difference between them is only slight. This type of reproduction
is known as anisogamy and is seen in bryophytes, pteridophytes and
algae, such as spirogyra. In the majority of living things there is a great
size difference between ovum and sperm. This type of reproduction is
known as oogamy. Human beings reproduce by this method
(Figure–1.12-13).

1.2.3. OTHER REPRODUCTION STRATEGIES

Some types of reproduction, such as conjugation, metagenesis
and parthenogenesis, are difficult to categorize as either sexual or
asexual.
Figure-1.13.: Most organisms produce gametes that are
unequal in size. The female gamete is considerably larger
1. Conjugation than the male gamete.

Conjugation is the means by which some bacteria can exchange

genetic material plasmid or cell DNA. In order to do this, a bacterium
must carry the fertility factor known as F. Bacteria that are F+ are able
to construct a cytoplasmic bridge, known as a pilus, with an F– bac-
terium that is incapable of forming a bridge. After the pilus has been
established, some genes of the F+(donor) bacterium are replicated
and transferred across to the other bacterium, providing it with new
traits. If the F+ factor is transferred during this process, the bacterium
gains the ability to conjugate with other bacteria (Figure–1.14).

2. Metagenesis
Metagenesis is also known as alternation of generations and

Reproduction and Development

involves the regular alternation between sexual and asexual reproduc-
tive phases during the life cycle of an organism. The protist plasmod-
ium, as well as jellyfish and lower plants, all reproduce using metage-
nesis.
Plasmodium
Plasmodium is a protist and the parasite responsible for the dis-
ease malaria. Its life cycle is divided into two distinct portions: an asex-
ual phase in the erythrocytes of a human host, and a sexual phase in
the body of a female mosquito. A bite from an infected mosquito
transfers plasmodium reproductive cells or spores, These spores
develop in the liver and invade erythrocytes, and continue to divide
asexually. As the number of merozoites (mature plasmodia) in the
Figure-1.14.: Although bacteria, such as E. coli, are simple
blood increases, symptoms such as high fever, chills and shaking prokaryotic organisms, they are capable of transferring part
become increasingly severe. of their genome through pili. This is an effective way of
spreading new characteristics through a population.

15
 Figure-1.16.: The life cycle of a plasmodium involves two different hosts and exhibits both sexual and asex-
ual reproduction.

Once a plasmodium parasite has become established inside a human host, the
merozoites may develop into male and female gametocytes in the liver. Further
infection can only occur after the gametocytes have matured into male and female
gametes in the gut of the mosquito. Sexual reproduction takes place, also in the
mosquito gut. The zygotes produced then mature into sporozoites capable of new
infection (Figure–1.16).
Life cycle of jellyfish
Jellyfish
The gametes of jellyfish are fertilized in the sea and form
zygotes that then develop into planula larvae. The larvae
swim freely until they find a firm place to attach themselves
and develop into hydra-like organisms. These organisms
divide laterally to form immature jellyfish by asexual repro-
duction. Finally they mature and form the adult jellyfish
which in turn produce new gametes.

3. Parthenogenesis
Parthenogenesis is the process by which an haploid or
Plant

diploid reproductive cell develops into a new individual. It is

seen in populations of bees, in some reptiles, amphibians or

16
aphids where environmental conditions are insufficient to sup- Parthenogenesis
port great numbers. In such conditions, the females of these
species reproduce using unfertilized gametes, without the need
for males.
The features of parthenogenesis are as follows:
All dominant or recessive traits resulting from mutation are
expressed
Gametes are formed by mitotic cell division
The sexuality of the new individual is determined by the
female parent

a. Diploid Parthenogenesis
In diploid parthenogenesis, new offspring are formed directly
from an ovum in which no reduction division has taken place.
This maintains the diploid number of chromosomes. Aphids
reproduce by this method (simular to cloning).

b. Haploid Parthenogenesis
New offspring are produced from haploid gametes resulting
from meiotic cell division. In a honey bee colony, the queen pro-
duces haploid male drones by this method.
After emerging, the new queen leaves the hive and mates. The
1.3. PLANT REPRODUCTION sperm from this single mating is stored and is used according to
the needs of the colony. Unfertilized eggs develop into drones by
All complex plants produce vegetative and generative organs. parthenogenesis. Fertilized eggs develop either into workers or
As has been explained previously, some plants are capable of new queens according to their nutrition.
asexual reproduction using their vegetative organs. However,
most plants reproduce sexually using their generative organs.
According to their reproductive mechanism, plants that reproduce generative-
ly are classified into two main groups, flowering and nonflowering .

Reproduction and Development

1.3.1. REPRODUCTION IN NONFLOWERING PLANTS
Nonflowering plants include bryophytes, liverworts, ferns and horsetails. Most
reproduce simply, completing their life cycle by metagenesis. The life cycle of a
nonflowering plant consists of the following stages. First a haploid spore is formed
from the diploid sporophyte generation by meiosis. These spores then germinate
to form the gametophyte generation from which male and female gametes are
produced by mitotic cell division. Fusion of male and female gametes forms a
zygote which then germinates to form the sporophyte generation (Figure–1.18).
The most dominant part of the life cycle of most nonflowering plants is the
haploid phase. For instance, liverworts are diploid only during the short period
from zygote formation to the production of spores. As the complexity of the plant
increases, the dominance of the haploid phase is reduced and that of the diploid
phase increases.

17
 Bryophytes are good example of metagenesis. In bryophytes, the haploid phase is also dominant but is shorter than
that of algae. The diploid phase is therefore longer. Bryophytes differ from algae in that the sporophyte grows out of the
leafy gametophyte. Also they may be monoecious or dioecious.
This means that the male and female parts may be in
different locations on the same plant or on separate plants.
FLOWERING PLANTS The antheridium produces solely male gametes while an
archegonium produces only female gametes. After the
fusion of a male gamete and female gamete, the resulting
zygote develops into a diploid sporangium which produces
MONOCLINOUS
both male and female spores from a sporogonium, or
Flowers are hermaphroditic spore-containing sac, at the tip of the sporophyte. The hap-
they contain male and DICLINOUS loid spores are produced from diploid cells of the sporogo-
female structures together nium by meiotic cell division. Haploid gametophytes are
Like apple.
Monoecious Diecious produced asexually by the germination of these spores to
complete the life cycle (Figure–1.18).
Male and female Male and female
flowers are different plants are different Metagenesis is seen in ferns too. Ferns have vascular tis-
but they are on the Like poplar, salix sue that can support upward growth and they have less
same plant. dependency on water. Dry spores germinate in soil and pro-
Like pine
duce haploid gametophytes.
Plant

Figure-1.18.: A club moss shows alternation of generations. In its life cycle, the haploid stage is dominant and water dependent.

18
 1.3.2. REPRODUCTION IN SEED-B
BEARING PLANTS
Most flowering land plants produce seed so are able to reproduce sexually. The
reproductive organs of seed plants are their flowers. Most are hermaphroditic or
monoclinous, where both male and female reproductive organs are present on the
same flower of the same plant, for example walnut, pumpkin, corn, wheat and
apple. Other species form a group known as diclinous plants, where male and
female sexual structures are on separate flowers. Of this group, some species are
monoecious, their sexual organs are in separate flowers but on the same plant.
Examples include pine trees and maize. A few species are dioceous, their sexual Figure-1.19.: The flower is the reproductive
structure of plants
organs are on separate flowers on plants that are either male or female. Examples
include fig, mulberry, holly, poplar and willow.(Figure–1.19)

Structure of a Flower
A flower is composed of petals, which form the corolla, and sepals, which form
the calyx. It is also composed of stamens, the male reproductive structures, and
one or more pistils, the female reproductive structures. The flower is attached to
the plant by the flower stalk, also known as the pedicel. Directly above the pedicel
is a bulb-like structure known as the receptacle. All the floral parts are attached to
this structure. In addition, the receptacle may be involved in the secretion of nec-
tar, a sugary fluid that provides an energy source for insects (Figure–1.20).

a. The Perianth
The parts comprising this structure have no function in the production of
gametes. The perianth protects the reproductive organs and in some cases Figure-1.20.: Higher plants have a reproduc-
tive mechanism where the sporophyte gen-
attracts pollinators. eration is dominant and contains highly spe-
cialized structures.
Sepals: While a flower is developing within a bud, it is fully surrounded and
protected by a ring or whorl of green, small leaf-like structures known as
sepals. They are collectively known as the calyx. Once the bud opens, the
petals emerge and perform the same function. FLOWER PARTS
Petals: They are leaf-like in structure and are generally brightly colored. They

Reproduction and Development

are collectively known as the corolla and protect the reproductive organs of Pedicel
a mature flower. The petals of plants that are insect-pollinated are brightly Receptacle
colored and produce an attractive scent. A nectary at the base of each petal Perianth
produces a sugary solution known as nectar and it is during nectar collec-
tion that pollination takes place. Calyx (Sepals)

The structures involved in gamete formation are as follows: Corolla (Petals)

Stamen (Androecium)
b. Stamens (Androecium) Filament
The stamens are the male reproductive organs of the flower and are composed Anther
of filaments and anthers.
Pistil (Gynoecium)
Anther: Anthers are responsible for producing male plant gametes (pollen)
Stigma
by meiosis. Each anther is comprised of four pollen sacs producing pollen
grains. Style
Filament: Its function is to support and raise the anther into the air so that Ovary

19
 its pollen can be dispersed by the wind or by an insect. It consists of a nar-
row stalk containing a vascular bundle (Figure–1.21).

c. Pistils (Gynoecium)
The pistil is the female reproductive organ of a flower. It is generally composed
of three structures: a stigma, a style and an ovary.
Stigma: It is a specialized area located directly above the style and is the site
of pollen reception and germination.
Style: It is a tube-like structure connecting the ovary and the stigma. Pollen
tubes pass down through it to the ovary.
Ovary: The ovary is a spherical structure at the base of the pistil and is
formed by infolded leaves known as carpels. Usually at least several carpels
join together to form a single ovary. Ovaries are the female structures that
produce ova (eggs) by gametogenesis. Primitive flowers, for example, have
apocarpous ovaries in separate carpels. The buttercup is a well
known example. More advanced angiosperms, such as the lily,
have a syncarpous ovary formed by two or more carpels. Their
inner surfaces are fused together, each compartment containing
a chamber containing the ovules. An ovule consists of a central
core known as the nucellus which is covered by normally two
integuments whose inner surfaces are fused together and form
compartments. Each compartment has a chamber containing
the ovules. At the lower base where integuments meet, an open-
ing, the micropyle, is formed.The micropyle is the pore through
which pollen cells pass and fertilize the eggs.(Figure–1.28)
Steps of Plant Reproduction

1. Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis is production of reproductive cells
(gametes). Gametogenesis is divided into two steps.
Spermatogenesis: Male gametogenesis that produces pollen,
and Oogenesis: Female gametogenesis that produces eggs.
Both gametogenesis types require meiotic and mitotic divisions.

A. spermatogenesis

On the anther are four sacs of pollen mother-cell that produce

pollen grains by meiosis. First, the pollen mother-cell divides
meiotically and produces four haploid cells. These four cells are
then covered by a strong, nonliving protective wall, the exine,
which is discontinuous at some parts and provides pores for
pollen tube transport. As the exine is produced, each pollen grain
cell divides unequally by mitosis and forms two cells, one of
Plant

which is the sperm (the small one) and the other of which is the
Figure-1.21.: Pollen grains are produced by mother cells in the
anthers. tube cell (Figure–1.21-22-23).

20
 B. Oogenesis

Oogenesis is the egg production process that occurs in ovaries. Ovaries may
have several tiny structures that are called ovules. Each ovule produces eggs and
becomes an independent seed. Oogenesis starts with the egg mother-cell that is
produced by the embryo sac cells of ovules. The egg mother-cell then enlarges
and divides meiotically to form four haploid cells. The largest of these cells forms
the embryo sac, the other three are destroyed as the embryo sac develops. After
this process is complete, the embryo sac nucleus divides mitotically. Each daugh-
ter cell moves to opposite ends of the sac. Both divide twice mitotically producing
four cells at either pole. One nucleus from each pole then moves to the center and Figure-1.22.: A pollen grain
both fuse. The resulting diploid cell forms the primary endosperm nucleus. Those
at the base of the embryo sac are known as the egg apparatus. Those at the top
form the antipodal cells, responsible for the nutrition of the embryo sac. Once all
these processes have taken place, fertilization is possible (Figure–1.28).

2. Pollination

Pollination describes the physical movement of mature pollen

grains from the stamens to the stigma. Pollen may move within the
same plant, self-pollination, or between different plants, cross-pollina-
tion (Figure–1.23).

a. Self-Pollination
A plant pollinates itself when pollen is deposited on the stigma of
the same flower or on the stigma of a flower on the same plant. This
is advantageous to the plant in that it ensures that fertilization takes
place. However, there is no possibility of variation in the genotype of
the species, resulting in inbreeding. In order for self-pollination to be
successful, the plant should have the following characteristics:
it should be hermaphrodite or monoecious

Reproduction and Development

the stamen and pistil should mature at the same time
Pollination
the stamen and pistil should be at the same level.

b. Cross-Pollination
This occurs when a plant exchanges pollen with others of the same
species. Cross-pollination can only be successful if the plant has the
following characteristics:
Its stamens and the pistils mature at different times.
Its stamen and the pistil are at different levels.
The advantage of cross-pollination is that it prevents inbreeding. It
is also possible in monoecious plants if the stamens and pistils mature
at different times. Figure-1.23.: A pollen grain is stimulated by the concentra-
tion of sugars on top of the style. Its intine produces a tube
which carries the male gamete down into one of the ovules.

21
 c. Methods of Pollen Transfer
In order for successful pollination to take place, an agent is needed to trans-
port pollen from one plant to another or between flowers or parts on the same
flower. The mechanisms of pollen transport are follows:
Wind Pollination: The anthers produce large amounts of small, light-weight
pollen, ideally suited to travel long distances. The surface of each pollen
grain is smooth. Grasses in particular depend on the wind for pollination.
They normally grow in groups and produce pollen simultaneously. Their
feathery stigmas also emerge simultaneously. Since an enormous amount
of pollen is produced, pollination is likely to be successful. The energy cost
to the plant however is high as a great deal of pollen goes to waste.
(Figure–1.24.b)
Insect Pollination: Plants pollinated by insects have brightly colored flowers
and can grow in isolation from others of the same species as pollen is
brought to them. The flower attracts insects by using color, nectar as an
energy source, and the pollen itself which the insect can use as food. The
color of a flower, its shape and the insect species it attracts, are thought to
be correlated. A hoverfly for example, is attracted to blue flowers in prefer-
ence to other colors, bees are attracted to blue and purple flowers while
butterflies prefer red flowers.The anthers of insect-pollinated plants pro-
duce small amounts of large, heavy pollen which can survive for many
Figure-1.24.: Different flowers have different
adaptations for different pollinating agents.
hours. The surface of each grain has projections designed to adhere to the
body of an insect. As an insect visits flowers in order to collect nectar, it
mechanically transfers pollen grains from one plant to another. As the insect
searches for nectar, pollen grains are brushed off on the small stigma, usu-
ally found in the depths of the flower. Foxgloves, clover and buttercups are
examples of flowers using this method of pollination. (Figure–1.24)
Water Pollination: This type of pollination is very rare since a pollen grain is
a dry structure and decays after contact with water. In order to overcome
this, the Canadian water weed Elodea canadensis holds its stigma above
the water. The male flowers float to the surface, open and drift against the
Figure-1.24.b: Plants produce large stigma, releasing their pollen. During this process, the pollen does not come
amount of pollen.
into contact with water.

Growth of a Germ Tube

Once a pollen grain has been deposited on the top of the stigma, it responds
to the moisture and sugar by germinating and forming a germ tube. Pollen tubes
may grow in any environment with a suitable concentration of sugar and it is pos-
sible for a pollen grain to germinate on the stigma of a different species. Each
pollen grain shows a negative response to oxygen, growing away from high con-
centrations down into the style. The cell within the pollen divides mitotically to pro-
duce a large vegetative cell and a small generative cell. The generative cell enters
Plant

the vegetative cell and divides again forming two sperm. These three cells remain
Figure-1.24.c: Elodea canadensis

22
in the tip of the tube. As it approaches the ovule, only a compatible pollen tube of
the same species is attracted by chemical secretions from the embryo sac
(Figure–1.25).

3. Fertilization
The pollen tube usually enters the embryo sac through the micropyle. Its tip
degenerates, possibly by the action of enzymes secreted in this region, or as a
result of a stimulus for autolysis from the embryo sac. Double fertilization occurs
within the embryo sac as one sperm nucleus fuses with the egg cell, and the other
with the two polar nuclei comprising the endosperm nucleus. The joining of a
male gamete with the endosperm nucleus is known as triple fusion, as three nuclei
are involved (Figure–1.25).

Reproduction and Development

Figure-1.25.: The male gamete can not fuse with the female gamete directly since the two structures are
physically separated. To overcome this obstacle, the male pollen grain grows a tube down into the
gynoecium to where the female gamete is waiting.

23
 One sperm nucleus fertilizes the egg nucleus in order to form a zygote.

Sperm (n) + Egg (n) ⎯⎯→Zygote (2n) Embryo

Sperm (n) + Secondary nuclei ⎯⎯→Triploid cel l Endosperm
(2n) (3n)

The synergids and antipodal cells in the embryonic sac are not fertilized and
are used as a food source during the process of fertilization. The endosperm
nucleus divides repeatedly forming many cells to supply food for the developing
seed. Depending on the type of seed, this tissue may persist or be used in the for-
mation of the cotyledons.
The structures present at fertilization and the structures they develop into are
as follows:
Egg ⎯→ Embryo
Secondary nuclei ⎯→ Endosperm
Ovule ⎯→ Seed
Ovary membrane ⎯→ Fruit

4. Seed
Once fertilization has taken place, the stamens, style, stigma and petals are no
longer needed and are shed. In some plant species, the sepals dry out but remain
on the plant for a period of time. Before drying, the sepals have a photosynthetic
role, providing food for the fertilized ovules and ovary and accelerating further
development. The ovule develops into the embryo from which the seedling will
form. It consists of a radicle, a plumule, one or two cotyledons and the testa. After
all these structures have developed, water is withdrawn into the plant in order to
cease further development.
The structures of the newly developed seed bear are as follows (Figure–1.26):
Testa: The testa is the coat of the seed and is made from the integuments
of the ovule. As the seed forms, the testa becomes thicker and harder, pro-
tecting the seed from insects, fungi, bacteria and even from digestive
enzymes of animals.
Radicle: The radicle forms part of the embryo and is the structure from
which the plant root system develops.
Plumule: The plumule forms part of the embryo and is the structure from
which the embryonic shoot and leaves develop.
Cotyledons: The cotyledons form the part of the embryo from which the
seed leaf or leaves develop. They are attached to the plumule and radicle by
short stalks and provide energy during germination from their endosperm
tissue. As the hypocotyl emerges above the ground, the cotyledons start
Plant

Figure-1.26.: Longitudinal section of a wheat photosynthesis and are known as the seed leaves. They are shed only when
seed or grain the first true leaves of the plant are fully functional.

24
 Reproduction and Development

Figure-1.28.: A flow diagram showing the events from flower production and pollination, through to fertilization

25
 5. Fruits
A fruit develops from the ovary wall after fertilization. Flowering plants have
fruits in order to protect the seed and to assist dispersal to colonize new areas
away from the parent plant. They are classified according to their structure as:

a. Simple Fruits
Simple fruits (pumpkin, peach, apricot) are formed from the wall of a single
ovary, of a single flower (Figure–1.29).
b. Aggregate Fruits
Aggregate fruits (raspberry, blackberry) are formed from an individual flower
containing many separate carpels (Figure–1.30).

c. Multiple Fruits
Figure-1.29.: Simple Fruits
Multiple fruits (pineapple, fig) are formed from the fusion during development
of many ovaries of a group of flowers (Figure–1.31).

d. Accessory Fruits
Accessory fruits are also known as false fruits. They are composed of plant tis-
sue that is not produced by the ovary wall. The red succulent fruit of a strawberry
is formed from the top of the flower stalk, (Figure–1.32).

6. Dispersal of Fruit and Seeds

Figure-1.30.: Aggregate Fruits
A plant can only successfully colonize new areas of its habitat if it has an effec-
tive method of dispersing its seeds. Various strategies are used for this purpose,
all aimed to ensure that the next generation is distributed evenly and not in com-
petition with the parent plant. These mechanisms include water, wind, animal and
self-dispersal.
Water Dispersal: Only a few plants use this method. The seed of the coconut
for example is surrounded by spongy tissue that helps it to keep afloat.
Wind Dispersal: The fruits or seeds of these plants develop outgrowths that
function as wings, for example sycamore, or as a parachute, for example
dandelion.
Figure-1.31.: Multiple Fruits
Animal Dispersal: Some fruits and seeds develop hooks that will become
attached to the coat of an animal, for example burdock and goosegrass.
Other fruits are attractive to animals as a food source. The fruit is digested
while the hard-coated seeds are egested unharmed and are likely to be
deposited some distance away from their origin. The feces in which they are
deposited functions as a fertilizer. Examples include blackberry, strawberry
and rosehip.
Mechanical or Self-Dispersal: The fruits and seeds of some plants are dis-
Plant

persed away from the parent plant by the tension caused through drying of
Figure-1.32.: Accessory Fruits the fruit wall, eg. pea, geranium.

26
SEED AND FRUIT DISPERSAL METHODS

Reproduction and Development

27
 1.3.3 REPRODUCTION IN GYMNOSPERMS (Nonflowering Plants)
The class gymnospermae contains four groups of seed producing plants:
cycadophyta, ginkophyta, gnetophyta and coniferophyta. Their reproductive strat-
egy is similar to that of angiosperms. However, there is no double fertilization. Only
the female gamete is fertilized to produce a diploid embryo. The haploid
endosperm is generated without any fertilization.
Their life cycle takes two years to complete. The male and female cones start
to form in summer. Their development is slow since they are not visible until
early spring of the following year
Plant

28
 READ GRASSES - THE
MASTERS OF

ME SYNCHRONY

At first glance, grass flowers or florets are small and rather insignificant as com-
pared to those of other plants. There are no petals or sepals, only a single ovary and
ovule, two feathery stigmas and three stamens. The flower is protected by two leaf-like
scales called the lemma and palea. A number of florets are grouped together at the
end of a long upright stem so that they are exposed to any passing wind. Holding flow-
ers high in the air is an advantage for dispersing pollen to other grass plants and for
receiving it from others.
Grass stamens produce large amounts of lightweight pollen that can only survive
for a few hours in air. In order not to waste this, a mechanism is needed that ensures
that the pollen reaches the maximum number of plants at the right time. To achieve
this, grasses make use of day length to trigger development and pollen release. Some
grass plants such as rice have perfected this strategy to such an extent that they are
sensitive to changes in day length of only ten minutes. In complete contrast with their
distant brightly colored relatives, grasses only expose their flowers for a few hours.
This reduces the risk to the delicate floral parts of being destroyed by heat or wind. Of
course if cross-pollination is to occur, all the grass flowers of a particular species in a
certain area must open simultaneously. Triggered by day length and atmospheric con-
ditions, the flowers of a field of wheat, for example, open and simultaneously release
clouds of pollen into the air. This spreads over a large area, settling on the feathery
stigmas, but also causing misery for hay fever sufferers.

Reproduction and Development

29
 If you take an Oriental per-
son and spin him around
several times, does he
become disoriented?
Why do the signs that say "Slow
Children" have a picture of a running
child?
Why do they call it "chili" if it's hot?
Why is the time of day with the
slowest traffic called rush hour?
Why does Superman wear his
underpants over his tights? And
where are his trousers?
Q: What do you get if you cross a pig
with a dinosaur?
A: Jurassic Pork!

DEVELOPMENT
All organisms, from the simplest to the most complex, must develop their
structures to a sufficient level in order to carry out vital life processes. Their size
and their environment all affect their level of complexity. Unicellular organisms are
small and simple enough to obtain their food energy by absorption from their
immediate surroundings. They assimilate many of these materials in order to
grow, mature and then reproduce. When a unicellular organism reaches a certain
size, it divides to form two new offspring. Cell division under these circumstances
restricts unicellular organisms to their microscopic size. Multicellular organisms
are less restricted in overall size. Their individual cells still divide once they exceed
a certain size but this results in growth of the organism. A larger size may be an
advantage in colonizing a particular environment, but organisms also face diffi-
culties caused by their increase in bulk.
As a multicellular organism grows, it becomes uneconomical for all cells of the
organism to perform the same functions. Life processes start to be divided
between different groups of cells adapted specifically for that purpose. This is the
beginning of the development of tissues and organs.
As the size of an organism increases, different regions of the organism start to
vary in their temperature and pH. A need arises for a system of homeostasis to
regulate the speed and conditions of reactions. Enzymes start to be used to lower
the activation energy of reactions to meet the demands for the products of a par-
ticular reaction.
As organisms increase in size and complexity, their requirement for food
increases. Specialized organs develop for short-term storage of energy-yielding
food stuffs. Storing food in a stomach relieves an animal of the need to eat con-
Doctor: Did you take those
pills I gave you to improve tinuously.
your memory?
In some environments, sufficient food may not be guaranteed, especially dur-
Patient: What pills? ing the winter. Specialized organs for the storage of foodstuffs over long periods
How does a frog feel when he has a enable organisms to survive during unfavorable conditions. A plant may store food
Plant

broken leg?
in a tuber or bulb, and those living in arid conditions develop water storage organs.
Unhoppy.
Hibernating animals, for example, store fat within their liver.

30
 As the number of cells increases, damage to just one or a few is no longer life
threatening. The organism merely replaces those damaged with identical, fully
functional ones.
All living things are a food source for predators and pathogens. An organism
must develop a strategy of defense. This varies from engulfing the invader, as in
leukocytes of mammals, to distracting the attacker. Some lizards escape from
attack by shedding their tail, which is then later regenerated.

2. PLANT DEVELOPMENT

2.1. SEED DORMANCY

Having expended a great deal of energy in the production of seeds, there must
be some mechanism to avoid the investment being wasted by the seed germinat-
ing under the wrong conditions. Suppose that every seed dispersed by a plant ger-
minated irrespective of its environment. Many of the germinating seeds would die
due to lack of moisture, intense heat or cold. To avoid this, plant seeds have the
ability to become dormant. After seeds form and water has been removed, chem-
icals in the testa actively prevent germination from taking place and will continue
to do so until their effect has been broken by, for example, a prolonged increase in
temperature. In extreme cases, the endosperm of seeds is so thick that only fire or
the effects of frost will break their dormancy and trigger a dramatic increase in the
low metabolic rate and concentration of water (Figure–2.1).

2.2. GERMINATION
In order for a seed to germinate, it must first contain an embryo and enough
food reserves to fuel the germination process until the seedling can synthesize its
own food. Seeds that store nutrients such as starch, proteins and liquid fat within
their endosperm are known as endospermic, whereas those that store nutrients
within the embryo are known as nonendospermic. Before a plant germinates, the
following requirements should have been met:
The dormancy of the seed should have been broken.

Reproduction and Development

Some seeds need a period of low or high temperature
to trigger the germination mechanism.
Water should be present in a sufficient amount to be
absorbed by the testa and to fully soften the tissues
inside.
Air (oxygen) must be available for respiration of the
germinating seed.
The temperature should be high enough for the seed
enzymes to function.
During germination itself, the parenchyma and immature
vascular system absorb water rapidly, doubling the weight of
the seed in a few hours. This sudden expansion is enough to Figure-2.1.: Dicotyledons such as beans show epigeal germination. The
burst through the hard, protective testa. At the point of ger- two cotyledons or seed leaves are pushed above ground level and form
the first photosynthetic structures.

31
 Mushrooms always grow mination, the plumule, the apex of the hypocotyl from which the first leaves devel-
in damp places and so op, has formed. The radicle, the apex of the first root, has also formed and is the
they look like umbrellas. first structure to emerge from the seed, growing down into the soil. The behavior
of the emerging hypocotyl, however, varies according to the species of plant.
The newly formed stem with its vulnerable apical meristem can be easily dam-
aged by hard soil particles as it makes its way up to the surface. Plants have two
strategies for protecting their fragile stems. In most monocotyledons the tip of the
hypocotyl forms a hook. The cotyledon or cotyledons directly underneath it are
protected as they emerge, open and start to photosynthesize. Plants that germi-
nate in this way stand a good chance of surviving once their cotyledon or cotyle-
How do you get off a non- dons become photosynthetic (Figure–2.1).
stop flight?
How do you write zero in
Roman numerals? 2.3. SEEDLING DEVELOPMENT
If athletes get athlete's foot, do A new plant is considered to be a seedling until it has developed to the point
astronauts get mistletoe?
where it is no longer dependent on its cotyledons. In order to reach this point,
If Barbie's so popular, why do you
have to buy all her friends? rapid growth and development is needed. The areas where this takes place are at
If peanut butter cookies are made the meristems of the stem and root (Figure–2.2). Sometimes seedlings may not
from peanut butter, then what are find enough light for photosynthesis and die because the endosperm is used up.
Girl Scout cookies made out of?
If swimming is good for your shape,
then why do whales look the way
1. Development of the Root
they do?
Meristematic cells in the root apical region are continuously active. Those cells
If tin whistles are made out of tin,
what do they make fog horns?
to the front produce protective cells in the form of a cap to protect the root as it
If white wine goes with fish, do extends between hard soil particles. It also has some enzymes to open the way
white grapes go with sushi? through hard structures. Those behind have a high rate of mitotic division and are
responsible for increases in root length of up to 11 cm per day.
As the radicle develops, branches are formed which increase the surface area
for nutrient uptake and anchor the plant firmly in the soil. Added to this, tiny root
hairs increase the surface area for absorption still further.

2. Development of the Stem

Meristematic cells in the stem apical region generate new
growth in parallel to root development. As the stem increases
in length, cells in one area of the meristem divide and differen-
tiate to form a leaf primordium which will form a new leaf. This
process is repeated for each new leaf. The site of leaf produc-
tion is termed a node and the length of stem in between each
is termed an internode. Later side branches and flowers are
produced by bud primordia which are also known as axillary
buds.
All the processes described above that start in the new
seedling continue throughout the life of a plant as long as envi-
Plant

ronmental conditions are favorable.

Figure-2.2.: As a seed germinates and develops into a mature plant
it passes through the stages illustrated above.

32
 2.4. PRIMARY GROWTH
In order to survive, a plant must develop in both directions: downward to col-
lect water and minerals, and upwards to photosynthesize. It achieves both of these
by the formation of roots and shoots. Once these structures have been developed,
they must increase in size proportionally to consolidate the plant in its niche (envi-
ronment). Growth is achieved by elongation of the shoot and root tips, a process
called primary growth. As the roots penetrate the soil, they spread in all directions
to form a network, accelerating the rate of absorption of raw materials. The shoots
develop at a similar rate, forming the stem, leaves, branches and flowers.

1. Primary Growth of Roots

Roots grow rapidly downward into the soil under the effects of gravity. In other
words, they show positive geotropism. The root tip is composed of meristematic
tissue which has a high rate of cell division. More information on meristematic tis-
sue can be found in the next chapter. The meristematic region is protected by a
layer of parenchyma known as the root cap. It produces a slime known as mucigel.
This facilitates passage of roots through the soil, protects the delicate root tip and
accelerates the absorption of iron and phosphate ions from the soil. As the cells
in the outer layer of meristematic region divide, the new cells produced in this
region increase in length producing linear growth. Simultaneously, the cells of the
inner meristematic region also participate in the region of elongation producing a
rapid increase in length. As growth proceeds, older meristematic cells differentiate
and form other tissues and structures.
2. Primary Growth of Shoots
Like roots, the aerial structures of a young plant elongate by means of meris-
tematic regions. At the tip of the plant is an apical meristem that gives rise to new
leaves and branches. The stem elongates as the cells of apical meristem divide
and the leaf primordia give rise to new leaves. In addition to producing leaves, the
apical meristem also forms specialized structures such as the epidermis, cortex,
xylem and pith. Another function is the formation of bud primordia which form

Reproduction and Development

branches and flowers.
How come wrong numbers
2.5. SECONDARY GROWTH are never busy?
Why doesn't Tarzan have a
All plant tissues are formed during primary growth. As the plant increases in beard?
size, the soft herbaceous stem becomes insufficient to carry the weight of all the Why is it called lipstick if you can still
aerial parts of the plant.Environmental factors such as wind, rain and gravity make move your lips?
this entirely difficult. To help with this, many plants increase the diameter of their Why is it that night falls but day
stem by producing new tissue from lateral meristematic tissue. This new tissue breaks?
becomes impregnated with rigid substances and is known as vascular cambium Why is the third hand on the watch
called a second hand?
and cork cambium.
Did Noah keep his bees in archives?
2.6. CONTROL OF PLANT GROWTH Do jellyfish get gas from eating jelly-
beans?
The cue to produce new leaves, buds or flowers comes ultimately from the Do pilots take crash courses?
genes in the nucleus of each cell. The factors that trigger this process are of par- Do stars clean themselves with
ticular interest to plant scientists. The stimulation can come from the environment meteor showers?

33
 While driving down a steep or from parts of the plant itself in the form of a chemical messenger or hormone.
and curvy logging road, a In a plant, different hormones work in coordination with each other to promote or
group of biologists loose restrict growth. A healthy plant that is nutritionally satisfied in an environment with
control of their 4-wd optimum light, water and temperature will grow as a result of the secretion of the
"Jimmy" and careen down the hill.
The truck piles up at the bottom of following hormones at optimum concentration.
the canyon, and everyone aboard
Auxins: These plant hormones are produced in apical meristems then actively
perishes. Suprisingly, they all go to
heaven. At an orientation they are transported to the target tissue. General functions of auxins can be summarized
asked, "When you are in your casket as follows:
and your friends and family are
mourning your death, what would They promote growth of adventitious root. That's why auxin is added to the
you like to hear them say about solution in cultivation of woody plants in agriculture. However large concentrations
you?" inhibit growth of existing roots.
The first guy, a well-known botanist
says, "I would like to hear them say Auxin promotes fruit growth, which usually requires fertilization of several eggs
that I was one of the greatest (unless the fruit already contains several eggs). When auxin is applied to female
botanists of my time, and left an flower parts, it is possible to get fruit without fertilization and in this way many
eternal contribution to the botanical
world."
seedless fruits are produced
The second guy, an ornithologist, Auxins prolong abscission (leaf fall). That's why it is widely used to reduce leaf
says, "I would like to hear that I was and fruit fall.
a wonderful birder and made a huge
difference in the recovery of our bird Gibberellins: These plant hormones are also produced in the apical meristem.
populations."
They stimulate growth in stems of plants of all ages and can be used to make
The last guy, a scruffy mammalo-
plants taller than normal. They are also used commercially to stimulate the ovary
gist, replies, "I would like to hear
them say... 'LOOK, HE'S MOVING!!!' " wall of grapes to develop into a fruit before fertilization. This is another way of pro-
ducing seedless fruit.
Cytokinins: They are produced wherever there is mitotic activity and their func-
tion is to stimulate chloroplast formation, cell division and organ formation. They
cooperate with other hormones to regulate growth throughout the whole plant.

Cold shock is necessary to activate hormones in seeds

In most plants it is observed that if seeds are exposed to cold near the freezing
point, germination and flowering time shortens extremely. Today in agriculture
using cold shock technique makes it possible to plant seeds later. In this way the
field can be used for growing other plants rather than planting seeds in the late
autumn and waiting until early summer to plant.

Effect of plant hormones on growth

Plant

34
 SUMMARY divide and initially form a callus, an aggregation of undif-
ferentiated cells.
Asexual Reproduction in Plants
6. The callus then differentiates into shoot and roots
A. Means of Asexual Propagation and develops into complete plants.

1. Plants contain non-differentiated meristem tissue 7. Micropropagation is a commercial method of pro-

and reproduce asexually by vegetative propagation. ducing thousands to millions of identical seedlings, by
tissue culture, in a limited space.
2. In asexual reproduction, offspring arise from a sin-
gle parent and inherit the genome of that parent only. 8. Meristem culture micropropagates many new
shoots from a single shoot apex culture in a medium
3. Vegetative propagation utilizes meristematic tissue with correct proportions of auxin and cytokinin.
of a parent plant.
a. Since shoots are genetically identical, the adult
a. Nodes of stolons will produce strawberry plants. plants that develop are clonal plants.

b. Violet plants grow from nodes of rhizomes. b. Clonal plants have the same genome and display
the same traits.
c. Each eye of a potato plant tuber is a bud that
produces a new plant. c. Meristem culture generates meristem that is
virus-free. The plants produced are also virus-free.
d. Sweet potatoes can be propagated from modi-
fied roots. 9. Entire plants can be grown from single plant cells.

4. Stem cuttings have long been used to propagate a a. Enzymes can digest cell walls and produce naked
wide array of plants (e.g. sugarcane, pineapple). plant cells called protoplasts.

The discovery that auxin will cause roots to develop b. Protoplasts regenerate a cell wall and begin cell
has expanded the ability to use stem cuttings. division.

c. Clumps of cells can be manipulated to form

somatic embryos.

Reproduction and Development

B. Tissue Culture of Plants
d. Somatic embryos encapsulated in a hydrated gel
1. In 1902, German botanist Gottleib Haberlandt sug- (“artificial seeds”) can be shipped anywhere.
gested producing entire plants from tissues.
e. Somatic embryos are cultured by the millions in
2. Tissue culture is the process of growing tissue arti- large tanks (bioreactors).
ficially in a liquid culture medium.
f. Plants generated from somatic embryos vary
3. Haberlandt stated plant cells were totipotent: each because of mutations. These somaclonal variations may
cell has the full genetic potential of the organism. produce new traits.

4. In 1958, Cornell botanist F.C. Steward grew a com- 10. Anther culture produces mature anthers in a
plete carrot plant from a tiny piece of phloem. medium of vitamins and growth regulators.

5. When cultured cells are provided with sugars, min- a. Haploid tube cells within a pollen grain divide,
erals, vitamins, and cytokinin, the undifferentiated cells producing proembryos made up of up to 40 cells.

35
 b. Finally, pollen grains rupture, releasing haploid 6. Pistil is vase-like structure located at the center of
embryos. a flower. It contains one or more carpels.

1) The researcher can then generate a haploid plant. a. Pistil may be simple or compound.

2) Chemical agents are added to encourage chromo- b. Simple pistil contains one carpel; compound pistil
somal doubling. The resulting plants are diploid and contains multiple carpels which are often fused.
homozygous for all alleles.
7. Carpels are reproductive units of flowers and have
11. Cell suspension culture uses rapidly growing cal- three parts.
luses cut into small pieces and shaken in a liquid nutri-
ent medium. a. Stigma is an enlarged sticky knob on the end of
a style. The stigma serves to receive pollen grains.
a. Single cells or small clumps form a suspension
of cells; all produce the same chemicals as the plant. b. Style is a slender stalk that connects the stigma
with the ovary.
b. This technique is a more efficient way of pro-
ducing chemicals used in drugs, cosmetics, and agricul- c. Ovary is the enlarged base of a carpel that con-
tural applications than farming plants simply to acquire tains a number of ovules.
the chemicals they produce.
8. Grouped about a pistil are stamens, stalked struc-
tures that have two parts.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants a. Anther is a sac-like container within which pollen

grains develop.
A. Life Cycle of Flowering Plants
b. Filament is a slender stalk that supports the anther.
A life cycle is a full sequence from fertilization and for-
mation of a zygote to gamete formation once again. 9. Not all flowers have sepals, petals, stamens, and a
pistil.
1. A flower is the reproductive organ of a flowering
plant. It develops within a bud. a. Complete flowers have sepals, petals, stamens,
and a pistil; incomplete flowers do not.
2. Shoot apical meristem stops forming leaves to
form flowers. Axillary buds can become flowers directly. b. Perfect flowers have both stamens and a pistil.

3. Flower structures are modified leaves attached to c. Staminate flowers have only stamens.
a stem tip (receptacle).
d. Pistillate flowers have only pistils.
4. Sepals are leaf-like, and usually green. This outer-
most whorl protects the bud as the flower develops 10. If staminate and pistillate flowers are on same
plant, the plant is monoecious.
5. Petals are interior to sepals. Coloration accounts
for attractiveness of many flowers. 11. If staminate and pistillate flowers are on different
plants, the plant is dioecious.
a. Size, shape, and color of a flower are attractive to
a specific pollinator. 12. It is not strictly correct to call a pistil the female
Plant

part of a flower, or a stamen the male part; these organs

b. Wind-pollinated flowers often have no petals at all. do not produce gametes.

36
 13. The pistil and stamen produce megaspores and e. Eventually each generative cell divides mitotical-
microspores that mature to produce eggs and sperm. ly to form two sperm.

f. Walls separating pollen sacs break down and

pollen grains are released.
B. The Gametophytes
5. Pollen grains are windblown or carried by various
1. The ovary in a carpel contains one or more ovules. kinds of animals to the stigma of a pistil.

2. Ovules have a center mass of parenchyma cells

covered by integument with one opening (micropyle).
C. Pollination and Fertilization
3. One parenchyma cell enlarges to become megas-
porocyte. 1. Pollination and fertilization are separate events.

a. Megasporocyte undergoes meiotic cell division 2. Pollination is strictly transfer of pollen from anther
to produce four haploid megaspores. to stigma of a pistil.

b. Three megaspores disintegrate. One megaspore a. Pollination occurs by wind or with assistance
nucleus divides mitotically into eight nuclei. from particular animal pollinators.

c. When cell walls later form around the nuclei, b. Self-pollination is transfer of pollen from anther
there are seven cells, one of which is binucleate. to stigma of the same plant.

d. Megagametophyte (embryo sac) consists of c. Cross pollination is transfer of pollen from the
seven cells: anther of one plant to the stigma of another plant. It is
evolutionarily advantageous because of genetic recom-
1) one egg cell, bination resulting in new and varied plants.

2) two synergid cells, 3. Fertilization

3) one central cell with two polar nuclei, and a. Fertilization is fusion of nuclei, as when the
sperm nucleus and egg nucleus fuse.

Reproduction and Development

4) three antipodal cells.
b. When a pollen grain lands on a stigma, it germi-
4. An anther has four pollen sacs. Each contains nates, forming a pollen tube
many microsporocytes.
c. A germinated pollen grain, containing a tube cell
a. Microsporocytes are microspore mother cells. and two sperm, is a mature microgametophyte.

b. Microsporocytes undergo meiotic cell division to d. As a pollen tube grows, it passes between cells of
produce four haploid microspores stigma and style to reach the micropyle of an ovule.

c. Each microspore divides mitotically forming two e. A pollen tube grows through the micropyle and
cells: a tube cell and a generative cell. releases both sperm cells into the ovule.

d. This immature microgametophyte is a pollen f. One sperm nucleus unites with the egg nucleus,
grain. forming a 2n zygote.

37
 g. The other sperm nucleus migrates and unites A. Seeds and Fruits
with polar nuclei of the central cell, forming 3n
endosperm nucleus. 1. As a zygote develops into an embryo, integuments
of the ovule harden and become seed coat.
h. This is double fertilization.
2. Ovule matures into the seed, containing sporo-
4. Zygote divides mitotically to become the embryo. phyte embryo and stored food.
Endosperm cell divides mitotically to become endosperm.
3. Ovary (and sometimes other floral parts) develops
a. Embryo, in most plants, is a young sporophyte. into fruit (mature ovary that usually contains seeds).

b. Endosperm is tissue that will nourish embryo and

seedling as they undergo development.
B. Types of Fruits

1. As fruit develops from an ovary, ovary wall thickens

Development of the Embryo to become pericarp.

2. Simple fruit develops from an individual ovary,

Embryonic Development
either simple or compound.
1. After differentiation into embryo and suspensor,
3. Fleshy fruit has a fleshy pericarp (e.g. peach, plum,
one or two cotyledons develop.
olive, grape, tomato, apple, and pear).
a. Cotyledon (seed leaf) provides nutrients for a
4. Compound fruit develops from a group of individ-
developing plant before it photosynthesizes. ual ovaries (e.g. apple, tomato).
b. Dicot embryos develop two cotyledons, mono- 5. Dry fruit pericarp is dry (e.g., milkweed, pea, bean,
cot embryos develop only one cotyledon. lentil, poppy, sunflower, acorn, rice, and barley).
c. During development of a monocot embryo, the a. Aggregate fruit develops from ovaries from single
cotyledon rarely stores food. Rather, it absorbs food mol- flower (e.g. blackberry), while an aggregate fruit, where
ecules from endosperm and passes them to embryo. each ovary becomes a one-seeded fruit, is called an ach-
ene (e.g. strawberry).
d. During development of a dicot embryo, cotyle-
dons usually store nutrients the embryo uses, obtaining b. A multiple fruit develops from ovaries from sep-
those nutrients from endosperm. arate flowers fused together (e.g. pineapple).

2. Embryo continues to differentiate into three parts. C. Seed Dispersal

a. Epicotyl is between cotyledons and first leaves. It 1. For plants to be widely distributed, seeds have to
contributes to shoot development. be dispersed away from the parent plant.

b. Hypocotyl is below cotyledon and contributes to 2. Hooks and spines of clover, bur, and cocklebur
stem development. attach to fur of animals.
Plant

c. Radicle is below hypocotyl and contributes to 3. Birds and mammals eat fruits, including seeds,
root development. and defecate them at a distance.

38
 4. Squirrels and other animals gather seeds and fruits a. Prior to germination, the embryo consists of the
and bury them some distance away. following:

5. A coconut floats hundreds of kilometers. Some 1) two cotyledons that supply nutrients to embryo
plant seeds have trapped air or inflated sacs. and seedling (soon shrivel and disappear);

6. Woolly hairs, plumes, and wings disperse by wind. 2) a plumule-a rudimentary plant the consists of an
epicotyl bearing young leaves;
7. Touch-me-not has seed pods that swell as they
mature and burst, hurling their ripe seeds. 3) hypocotyl, which becomes the stem; and

4) radicle, which develops into roots.

D. Seed Germination b. As dicot seedling emerges, the shoot is hook-

shaped to protect delicate plumule.
1. Some seeds do not germinate until they have been
dormant for a period of time. c. As seed germinates in darkness, it etiolates: stem
increases in length and leaves remain small.
a. Seed dormancy is a time during which no growth
occurs even though conditions are favorable. d. Phytochrome pigment, sensitive to red and far-
red light, induces normal growth in light.
b. In temperate zones, seeds may have to be
exposed to cold weather before dormancy is broken. 4. Germination in Monocots

c. In deserts, germination requires adequate mois- a. Endosperm is food-storage tissue. The cotyle-
ture; this ensures that seeds do not germinate until a don does not have a storage role.
favorable growing season has arrived.
b. Monocot “seed” is actually the fruit. The outer
2. Germination takes place if there is sufficient water, covering is the pericarp.
warmth, and oxygen to sustain growth.
c. Prior to germination, embryo consists of one
a. Regulation of germination involves both growth cotyledon, a plumule, and a radicle.
inhibitors and growth stimulators.

Reproduction and Development

d. Plumule and radicle are enclosed in protective
1) Fleshy fruits contain inhibitors. Germination sheaths, coleoptile and coleorhiza, respectively.
does not occur until seeds are removed and washed.
e. Plumule and radicle burst through these cover-
2) Growth stimulators are present in seeds of some ings when germination occurs.
temperate zone woody plants.

b. Mechanical action may also be required to facil-

itate germination.

1) Water, bacterial action, and fire act on the seed

coat, allowing it to become permeable to water.

2) Water uptake causes the seed coat to burst.

3. Germination in Dicots

39
 ___9. What flower mechanisms help prevent pollina-
SELF CHECK tion by a foreign species?
A) A pollen tube grows in the style of its own species.
___1. Which of these may occur in both angiosperms B) The stigma is sticky mainly to it own species of
and gymnosperms? plant.
A) Seed develops within a cone. C) The timing of flowering keeps pollinators moving
B) Seeds develop within a flower. among a limited number of species.
C) Seeds are surrounded by a fruit at maturity. D) Flowers attract a small number of specialized pol-
linators, and therefore pollen is not spread equal-
D) Pollen is carried by wind for pollination.
ly to all available species of flowers.
E) Pollen is carried by animal pollinators.
E) All of the above would be reproductively isolating.
___2. The short stem tip to which a flower is attached
___10. Ovules are contained with the
is called a
A) ovary B) stigma C) anther
A) pistil B) sepal C) receptacle
D) filament E) style
D) petal E) stamen
___11. Pollen would land on the ____ during pollina-
___3. One of the parts in the outermost ring of floral tion.
structures, forming a bud cover, is a
A) ovary B) stigma C) anther
A) pistil B) sepal C) receptacle D) filament E) style
D) petal E) stamen ___12. Double fertilization in an angiosperm pro-
___4. The site of formation of pollen grains is in the duces
A) pistil B) filament C) receptacle A) a diploid zygote and a haploid polar nucleus.
D) petal E) anther B) a diploid zygote and a diploid endosperm.
___5. The stigma, style, and ovary are located in a C) a diploid embryo and triploid zygote.
carpel found in the D) a triploid embryo and a diploid endosperm.
A) pistil B) sepal C) receptacle E) a diploid zygote and a triploid endosperm.
D) petal E) stamen ___13. The function of endosperm is to
___6. The anther and filament are the parts of the A) form the seedling.
A) pistil B) sepal C) receptacle B) develop into the fruit.
D) petal E) stamen C) provide water to the embryo.
___7. The structure that forms most of the flesh of an D) provide nutrients to the embryo.
apple is the E) provide a protective coating for the embryo.
A) pistil B) sepal C) receptacle ___14. Which of the following statements is NOT true
D) petal E) stamen about the germinated pollen grain?
___8. Monocots have floral parts in ____, whereas di- A) Germination occurs on the surface of the stigma.
cots have their parts in _____, or multiples of
B) The pollen tube forms between cells of the style.
those numbers.
C) The pollen tube nucleus generates the pollen
A) threes; fours or fives
tube.
B) threes or fours; fives
D) There are two sperm nuclei that move down the
C) fours; threes or fives pollen tube to the micropyle.
Plant

D) fours or fives; threes E) Fertilization occurs when the pollen grain germi-
E) fives; threes or fours nates.

40
___14. The seed contains all of the following Except ___19. Which of the following statements is NOT true
A) an embryo sporophyte. about asexual reproduction?
B) stored food. A) It occurs with only one parent.
C) sufficient water for germination. B) It is less commonly used by vertebrates.
D) integuments. C) It can occur by budding or by division and regen-
___15. Which statement about fruits is NOT true? eration.
A) A blackberry is an example of a simple fruit. D) A large number of offspring can be produced in
this way in a short time.
B) A fleshy fruit has a fleshy pericarp, as in a peach.
E) It produces variation that allows the species to adapt
C) Most fruits are simple fruits, derived from a single
quickly to changing environmental conditions.
ovary.
___20. What is parthenogenesis?
D) A dry fruit may split at maturity to release its
seeds, as a pea or bean pod does. A) a sexual means of internal fertilization
E) A multiple fruit such as a pineapple forms from B) an asexual means of reproduction by splitting or
many individual flowers on a stem. fission into several new individuals
___16. When an glacier moves south or arid condi- C) an asexual means of reproduction by which un-
tions push across a continent, a plant species can fertilized eggs develop into mature individuals
“migrate,” although not as fast as individual ani- D) a sexual means of reproduction by which cross-
mals usually travel. Which of the following gener- fertilization occurs between hermaphrodites
ally allows a plant population to migrate the
E) an asexual means of reproduction involving budding
fastest?
___21. Which of the following statements is NOT true
A) pollination B) fertilization
about reproduction?
C) seed dispersal D) germination
A) Gametes are produced by meiosis and may be
E) vegetative propagation
specialized as eggs or sperm.
___17. Which mechanism is NOT as likely to disperse
B) Hydras may reproduce asexually by budding new
seeds a great distance from the parent plant?
individuals from the parent.
A) Coconuts are carried by ocean currents.
C) Asexual reproduction is most advantageous when
B) Squirrels bury seeds and nuts for future use. the environment is continually changing.
C) Seeds are dispersed as projectiles from the parent D) A hermaphrodite produces both male and female

Reproduction and Development

plant. gametes in different specialized gonads.
D) Hooks and spines attach seeds to animal fur or E) A starfish can be cut into several pieces, and each piece
human clothing. will regenerate all the other parts of the individual.
E) Seeds eaten with fruit by animals are dropped ___22. Primary growth refers to
with the animals' feces.
A) the germination of a seedling
___18. Which structure of an embryo within a seed is
NOT correctly identified? B) an increase in the length of a plant
C) an increase in the diameter of a stem
A) A cotyledon is a seed leaf.
D) growth produced by lateral meristems
B) The radicle is the embryonic root.
___23. Secondary growth in roots results in
C) The entire embryonic shoot is called the hilum.
D) The epicotyl is the shoot above the attachment of A) lengthening of roots
the cotyledons. B) thickening of roots
E) The hypocotyl is the embryo plant below the at- C) branching of roots
tachment of the cotyledons. D) germination of roots

41
 ___24. Roots branches of a primary root are called 14. The female, or egg-producing, part of a flower is
A) lateral roots B) fibrous roots known as the ______________________.
C) taproots D) adventitious roots
15. Pollen grains containing sperm cells are produced
1. The structure of a moss that forms haploid spores
is called a _____________________. by a structure called the _____________________.

2. Mosses reproduce sexually and produce two 16. Which parts of a flower are sterile? _____________
kinds of gametes called ________________ and and ___________________
___________________.
3. The egg-producing organ of a moss is called a(n) 17. The corolla of a flower is all the ________________
__________________________________. collectively.
4. The sperm-producing organ of a moss is called
18. The anther of a flower is supported by a structure
__________________________________.
known as the _____________________.
5. A group of spore-containing structures clustered
on the underside of a fern leaf are called 19. A flower with five petals would be the flower of a
_______________________________.
_______________________ plant.
6. Monocots are angiosperms whose seeds contain
only one _________________________. 20. Ladybugs are organisms that can help ensure the

7. Which kind of plant would you expect to find if _____________ ______________ of angiosperms.
you were mountain climbing in an extremely cold,
21. Unlike sexual reproduction, asexual reproduction
dry area? ______________ ____________________
always produces __________________.
8. Below the cotyledon of an angiosperm embryo is
tissue that will produce roots for the plant. This 22. The kind of asexual reproduction that occurs nat-
tissue is called the ___________________________.
urally in plants is known as ____________________
9. What characteristic of resin helps female gym-
_________________________.
nosperm cones capture pollen grains released by
male cones? _______________________ 23. Producing new plants from cuttings is made pos-
10. Gymnosperms have extremely light pollen grains. sible by a plant's ability to ___________________
This works as an advantage in reproduction by al-
_________________ ____________________.
lowing the pollen to be carried by the
___________________.
24. Sexual reproduction in angiosperms begins when
11. During the life cycle of a pine tree, where do the microspores form by meiosis in the
seeds develop?_______ _______________________
__________________________________.
____________________________________________
25. What is the method by which an entire plant can
12. Sperm cells of angiosperms reach an egg through
which structure? _____________ _______________ be grown from a few individual cells?
23. Flowers have three basic components: ___________________ _______________________
_____________ parts, ___________________ parts,
Plant

and ____________________ parts. Which of these 26. What are the Four forms of asexual reproduction
components help attract bees? ________________ in plants? ________________________,

42
 3. ANIMAL REPRODUCTION Two college seniors had a
week of exams coming up.
The life span of organisms in the animal kingdom varies considerably accord- They decided to party
ing to their size and complexity. During this time the animal must reproduce to instead.
guarantee the survival of the species. All vertebrate animals and some inverte- Their biggest exam was on
brates achieve this by sexual reproduction. A few invertebrates however reproduce Wednesday and they showed up
asexually. telling the professor that their car
had broken down the night before
due to a very flat tire and they need-
3.1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS ed a bit more time to study.
The professor told them that they
Lower invertebrates such as sea stars and flat worms reproduce by the regen- could have another day to study.
eration of a fragment of their body. This is only possible if the tissue is simple in
That evening, both of the boys
structure. Most animals have the ability to regenerate parts of their body that are crammed all night until they were
damaged or lost but the extent to which this is possible varies according to the sure that they knew just about
complexity of the organism. Some organisms can also reproduce by spores. everything.
Budding is an asexual reproduction method of coelenterates (hydra, jelly fish). Arriving to class the next morning,
each boy was told to go to separate
classrooms to take the exam.
3.2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
Each shrugged and went to two dif-
Sexual reproduction is the combination of one set of genetic material from two ferent parts of the building.
individuals of the same species but of opposite sex, resulting in a new organism As each sat down, they read the
first question. "For 5 points, explain
with new gene combinations. The sex of an animal is determined by its reproduc-
the contents of an atom."
tive organ. An individual with reproductive organs or ovaries that produce eggs is
At this point, they both thought that
referred to as female, whereas one with testes that produce sperm is referred to as this was going to be a piece of cake,
male. Lower animals may possess both testes and ovaries and are classified as and answered the question with
hermaphrodites. Eggs and sperm are the reproductive cells of organisms, and are ease.
known as gametes. The egg is a large, nonmotile gamete and, depending on the Then, the test continued. "For 95
species, it may contain food reserves that support some or the whole development points, tell me which tire it was."
of the embryo. Some animals release their eggs into the environment where they
are fertilized externally by sperm. Since all external environments are hazardous in
some way, the chances of a few eggs surviving are increased by producing many
of them. Animals such as mammals fertilize their single or few eggs inside the
body of the female. Their sperm are small motile gametes that move by their whip-
like tail. Irrespective of where fertilization occurs, large numbers of sperm are pro-

Reproduction and Development

duced. When an egg and a single sperm unite in fertilization, the first cell of a new
offspring known as a zygote is formed.

Reproduction In Honey Bees

A honey bee colony is an example of a population living together socially, divid-
ing labor between its members. In a bee colony or hive, there are three types of
members: workers, drones and a queen. The workers and queen are female and
diploid, whereas the drones are male and haploid. Both workers and new queens
develop from a fertilized egg. Drones, in contrast, develop by parthenogenesis
from an unfertilized egg. The queen is the head of the colony and determines if
the eggs she lays will develop into workers or drones. The female workers are infer-
tile and are responsible for hive maintenance and the collection of nectar from
flowers. The drones are required only for reproduction. After a new queen has
matured, she leaves the hive accompanied by the drones. During her flight she
mates, storing enough sperm for the whole of her reproductive life. After mating,

43
 the drones die and the queen may either return to the hive or, if
conditions are overcrowded, leave with many of the workers to
start a new colony elsewhere. Within the hive, the queen remains
in the nursery. Here she deposits eggs in wax cells made by the
workers. A fertilized egg can potentially develop into either a work-
er or a new queen. The type of bee that actually develops is
dependent on the type of food it receives from the nursing work-
ers. They feed the developing bees or larvae according to instruc-
tions in the form of airborne chemicals or pheromones from the
queen. In the presence of queen substance pheromone, a sterile
worker will develop. In its absence, for example after the queen
has left the colony, the nurses feed royal jelly to some of the lar-
vae which develop into new queens. Larvae from unfertilized eggs
are given pollen and honey, the same diet as worker larvae
(Figure–3.1).
The sperm produced by haploid drones results from mitotic
cell division, not by meiosis.
The sex of her offspring is determined by the queen by allow-
ing or preventing fertilization from taking place. All dominant and
recessive genetic traits in drones are expressed since a particular
trait cannot be masked by an allele on its homologous chromo-
some.
Figure-3.1.: After emerging, the new queen leaves the hive and
mates. The sperm from this single mating is stored and is used
according to the needs of the colony. Unfertilized eggs develop
into drones by parthenogenesis. Fertilized eggs develop either
into workers or new queens according to their nutrition.
3.3. Reproduction in Invertebrates

Sponges
Figure-3.2.: Reproduction of Sponge
Sponges are either hermaphrodite or have separate sexes. Their eggs
are internally fertilized and the free-swimming flagellated larvae are
released into the environment. The sperm of sponges is produced by
choanocytes, however the production site of eggs is unclear. Both sperm
and eggs move to the mesophyll layer of the body, the maturation site of
gametes. The sperm and eggs mature at different times. Mature sperms
are shed into water canals and released from the body through the
mouth, or osculum. In most sponges, eggs are fertilized and develop in
the parental mesophyll. They are then released into the sea as larvae. The
flagellated larvae swim in the water currents and then settle to the bottom
Animals and Human

of the sea to form an adult sponge (Figure–3.2).

Coelenterates
Coelenterates reproduce both sexually and asexually and, in the case of
polyploid hydra and sea anemones, are able to regenerate damaged or lost
body parts. Polyploids reproduce asexually by means of budding. Once
produced, the bud breaks off in order to form a new polyploid colony.
Sexually reproducing coelenterates are dioecious and produce gametes
from their interstitial cells. The gametes are released into the environment

44
and are fertilized externally. The zygote resembles plankton, forming a planula. It is
composed of a solid interior mass of cells surrounded by an outer layer of ciliated Sexual reproduction
cells. The larval planula is slightly elongated and is radially symmetrical (Figure in animals that have internal
planula). fertilization can be divided into
three groups as follows:
Most flatworms and roundworms are hermaphroditic and they produces spores
that germinate into new organisms. Oviparous animals: These
animals lay their eggs outside of
In mollusks, generally the sexes are separate and external fertilization occurs.
the body after fertilization. New
Fertilized eggs first develop into larvae known as trochophore larvae. They are cil-
individuals develop and grow
iated and free-swimming larvae.
independently. It is found in
some fish, some amphibians, a
3.4. VERTEBRATE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM few mammals, most reptiles
All vertebrates are either male or female according to their type of reproductive and all birds.
organ. All are dioceous and reproduce sexually. The gonads of a male vertebrate Ovoviviparous animals:
produce sperm while the gonads of a female vertebrate produce eggs or ova. The these animals keep their eggs
site of sperm production is termed the testis and the site of egg production is within their bodies until the
termed the ovary. The fertilization of an egg or ovum by a single sperm forms a young develop. The embryo
zygote. Although the mechanism of gamete production is identical in all verte- receives all its nourishment
brates, there are some physical differences, especially in the method by which fer- from the egg and has no con-
tilization is achieved. Lower classes of vertebrates such as fish and amphibia are nection with its mother. It is
dependent on water to complete their life cycle since fertilization occurs external- seen in some fish including
ly. Their reproductive strategy involves the release of vast amounts of eggs and mollies, guppies and mosquito
sperm into water to increase the likelihood of fertilization. Higher classes such as fish, and many reptiles.
reptiles, birds and mammals have a more economical method of fertilization,
where one or only a few eggs are produced and fertilization by sperm takes place Viviparous animals: these
internally after copulation, within the body of the female. This type of reproduction animals retain the egg inside
involves the production of only a few new individuals that have a better chance of their bodies and feed it, from
survival due to a more protected environment in which to develop. Once an egg the single cell stage until birth.
has been fertilized, in the case of most reptiles and all birds, it is encased in a hard Their eggs contain little yolk
calcified shell together with enough endosperm to provide for full development. (food) since they take their food
The heat needed for growth is provided from the environment in reptiles and in directly from the mother's
birds from the body of the parent in a process known as incubation. Although fer- blood. Most cartilaginous fish,

Reproduction and Development

tilization occurs internally, development takes place externally, exposing the some amphibians, a few reptiles
embryo to dangers from the environment. Female reptiles generally give no and most mammals are vivipa-
parental care to their eggs, thus many are lost to predators. Birds exhibit parental rous.
care, supplying food, warmth and protection. Such high investment in their off-
spring is rewarded in that more survive to maturity. Mammals have the most effec-
tive strategy of reproduction. In all except marsupials and monotremes, both fer-
tilization and full development occur inside the body of the female. There it is fully
protected from changes in the environment and predators. In addition, its nutri-
ent supply is guaranteed. After birth, a high level of parental care significantly
increases the chances of survival to adulthood.
In all vertebrates, the urinary and genital systems are situated close to each
other, and are referred to as the urinogenital system.
When you breathe, you
inspire. When you do not
breathe, you expire.
PLANULA

45
 1. Reproduction in Fish and Amphibia
The male reproductive tract of fish and amphibia is composed
of a pair of testes, each attached to a kidney. In addition there is a
pair of archinephric ducts and a cloaca. The site of sperm produc-
tion is the seminiferous tubules of each testis. Sperm is then trans-
ported into the anterior kidney tubules by the mesentery joining
these two structures. It then flows into the archinephric duct, a
channel that expels either sperm or urine
The female reproductive tract of fish and most amphibia is com-
posed of an ovary, a pair of ostia, oviducts, ovisacs and a single
cloaca. The site of egg production is the ovary. Once produced, an
ovum is released into the coelom where it is caught by the funnel-
like mouth of an ostium. The ovum then travels through the anteri-
or portion of the oviduct (a coiled tubular structure). Each egg is
surrounded by a jelly-like substance secreted by glands in the wall
of the oviduct. The mature eggs are temporarily stored in the pos-
terior enlarged portion of the oviduct known as the ovisac. They are
then released collectively through the cloaca and into the water. In
fish, the eggs are fertilized externally after they are released, but in
amphibia, internally. The zygote grows into a larva using its store of
endosperm and then starts to feed independently. The larval form
of frogs is known as a tadpole, whereas that of fish is known as a
fry. When the larva is sufficiently large, it gradually metamorphoses
into the adult form.

2. Reproduction in Reptiles and Birds

The male reproductive tract of reptiles and birds is composed of
a pair of testes, vas deferens channels and a single cloaca. The
sperm is produced and released into the vas deferens, then into the
cloaca which is also used for urination. The female reproductive
tract of reptiles and birds is composed of an ovarium, a Müller
channel and a cloaca. During copulation, the sperm is taken into
the body and fertilized in the Müller channel. The developing
embryo is encased by a shell formed by secretions from this chan-
nel. The embryo is nutrified by the egg yolk in the shell during incu-
bation.
Animals and Human

3. Reproduction in Mammals
Most mammals have definite mating seasons, often in winter
and spring. Female mammals have a recurrent estrus cycle,
marked by cellular changes in the uterus and by differences in
behavior. A female rat, for example, is in estrus (in heat) for a few
hours every four days, whereas a female dog is in estrus for six to
twelve days about every six months. Female rabbits however can
breed at any time of year.

46
 Sterility is hereditary: If
your grandfather didn't
have children and your
father didn't have children,
you won't have children either.

4. ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT
The first step leading to the development of a new multicellular organism is the
fusion of the male and female gametophyte to form a zygote as a result of fertil-
ization. The zygote is an unspecialized cell containing two full sets of genetic
instructions. It divides repeatedly to produce the specialized cells of life processes.
The overall changes occurring during specialization are termed development and
consist of cell proliferation, growth, morphogenesis and cellular differentiation.

4.1. FERTILIZATION
Fertilization initiates rapid successive changes that result in development. The
diploid zygote is the first cell of the new organism and many of the genetic traits
from its parents are packaged within it. The dominant traits from the father and
mother determine the observable characteristics or phenotype of the new off-
spring. Its sex is determined by the single sex chromosome donated from each
parent. Fertilization starts when a sperm successfully locates the egg. Once the
egg has been found, all sperm start to try to embed their heads in the protein jelly
surrounding it. Each sperm has an acrosome at the tip of its head containing
digestive enzymes. As the sperm heads establish themselves in the protein jelly,
the acrosomes open, releasing enzymes which degrade a path through the jelly to
the vitelline membrane of the egg. Meanwhile, projections start to form on the sur-
face of the sperm head behind the acrosome. These projections, together with the

Reproduction and Development

forward movement of the sperm, soon bring them into contact with the vitelline
layer directly above the egg plasma membrane. The plasma membrane responds
by forming projections of microvilli which surround the sperm head, helping to
draw it in. Despite its close contact with the egg, a sperm can only bind success-
fully if its membrane produces a species specific protein known as binding. The
sperm of the same species as the egg is therefore able to bind to receptors on the
plasma membrane (Figure–3.3).
Many sperm attempt to pass through the egg plasma membrane but only one,
the first to fully penetrate, is drawn into the cytoplasm of the egg. As soon as a
sperm has penetrated the ovum, rapid reactions occur that prevent the entry of
any other sperm. First, a wave of depolarization travels over the plasma mem-
brane, caused by the flow of sodium ions into the cell. As a result, cortical gran-
ules directly below the egg plasma membrane secrete first calcium ions, then
enzymes into the gap between the vitelline and plasma membranes. These Figure-3.3.: The successful sperm fertil-
izes the egg in a sequence of events as
enzymes digest the protein linking the plasma and vitelline membrane. As the shown above.

47
Animals and Human

All multicellular organisms pass through a period of cell differentiation during their development. In animals this is known
as cleavage. The mechanism of cleavage varies according to the class of animal but the end result is the same.

48
vitelline membrane detaches itself from the plasma membrane, it becomes more Misunderstand
rigid, forming an effective barrier to any other sperm. After this it is known as the Two twin brothers made
fertilization membrane. Meanwhile, within the cytoplasm of the ovum, its chromo- their choices. One decided
somes and those of the sperm start to unravel and become visible. The sperm to go to university, and the
nucleus swells forming the male pronucleus. The nuclear membrane is then other one became a farmer. The first
one studied very hard and became a
degraded, releasing its single set of chromosomes. These fuse with the set professor in a famous universty in
released from the female pronucleus, so forming the first cell of the new organ- the U.S., the second one worked
ism. In order for the zygote to cope with the explosion of protein synthesis and res- very hard and became # 1 in farm-
piration, cortical granules release calcium ions into the cytoplasm and this triggers ing. After a long time, farming
declined and the farmer brother
these important metabolic changes. decided to raise chickens. So he
bought 500 chicks and planted them
An Overall View of Cell Proliferation in Animals in a field with their heads down, and
gave them enough water and fertil-
During cell proliferation (or cleavage), the first diploid cell or zygote divides izer. The result was not good
mitotically into two, four, then into eight. Many successive divisions later, a ball of because all the chicks died. Then he
cells forms, known as a blastula. understood his mistake, bought
another 500 chicks, planted them
The growth of an organism is an irreversible increase in mass. This is due to with their legs in the soil, gave them
an increase in the size and number of cells. At an early stage in embryonic devel- water, fertlizer, etc. This time they
opment, cells begin to differentiate in order to perform different functions in the lived longer, but again no good
news. Finally he decided to write
body. This is known as morphogenesis. Differentiation results in almost 200 dif- about this to his professor brother,
ferent types of cells in the body of an adult vertebrate. The multiplication of these and he sent a letter in which he
specialized cells forms masses of similar cells which form organs in a process explained everything he did growing
known as organogenesis. This gives a particular organism its distinct shape. chicks. After a week, a reply came.
His brother wrote: 'It is interesting
and surprising. Just send me a soil
4.2. CLEAVAGE sample from the field, and let me
check whether the soil is good
The zygote starts the first of many mitotic divisions just after fertilization. The enough'.
first division of the diploid nucleus is quickly followed by complete partitioning of
the cytoplasm, and the two resulting cells are called blastomeres. Each blas-
tomere divides repeatedly until 32 cells are formed, known as a morula. It is
thought that identical cells recognise each other from the arrangement of special
proteins on the plasma membrane. During cleavage, the rapid increase in cell
number is not accompanied by an increase in overall size. Instead, the size of each

Reproduction and Development

cell decreases. As the number of blastomeres continues to double, a hollow ball,
or blastula, of several hundred cells is formed around a cavity
filled with fluid known as the blastocoel.

4.3. GASTRULATION
Once enough divisions have occurred to provide all the basic
units from which all body parts of the new organism can develop,
the cells arrange themselves further into three layers of similar
cells known as embryonic tissue. The ultimate destination and
function of each cell of the blastula is determined by an organiz-
er region in its structure. As migrating cells move through this
region, they bend in on themselves in a process known as invagi-
nation. They are stimulated to behave in different ways: cells that
migrate to the outer layer form ectoderm, from which the epi-
dermis and the nervous system will develop. The middle layer

49
 forms mesoderm, which will develop into muscle tissue, and the circula-
tory and reproductive systems. In all vertebrates irrespective of the posi-
tion of the blastula, the mesoderm will also develop into the skeleton and
excretory system. The inner layer of cells forms the endoderm which will
develop into the digestive system and the lungs. Once the three germ
layers have been formed, the whole structure is referred to as a gastrula
(Figure–3.4).

1. Gastrulation in Amphibia
Gastrulation starts in an area of cells directly below a region known
as the grey crescent, on the equator of the blastula. This region func-
tions as an organizer region. As the cells pass down and inwards, they
bend back on themselves, forming a double layer (Figure–3.5).
The blastocoel starts to shrink in size as it is replaced with a sheet of
cells. At the same time a new cavity forms between the yolk-filled cells
in the vegetal region and the invaginated cells. The single entrance to
this narrow cavity, the archenteron, is through the blastopore. This cav-
ity forms the main part of the future digestive system. The ceiling and
edge of this cavity, known as the
dorsal lip, forms its upper surface
and all invaginating cells from the
animal hemisphere pass over it
Figure-3.4.: Gastrulation produces embryonic layers and change morphologically. Its
lower surface, or ventral lip, is
formed from yolky cells, and these too are invaginated. They form future endoder-
mal tissue. As rapid mitotic divisions continue, more and more cells reach the dor-
sal lip. A queue of cells waiting to invaginate builds up and the dorsal lip increases
in size and starts to cover the blastopore, which gradually shrinks in size and final-
ly closes. It is from this region that the anus will form. The yolk-filled cells that
formed the base of the archenteron now form a yolk plug directly under the closed
blastopore.

2. Gastrulation in Birds
A bird’s egg contains a large volume of yolk, containing large vegetal cells. The
less dense animal cells from which the embryo will develop are positioned on top
of the yolk and form the blastodisc. After a number of mitotic divisions, the cells
arrange themselves into a layer of epiblast forming the roof of the blastodisc. Since
Animals and Human

the ecto-, endo- and mesoderm of the embryo all develop from this layer, it is
known as the embryonic disc. Underneath this disc is the fluid-filled blastocoel, and
the layer of cells forming its floor are called hypoblast cells. While still continuing to
divide, epiblast cells start to migrate inwards to the middle of the embryonic disc.
As more and more cells arrive in this organizer region, it becomes elongated and
thickened, and is termed the primitive streak. Unlike the blastopore of amphibia,
there is no opening for the cells to pass through. Instead, individual cells move Figure-3.5.: Gastrulation in amphibia is ini-
tiated when the cells at the grey crescent
down into the blastocoel and turn back on themselves to each side of the disc, roll inwards at the blastopore in the region
forming a double layered structure. In contrast to gastrulation in amphibians, a of the dorsal lip. As mitotic divisions contin-
second cavity or archenteron does not form. As the cells travel over the primitive ue, the blastopore encloses the yolk plug.

50
streak they change morphologically. The first cells passing over the primitive
streak form a layer of endoderm which replaces the hypoblast cells as the floor of
the blastocoel. Others following later form either the mesoderm or collect at the
anterior end of the developing embryo in a region called Henson’s node. The cells
of this region develop into the notochord (Figure–3.6-3-12).

4.4. DIFFERENTIATION AND ORGANOGENESIS

If it were possible to examine the cells of different organs of your body, you
would see a great range of complex types, all adapted to perform a particular func-
tion. Each of these cells has the same number and type of chromosomes yet has
differentiated into a variety of forms during your development.
The genotype of each cell of a developing embryo is the same irrespective of
Figure-3.6.: Gastrulation in birds is initiated
its stage of development. Especially during gastrulation and cleavage, there are when the small cells of the animal hemi-
major changes to the phenotype of a cell. This continues as cells differentiate into sphere - known as the embryonic disc, roll
inwards at the middorsal region. The thick-
ened region produced is known as the prim-
itive streak.

Figure-3.7.: A chick embryo 16 hours after fer- Figure-3.8.: A chick embryo 48 hours into its Figure-3.9.: A 7 day old chick embryo.The
tilisation showing the primitive streak. development. The notochord has formed and embryonic membranes have formed and the
blocks of somites are výsible. major organs are developing.

Reproduction and Development

1.5 years old bird

Figure-3.10.: A chick embryo 10 days into its Figure-3.11.: At 15 days, down feathers are Figure-3.12.: 20 days after fertilisation the
development. The appendages have now starting to grow. chick has completed its development and is
formed. ready to hatch.

51
 A NEW WORLD blood, bone, muscle, nervous and other tissue.
Two monozygotic Early experiments on differentiation were carried out by Hans Spemann and
twins were aware of Hilde Mangold using amphibian embryos. One of their important experiments is
nothing at the beginning. After
explained in the “Read Me” article entitled Spemann’s Experiment. They proved that
weeks, when they had small,
sweet hands, legs and all other cells differentiate into a particular type by tissue interaction, using a process known
structures, they began to recognize as induction. Another proof of induction is the formation of eye lenses by interaction
their world. They always talked of tissues
about how lucky they were,
because they were living in the In order for cells to differentiate, they must be triggered to utilize the needed sec-
best world, a womb, which is
tions of their chromosomes that activate production of specific proteins. It is still
warm, soft and the most comfort-
able place for them. unclear what activates only the specific, needed part of a chromosome to form dif-
After a time they started to dis-
ferent cells of the body.
cover their world. They found the When differentiation is triggered, cells change in structure to perform specific
umbilical cord and they thought
how merciful their mother was. functions, Differentiated cells first form tissues and tissues become organized into
She was delivering all needed sub- organs which collectively form body systems. Different embryonic layers form dif-
stances through this cord. After the ferent tissues and organs that can be summarized as follows
7th month they experienced inter-
esting disturbances and they 1. Ectoderm
understood sometime, somehow
they would leave this lovely place. The outermost layer of germ tissue of an embryo develops into epithelial, glan-
After the 8th month, these
dular and nervous tissue, as well as sensory tissue receptors of sense organs. The
signs became stronger, and one of structures of the body formed are the brain, spinal cord, adrenal medulla, photore-
the twins asked what was hap- ceptors, pigment cells, sweat glands, mucous glands, mammary glands and the epi-
pening. The second one was calm dermis.
and answered that they could no
longer stay there. The first one said
2. Mesoderm
that he didn’t want to leave this
place, but the second added that The middle layer of germ tissue develops into connective, supportive, blood and
they could do nothing to change adipose tissue. Mesoderm also develops into cartilage, bone, striated muscle,
this, and said, ‘Maybe there is a
better life after birth.’ ‘After cutting
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, blood vessels and endothelial cells. Also the tubule
the cord how is it possible to sur- cells of the kidneys, gonads and the epithelial tissue covering the inner surface of
vive? Others were here and left, internal organs.
but nobody ever returned to tell
about life outside. No, no this will 3. Endoderm
be the end. And maybe even there
is no something like mom,’ said The innermost layer of germ tissue develops into the tissues of the digestive sys-
the first. ‘Then how could we get tem, the respiratory system, the liver and the epithelial cells of the urinary bladder,
here? There must be a mom’ the tracheal cells of lungs, pancreas, salivary glands, parathyroid and thyroid glands.
answered the second. The hope-
less one asked, ‘Have you ever
Animals and Human

seen her? Maybe we just made up 4.5. GENERATION OF TISSUES

the story of mom.’
Animal tissues are classified according to their germ tissue of origin.
While all this discussion was
going on, the time came and birth A tissue is a group of cells that have been produced from the same germ layer
occurred. Both cried for happiness, and share similar structures in order to carry out similar functions. The cells of the
because the new world and their tissue cooperate together in material exchange and internal communication.
mom were much better than they
thought. The functions of a tissue distinguish it from a simple colony. In simple colonies,
Anthony de Mello all functions are performed in each individual cell, whereas a tissue is specialized for
a particular function.

52
 Reproduction and Development

The origin of each cell of a differentiated organism can be traced back to its germ layer during its embryonic development.

53
 A Mother at 65! A tissue comprised of similar cells contributes to the function of a specific
With the help of a fertility
organ which may be composed of several tissue types. These individual organs
specialist, a 65 year old play important roles in systems that operate life processes, such as digestion or
woman has a baby. respiration. An organism is the combination of all these vital systems.
All her relatives come to visit and
meet the newest member of their 4.6. EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES AND THE PLACENTA
family.
When they ask to see the baby, the Vertebrates have different strategies to protect and nourish the embryo during
65 year old mother says, "Not yet." its development. The greater the complexity of an organism, the greater the
A little later they ask to see the amount of energy and resources expended on a few or a single offspring, and also
baby again. the effort made to protect it until it reaches maturity. Fish and amphibia, for exam-
Again the mother says, "Not yet." ple, spawn a large number of eggs, as only a very few will survive to adulthood.
Finally they say, "When can we see Each egg is gelatinous and has little protection against predators. It only contains
the baby?"
enough yolk to support growth to a larval stage, after which it must feed on its
And the mother says, "When the
own. Higher vertebrates, such as reptiles and birds, are terrestrial and must meet
baby cries."
the challenges of survival in environments where water is much less available.
And they ask, "Why do we have to
wait until the baby cries?" Clearly a soft, permeable egg would rapidly desiccate on land. To overcome this,
The new mother says, "Because I lower terrestrial vertebrates lay calcified eggs that are impermeable to water but
forgot where I put it." permeable to gases. The developing embryo obtains all its energy, structural mate-
rials and water from the large amount of yolk within the egg (Figure–3.13).
The other advantages of a large, calcified, independent egg are greater pro-
tection from predators and the means for the new organism to develop to a
greater extent before hatching, thus increasing its chances of survival. Before lay-
ing a viable egg, the fertilized ovum is covered by proteinaceous albumen covered
by a shell membrane which is then encased within a shell. All these structures are
secreted by the oviduct. When the egg is first laid, the shell is pliable and hardens
on exposure to the air. As the embryo develops above the yolk sac, four separate
membranes develop around it. Their functions are to allow the passage of respira-
tory gases and wastes, to prevent desiccation and to protect the embryo from dam-
age. These membranes are a feature of both lower and higher terrestrial vertebrates
and are formed from embryonic tissue.
1. The Chorion
The chorion is involved in gas exchange and is formed from
ectoderm and mesoderm, enclosing all the other inner mem-
branes. It is located directly beneath the shell in the eggs of
oviparous animals such as reptiles and birds. In viviparous ani-
mals it lies adjacent to the uterine wall.
Animals and Human

2. The Amnion
The amnion is the membrane containing amniotic fluid, the
watery substance which supports the embryo. This fluid fills an
area called the amniotic cavity. The amnion is also formed
from ectoderm and mesoderm. It secretes amniotic fluid into
the amniotic cavity and functions as a protective cushion
against impact, also providing a medium in which the embryo
Figure-3.13.: The extraembryonic membranes of a developing chick can move freely. In addition it is involved in gas exchange.
embryo provide vital access to nutrients and respiratory gases.

54
 3. The Allantois
The allantois is a membrane formed from endoderm and
mesoderm. It forms a sac in the eggs of fish and reptiles in Spemann’s Experiment
which waste substances accumulate. Uric acid excreted by the During the 1920s, German scientists Hans Spemann
embryonic kidneys is isolated here as crystals and is discarded and Hilde Mangold worked on amphibian embryos in
at hatching. The allantois needs to be well developed in the cal- order to investigate cell differentiation. The experi-
cified self-contained eggs of reptiles and birds. It is nonfunc- ments they performed were a milestone in investiga-
tional or absent in fish and amphibian embryos since they tions into embryonic development. They aimed to prove
excrete their wastes into the water directly. that specialized cells are formed as a result of tissue
interaction. To demonstrate this they transplanted a
In addition, the allantois is also involved in gas exchange by
group of cells from the dorsal lip of a salamander
its fusion to the chorion. The whole structure is termed the embryo undergoing gastrulation into the ventral tissue
chorioallantoic membrane. Its large number of blood vessels of a second host salamander embryo at the same stage
enables it to transmit atmospheric oxygen to the embryo via of development. This animal developed gross physical
the shell and air space and to remove carbon dioxide in the abnormalities with two brains and two spinal cords. Its
same way. In mammals, however, respiratory gases and wastes nervous system also developed abnormally. The embryo
are transported through the placenta via blood vessels within from which tissue was taken also developed abnormal-
the umbilical cord. In birds, most of the allantois is discarded ly with an incomplete nervous system.
at hatching along with other extraembryonic membranes. Only They concluded that the transplanted cells induced the
the base remains within the body and forms part of the urinary ectoderm on the ventral side of the host to generate
bladder. nervous tissue instead of epidermal tissue. The effects
of the transplanted cells were so strong on the tissue
4. The Yolk Sac or Vitellus into which they had been transplanted that they gave
The membrane enclosing the yolk sac is composed of the dorsal lip tissue an additional name, that of organ-
endoderm and mesoderm and forms from part of the future izer region. In the salamander embryo experiment, the
digestive system. Its role is to segregate protein, lipid and car- dorsal lip cells in effect organized the formation of
bohydrate within the yolk and to gradually digest it into a nervous system elements such as the brain and spinal
cord.
usable form for tissue construction. In birds and reptiles it
forms part of the digestive tract when the young hatch. In most
mammals, a small yolk sac develops despite the fact that the

Reproduction and Development

embryo obtains its nourishment from its mother by other
means.

5. The Placenta
One of the reasons why mammals are so successful is that
a higher proportion of their offspring survive to complete their
period of development. This is due to the females’ conserving
their offspring within their own bodies and providing a safe
environment, as well as nutrients, for their development. One
of the key organs that makes this possible is the placenta. It
forms a close association in the uterus between mother and
offspring through which nutrients and gases may pass. The
placenta is unique in that it involves close cooperation between
both embryonic chorion and maternal uterine tissue.

55
 4.7. DEVELOPMENT IN MARSUPIALS – POUCHED MAMMALS
The marsupials are a group of mammals whose young develop both within
and out of the uterus of the mother. After fertilization, the zygote starts to grow,
using first its yolk sac for nutrients and then absorbed nutrients from the mother.
A placenta starts to develop, but since a strong connection between mother and
embryo is never established, after approximately a month the embryo breaks away
from the lining and is born. Immediately after passing out of the birth canal it
crawls up its mother’s abdomen into a pouch on her abdomen known as the mar-
supium and attaches itself to a nipple inside. The marsupium provides a safe envi-
ronment for the kangaroo fetus to develop and its nutritional demands are met by
the milk secreted by the mother’s mammary glands in the pouch.
4.8. EGG-LLAYING MAMMALS
The duck-billed platypus is one of the few remaining primitive egg-laying
mammals or monotremes left in the world. It lays a batch of small reptilian-like
eggs containing a large amount of yolk. When the yolk reserves have been used
up, the young hatch from their egg and suckle milk from their mother until they
are old enough to fend for themselves.
INSECT DEVELOPMENT
In all organisms, hormones are the key substances of reproduction and devel-
opment. All animals and humans secrete these biochemical messengers to
regulate reproduction and development, including birth and postnatal (after-
birth) care such as lactation. Many hormones are also identified in inverte-
brate development. In the 1930s some hormones of insect development
(metamorphosis) were studied. Insects, like other arthropods, have an
exoskeleton which limits growth and, therefore, must be shed periodically.
Normally insect larvae molt (shed their skeletons) several times, and then
thier pupae (preadult forms in cocoons) undergo metamorphosis and
become adult.
Wiglesworth showed that the insect brain was necessary for maturation
because it produces a hormone, called brain hormone, which controls mat-
uration. Brain hormone stimulates production of ecdysone (produced by the
prothoracic gland behind the head) which is also known as molt-and-matu-
ration hormone. However, it is understood that during the larval form juve-
Animals and Human

nile hormone is the determining factor. If juvenile hormone is present in high

doses, larvae (caterpillar form) molt into larger larvae; if juvenile hormone is
present minimally, larvae pupate (form a silk cone); and, if juvenile hormone
is absent, the larvae undergo metamorphosis and become adult directly (left
picture).
Some plants even produce some secretions like these hormones that dis-
rupt further development of larvae into insect. Nowadays it is being planned
to use such substances from plant extract to control pests.

56
 MALES CAN ALSO
READ ME GIVE BIRTH
Although sea horses look very different from other fish, they are categorized as bony fishes. They
have an external skeleton, a horse-like head, eyes which move independently from each other, a
coiled tail which the sea horse uses to attach itself to sea weed, and a pouch for carrying its off-
spring, rather like in a kangaroo. There the similarity between a kangaroo and a sea horse stops.
Only male sea horses have a pouch.
Before mating, the males undergo some anatomical and physiological changes. The epithelial
tissue in the abdominal pouch becomes thicker and sponge-like in structure. The tissue becomes
highly vascularized in preparation for receiving the eggs from the female. During mating, the female
releases 150-200 eggs into the pouch of the male. While they are being released, the male fertilizes
them. During deposition, the entrance of the pouch enlarges. After mating, it shrinks to a small pore.
Once inside the pouch, the eggs become embedded in the spongy epithelial lining, which functions
as a placenta. During their 4 - 5 week development, the eggs are nutrified from the circulatory sys-
tem of the father. His blood vessels also transport O2 to the eggs and CO2 away from them. As his
200 offspring continue to increase in size, the father has to eat more frequently, his abdomen
enlarges and he starts to swim slowly. At the end of their development, the entrance of the pouch
opens and the birth begins.
It seems that the birth process is very painful for the father as he sometimes rubs his pouch onto rocks to finish his ordeal as
quickly as possible. The new born sea horses emerge one by one and swim up to the surface of the sea to take air immediately after
birth. They are 6-7 mm in length and are miniature copies of their parents. There is no further parental care and the young sea hors-
es must take their chance in the dangerous environment of the sea alone.
Adapted from Sýzýntý, February 1989 Biology is the only science
in which multiplication
means the same thing as
division.
VALUABLE WASTE : UMBILICAL CORD

The immunologist Peter Wernet from Dusseldorf, is collecting umbilical cords after getting the consent of new mothers after the
birth of their child. From every umbilical cord, 100 ml of blood can be obtained. Peter Wernet has been extracting and processing this
blood to help him in his work on leukemia in children. The umbilical cord is unique in that it contains 2.5 times more stem cells than
bone marrow. The stem cells are the precursors of all types of blood cells during the first trimester. Wernet is able to use 5 ml of the

Reproduction and Development

100ml of blood from each umbilical cord. Immunologists have been searching for a cure for leukemia for many years, since the mor-
tality rate from this disease is so high and transplants of bone marrow are so difficult due to the need for compatibility between donor
and recipient. In reality, only 60 percent of patients can find a suitable donor.
According to Science magazine, if the stem cells of the umbilical cord are transplanted, the risk of incompatibility during a bone
marrow transplant can be reduced. In fact, in the 90 umbilical cord cell transplant procedures performed all over the world, incom-
patibility has rarely been seen. Also, stem cells from an umbilical cord reproduce rapidly as compared to those in bone marrow.
In the USA, the same method has been used in the treatment of genetic diseases. In 1993, the gene therapist Donald Kohn
obtained stem cells from the umbilical cord of three babies suffering from gene deficiency. He injected a healthy copy of the deficient
genes into stem cells and transplanted them 4 days later. As a result, these new cells became established in the previously malfunc-
tioning bone marrow of the babies.
Since the number of stem cells from a single umbilical cord is insufficient for adults, until recently transplants have only been per-
formed on children. Research is continuing on the production of stem cells under laboratory conditions. Through the efforts of
Wernet, Kohn and other workers, a European network is currently being established, its aim: to store 20,000 umbilical cord stem cells
to try to help patients who are unable to find suitable bone marrow.

Adapted from Focus, July 1995

57
 5. HUMAN REPRODUCTION
In common with reptiles, birds and other mammals, the reproductive system
for the continuation of a particular species is not a requirement for life. That is to
say, an individual can continue to live normally if the reproductive organs are
removed or if he or she is infertile.
As well as being specialized producers of sex cells or gametes, the reproduc-
tive organs of a human also secrete some of the hormones that regulate their own
development and maintain the sexual characteristics of a male or female. The
reproductive organs of females are also well designed to accommodate a fertil-
ized egg and maintain it during its development from a single cell into a baby
weighing approximately three and a half kilos.
5.1. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The male reproductive system is uniquely designed to:
produce and maintain male gametes or sperm
produce androgens or male sex hormones
to produce secretions needed for sperm transfer
transport and deposit sperm together with its nutrient fluids into the female
reproductive tract

1. Male Reproductive Organs

The male reproductive system is composed of a pair of testes, epididymis and
vas deferens merging into a single urethra. Accessory organs such as the seminal
vesicle, Cowper’s gland and the prostate gland produce secretions that assist the
movement of sperm. (Figure–5.1).
Testes: Each testis is a lobed, egg-shaped organ encapsulated within a
pouch of skin known as the scrotum. During their development they remain
within the body cavity, descending into the scrotum, where the temperature
is slightly cooler, after birth. The optimum temperature for sperm production
is 35°C and is provided by the position of the testes outside but in close prox-
imity to the body cavity. Each lobe of a testis contains vast numbers of coiled
Figure-5.1.: The male reproductive system
illustrating the structures required in the for- seminiferous tubules which unite to form a complex network. This in turn
mation of semen. leads into several ducts that finally merge to form a tube known as the epi-
didymis where sperm mature and are stored temporarily. (Figure–5.2-3).
The seminiferous tubules contain two types of cells: spermatagonia, involved
with spermatogenesis or sperm production, and sertoli cells. Spermatagonia
divide mitotically to form spermatocytes (sperm mother-cells) which in turn form
spermatids by reduction division. These mature into sperms or spermatozoa.
Sertoli cells embedded within the stratified epithelium lining the seminiferous
tubules are thought to secrete a hormone that regulates spermatogenesis and
Human

A couple of biologist
had twins. One they nourishes the cells. Between the seminiferous tubules are interstitial cells known
called John and the as leyding cells. Their function is to produce and secrete the male sex hormone
other control. testosterone.

58
 2. Spermatogenesis
Millions of sperm are continuously produced throughout each day of the repro-
ductive life of a man. Those that are not used are degraded and recycled.
Spermatogenesis is initiated by the mitotic formation of primary spermatocytes
(2n) from spermatogonia. By first meiotic cell division, each primary spermatocyte
subdivides into two secondary spermatocytes (n). The secondary spermatocytes
then divide into spermatids by second meiotic division.Thus the number of chro-
mosomes is reduced by half. After meiosis is completed, four haploid spermatide
cells differentiate into mature sperm. Differentiation is a very complex and impor-
tant process that forms mature sperm from simple haploid cells (Figure–5.4).
A mature sperm is well adapted to its vital role in reproduction. It is streamlined
Figure-5.2.: A longitudinal section of a testis.
in shape with a long whip-like tail, allowing it to swim fast. Its head is flattened and Notice the coiled seminiferous tubes. Top:
pointed and it is within this structure that the 23 chromosomes of the haploid Diagrammatic form.
nucleus are stored. Directly behind the head, its cylindrical body contains a spiral Bottom: Micrograph of the same structure
showing sperm under construction.
of many mitochondria that generate the ATP energy needed for the sperm to swim
in search of the egg. Each sperm has a long tail composed of a single flagellum
made up of microtubules and powered by mitochondria. Mature spermatozoa
shed their cytoplasm and nonvital organelles while still in the seminiferous
tubules, cutting down on unnecessary weight and bulk that would slow them
down on their long journey up into the fallopian tubes. Once a successful sperm
has located the egg, it still has to penetrate the egg membrane before it can
unload its chromosomes to achieve fertilization. To achieve this, the acrosome
located at the tip of the sperm head secretes enzymes to degrade the egg mem-
brane. Also, proteins bind together, forming a needle to bore a hole through the
membrane. Only then can the contents of the sperm nucleus be finally injected
into the egg cytoplasm. When this task has been accomplished, continuous mitot- Figure-5.3.: A diagrammatic view of a sperm.
ic divisions are initiated and a single cell zygote develops into a whole organism Notice the long whiplike tail for mobility and
the large head containing the nuclear mate-
within a relatively short period. rial.

Reproduction and Development

3. Formation of Semen
During ejaculation, the high levels of stimulation experienced by the male trig-
ger contractions of the smooth muscle of all the reproductive structures. This
forces approximately 350 million sperm into the urethra. This volume is increased
by secretions from the seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral glands.
The resulting mixture is known as semen. In addition to sperm, it contains alka-
Dew is formed on leaves
line fluid from the prostate and seminal vesicles which stimulate sperm mobility
when the sun shines down
and neutralizes the acidity of the mixture from the epididymis and the female vagi- on them and makes them
na. Fructose within this fluid provides fuel for the sperm on their journey. perspire.

59
 Prostoglandins in semen stimulate smooth muscular contraction of the
vagina and uterus, helping the sperm to reach the fallopian tubes where,
in one, an egg may be waiting.
After their production in the seminiferous tubules, the fully formed but
immature sperm cells accumulate in the lumen of each tubule. Rhythmic
contractions of smooth muscle and the pressure of continuous fluid for-
mation push the immobile sperm to the epididymis where they mature.
Those that are not used by the male are degraded and absorbed.
The mature sperm that are to be used accumulate before ejaculation
in a long, narrow tract leading from each testis known as the vas defer-
ens. This tract opens into the ejaculatory duct, into which the seminal
vesicle and prostate gland also open. The ejaculatory duct opens into
the urethra which expels either semen or urine from the body depending
on the activity of the male.
Before the semen leaves the body, it is enriched further by mucous-
like secretions of the bulbourethral glands, or Cowper’s glands, located
around the urethra. This provides lubrication for the urethra of the male
in order to facilitate the movement of semen.

Penile Structure
All these important and needed processes would be useless without
the erectile structure of the penis. The urethra runs along the penis and
around the urethra there is a strong spongy tissue which has efficient
blood circulation. When erection (hardening of penile structure) is to
occur, the veins are constricted by neuro-hormonal control and less
blood returns back to the circulation than the blood coming in. Thus
Figure-5.4.: Sperm production spongy tissue is filled with blood with high pressure and becomes suit-
able (larger and harder) to transfer seminal liquid into the female repro-
ductive tract. At older ages, the necessary blood vessels can not be con-
stricted and erection can not be formed, even as sperm production proceeds. This
phenomenon is generally termed impotency. (Figure–5.5).
5.2. FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The female reproductive system is highly specialized for the following func-
tions:
production and maintenance of female gametes known as eggs or ova, by
a process known as oogenesis
production of female sex hormones
transport of the ovum to site of fertilization
produce secretions to attract sperm and make their movement easier
provision of a favourable environment for growth and development of off-
Human

spring
expulsion of the fully developed new offspring
Figure-5.5.: Penile Structure

60
 1. Female Reproductive Organs
This remarkable system capable of generating new life is
composed of a pair of ovaries, oviducts, a single uterus,
cervix and vagina (Figure–5.6).
Ovaries: The ovaries are located one on each side of
the ventral side of the lower abdomen and contain
many eggs or ova. All are present from the birth of the
female. Starting from some time during puberty, each
month an egg, or ovum, matures in one of the ovaries
and is released. The ovary also functions as an
endocrine organ, releasing female sex hormones.
Oviduct: The paired oviducts are tube-like in shape
and are both fused at one end to the top of the uterus.
After an ovum or egg has been released from one of
the ovaries, the oviduct or fallopian tube adjacent to it
catches the ovum and transports it down into the
uterus by the action of cilia which sweep the egg
along. If sperm is present, the fallopian tubes are also
the site of fertilization. Figure-5.6.: The structures of the female reproductive system

Uterus: It is a pear-shaped, thick-walled, muscular

structure, designed to nurse and protect any new life growing within it.
Normally the uterus wall is thin, but it thickens in order to support the zygote
and make implantation possible. Once fertilization has taken place, the
zygote is swept along to the end of an oviduct (fallopian tube) and down into
the uterus. Continuous mitotic divisions make it attach itself to the lining of
the uterus approximately a week after fertilization. Here it remains until its
development is complete. If there has been no fertilization, the ovum follows
the same route and it is passed out through the vagina, or it might be
destroyed before being passed (usually eggs survive 24 hours after ovula-
tion). If fertilization does not occur, the thickened wall of the uterus is
destroyed and shed with bleeding. Sometimes the uterus may not develop

Reproduction and Development

normally and show branchings, which may cause infertility
Vagina: It is an expandable elastic tube forming the connection between all
the internal structures of the reproductive system and the external environ-
ment. Sperm may move up it into the uterus and the unfertilized ovum and
tissue fragments of the uterus lining move down it before they are expelled.
The vagina also functions as a birth canal along which the developed off-
spring is brought into the world.

2. Oogenesis
At birth, each ovary contains approximately a million ova. From the start of
menstruation, only a few will mature and be released during the reproductive life
of a woman. Of this small number, only a fraction will actually be fertilized and
develop.
Spermatogenesis

61
 A man walked into a drug The release of an ovum marks the end of a sequence of events that started in
store and asked the phar- the female before birth. A diploid cell known as an oogonium divides repeatedly
macist, "Do you have any by mitotic cell division to form many oogonia. After mitotic division ceases, the
acetylsalicylic acid?" oogonia mature to form primary oocytes (2n). All further divisions are meiotic. The
"You mean aspirin?" asked the phar- first meiotic cell division results in the unequal division of the primary oocyte to
macist.
form two haploid cells, namely the secondary oocyte (n), and the first polar body.
"That's it, I can never remember that
word."
Both cells are genetically identical but differ in their amount of cytoplasm. The
secondary oocyte inherits almost all the cytoplasm from the parent cell, thus there
is a considerable size difference between it and the first polar body. This first mei-
otic division is initiated before birth but then ceases for a minimum of fourteen

Two mentally retarded

women are walking down
the street. One notices a
compact on the sidewalk
and leans down to pick it up. She
opens it, looks in the mirror and
says, "Hmm, this person looks famil-
iar."
The second one says, "Here, let me
see!"
So the first hands her the compact.
The second one looks in the mirror
and says, "You dummy, it's me!"

How is it possible to
have a civil war?
If one synchronized
swimmer drowns, do
the rest drown too?
If you ate pasta and antipasta,
would you still be hungry?
If you try to fail, and succeed,
which have you done?

A doctor said to his

car mechanic, “Your
fee is several times
more per hour then
we get paid for medical care.”
“Yeah, but you see, doc, you
always have the same model,
Human

it hasn't changed since Adam;

but we have to keep up to
date with new models coming Figure-5.7.: Oogenesis involves the production of one functional ovum and three polar bodies by reduction divi-
out every year.” sion. The secondary oocyte pauses at metapahase until a sperm enters it.

62
years. Shortly before an ovum is to be released
from an ovary, the first meiotic division is com-
pleted. The second meiotic division takes place in
one of the fallopian tubes after the primary oocyte
and its attached polar body have been released
from an ovary. This meiotic division results in the
formation of a large mature ovum and three tiny
secondary polar bodies. The ovum is ready to be
fertilized and the three polar bodies degenerate
(Figure–5.7).

3. Menstrual Cycle
A normal healthy human female normally ovu-
lates approximately every twenty-eight days
throughout her reproductive life. She can there-
fore become pregnant during any month of the
year. In contrast, most other mammals only ovu-
late at certain times of the year, usually in the
autumn, and give birth in the spring, when food is
plentiful. Thus the months during which concep-
tion is possible are limited (Figure–5.8).
In order for successful fertilization and implan-
tation of an embryo into the uterus, a complex
sequence of physical and hormonal changes take
place. In humans, most of the preparations for
pregnancy are made before fertilization occurs.
The process during which an ovum is released
and the uterus is made ready to receive it occur as
part of a lunar cycle known as the menstrual cycle,
and includes several steps of complex processes.

a. Follicular Development

Reproduction and Development

This critical sequence of events is initiated dur-
ing menstruation, or shedding of the uterus lining.
A low level of the hormone progesterone in the
blood stimulates the hypothalamus to produce
gonadotropin-releasing hormone, GnRH, which in
turn acts on the pituitary gland to secrete follicle
stimulating hormone, FSH. This hormone triggers
some of the many immature, sac-like follicles in
the ovaries to develop. Only one of these follicles
matures beyond a certain size, the others shrink to
their original form. Within the maturing follicle,
meiotic division results in the production of the
secondary oocyte, a process taking approximately Figure-5.8.: The estrus cycle of a human female. Notice the thickening of the
14 days. The maturing follicle is also stimulated to endometrial lining in preparation for possible implantation and degeneration of the
produce the hormone estrogen by the action of lining when there is no pregnancy.

63
 A blonde was speeding in FSH. The estrogen triggers the thickening of the lining of the uterus, preparing it
a 35 mile per hour zone to receive and nurture the zygote. As the concentration of estrogen increases in
when a local police cruiser the blood, it stimulates the release of leuteinizing hormone, LH, from the anterior
pulled her over. The officer, lobe of the pituitary gland. The combined effect of estrogen and LH triggers ovu-
who was also a blonde, walked up
to the car and asked for the blonde lation.
driver's license.
The driver searched frantically in her b. Ovulation
purse for a while and finally said to
the blonde policewoman, "What
Ovulation is the release of an ovum from a mature, or Graafian, follicle in the
does a driver's license look like?" surface layer of the ovary by the rupture of its wall. The ovum enters the pelvic cav-
Irritated, the blonde cop said, "You ity and is caught by the feathery outgrowths of the fallopian tube. (Figure–5.9).
dummy, it's got your picture on it!"
The driver frantically searched her c. Development of the Corpus Luteum
purse again and found a small rec-
tangular mirror down at the bottom. After the ovum has left the follicle, the high level of LH stimulates the conver-
She held it up to her face and said, sion of the empty collapsed follicle into the corpus luteum. Under the influence of
"Aha! This must be my driver's
license!" and handed it to the blonde
LH, the cells of the follicle divide and lipid accumulates. The corpus luteum then
policewoman. functions as an endocrine gland, secreting estrogen and progesterone to keep the
The blonde cop looked in the mirror, uterus lining ready for possible pregnancy. Progesterone also suppresses any fur-
handed it back to the driver and ther development of follicles. If no fertilization takes place, after 12–14 days the
said, "You're free to go. And, if I had corpus luteum loses its capacity to produce hormones, and their concentration in
known you were a police officer too,
we could have avoided all this has-
the blood gradually decreases.
sle."
d. Menstruation

A man went to see his doc-

tor because he was suffer-
ing from a miserable cold.
His doctor prescribed some
pills, but they didn't help.
On his next visit the doctor gave him
a shot, but that didn't do any good.
On his third visit the doctor told the
man, "Go home and take a hot bath.
As soon as you finish bathing throw
open all the windows and stand in
the draft."
"But doc," protested the patient, "If I
Human

do that, I'll get pneumonia."

"I know," said the doctor, "I can cure
pneumonia." Figure-5.9.: The female reproductive cycle. An ovum is released from one of the ovaries every 28 days.
If fertilized, it implants in the uterus–a specialized muscular structure.

64
 Insufficient progesterone and estrogen disrupts the supply of oxygen to the lining of
the uterus or endometrium. When the tissue becomes damaged beyond repair, it breaks
away from the uterus and is expelled through the vagina. The resulting menstrual fluid is
composed mainly of fragments of the lining of the endometrium, mucus and blood.
When the concentration of progesterone drops sufficiently, the cycle starts again.
If fertilization takes place, the developing zygote implants itself in the endometrial lin-
ing. Shortly after this, the membranes surrounding this ball of cells start to secrete the hor-
mone human chorionic gonadotropin, HCG, into the blood. The detection of this hor-
mone in the blood or urine is a reliable way to confirm pregnancy. The corpus luteum
responds to HCG by continuing to produce estrogen and progesterone that will maintain
the endometrial lining. The continued secretion of progesterone inhibits all further follicle
development and prevents further ovulation. As the zygote develops into an embryo, then
into a fetus, a placenta forms through which nutrients are supplied from the body of the
Fetal Alcohol
mother. The placenta also takes over the role of progesterone and estrogen secretion. Effect (FAE) and Fetal
Alcohol Syndrome
5.3. HORMONAL CONTROL OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM (FAS) are caused by
alcohol consumption during
The reproductive processes of both males and females are totally dependent on sex pregnancy.
hormones. In both males and females, these hormones are usually produced by either the Fetal Alcohol Effect and
pituitary, via the hypothalamus, or by the gonads. Male sex hormones are known as andro- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome are
gens and are responsible for the enlargement of the sexual organs at puberty and the pro- ENTIRELY preventable simply
by women refraining from drink-
duction of sperm. They are also responsible for the development of masculine secondary
ing during their pregnancy
sexual characteristics. Female sex hormones are responsible for the development of sec-
FAS and FAE are permanent
ondary sexual characteristics and the control of the menstrual cycle, fertilization and devel- and irreversible - YES! The
opment of the embryo. effects last a lifetime! No cure,
no treatment, just a lifetime of
1. The Pituitary Hormones pain for both the child and the
family, and resulting in signifi-
The pituitary is responsible for the production of a number of sex hormones. Its loca- cant cost to your community.
tion in the brain enables its two lobes to respond to stimuli from the hypothalamus posi- Fetal Alcohol Effect (FAE)
tioned directly above it. The pituitary hormones that target the gonads are termed and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
(FAS) impair a child for life in his
gonadotropins. The activity of the pituitary is regulated by the hypothalamus by the

Reproduction and Development

ability to function mentally,
secretion of releasing factor. To stimulate the production of gonadotropins, the hypo- physically and socially and to
thalamus secretes gonadotropin releasing hormone, GnRH, into the anterior lobe of the be the best that he can be.
pituitary. It then responds by releasing the following hormones: Effects can range from mild
to moderate in the case of Fetal
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): In females it controls the formation and devel- Alcohol Effect (FAE), to more
opment of the follicles within both ovaries and the formation of an ovum within one. It involved and severe in the case
also regulates the secretion of estrogen from the developing follicle. In males it stimu- of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
lates sperm production from the seminiferous tubules. (FAS).
Individuals with FAE or FAS
Luteinizing Hormone (LH): In females it triggers the rupture of the follicle and the are effected by impairments in
release of the ovum. It also stimulates the development of the corpus luteum and the reasoning and judgment. Self-
secretion of progesterone. In males it acts on the interstitial cells of the seminiferous control can be severely impaired
and may result in crime, delin-
tubules, stimulating them to secrete testosterone.
quency and other anti-social
Luteotropic Hormone (LTH): It is also known as prolactin. Its secretion in females behavior.
stimulates the production of progesterone from the corpus luteum and the production of
milk from the mammary glands.

65
 2. Gonad Hormones
Gonad hormones are secreted from the ovaries in females and the testes in
males under the control of pituitary hormones.

a. Female Gonad Hormones

The female gonad hormones are estrogen and progesterone (Figure–5.10).
Estrogen is responsible for the thickening of the uterine wall, preparing it for
possible implantation of the fertilized egg. It stimulates the development of
blood vessels and interstitial fluid that will provide sufficient nutrients for a devel-
oping implanted embryo.
Estrogen also initiates the development of secondary sexual characteristics
in the female during puberty. For example, the growth and development of the
gonads and breasts, as well as the widening of the pelvis.
Progesterone: The action of LH on the corpus luteum induces it to secrete
progesterone. In combination with estrogen, it prepares the endometrial lining
of the uterus for possible pregnancy and stimulates the development of the
mammary glands during pregnancy. Progesterone also suppresses any con-
traction of smooth muscle in the walls of the uterus and prevents any further
Figure-5.10.: Ovulation and subsequent events
are coordinated by cooperation of the pituitary, ovulation.
hypothalamus and the follicle of the ovary.
Oxytocin: It stimulates milk secretion and contraction of uterine muscles.
Prolactin (LTH) : It promotes development of mammary glands during preg-
nancy and then regulates the production of milk after birth. Furthermore, it is
involved in estrogen and progesterone secretion. It also initiates the mothering
instinct.
Adreno Corticoptropic Hormone (ACTH) : It stimulates the secretion of cor-
tisol from the adrenal cortex.

b. Male Gonad Hormone

Testosterone: The interstitial cells located between the seminiferous tubules
secrete the androgenous hormone testosterone. Its production is stimulated by
LH secreted from the pituitary gland. Since there is no menstrual cycle in males,
sperm is continuously produced from adolescence to old age under the influ-
ence of testosterone,
In order for the testes to function effectively, FSH stimulates the develop-
ment of the seminiferous tubules and accelerates spermatogenesis.
Simultaneously, LH acts on the seminiferous tubules resulting in the secretion
of testosterone. By negative feedback, an increase in testosterone concentration
in the blood in turn reduces the level of LH secretion from the pituitary gland
(Figure–5.11).
Testosterone also initiates and maintains secondary sexual characteristics in
Human

males, namely the enlargement of the gonads, development of the prostate

Figure-5.11.: Sperm production is controlled by gland and seminiferous tubules, growth of hair on the body, the change in tone
cooperation between the hypothalamus, anteri-
or pituitary and the testes.
of the voice and the expression of male sexual behavior.

66
 INFERTILITY SEMEN ANALYSIS
Infertility is the inability of the sperm nucleus to reach and Characteristics Normal value
combine with the egg (ovum) nucleus to initiate development of a Volume 1.5-5.0 milliliters/ejaculate
baby. Couples are termed infertile if they do not conceive after 1
Sperm density 20 million cells/milliliter
year of regular mating without using any contraceptives. Usually
80% of infertility problems can be corrected or altered. Of infertil- Percent motile >40%
ity problems, 30% of cases are male, 50% are female and 20% of motile sperm density >8 million/milliliter
cases are shared by both members of the couple.
avarage velocity >20 micrometers/second
Male infertility percent abnormal form <40%
The most common reason of infertility in males is low sperm white blood cells <5 million/milliliter
count. If a male produces less than 60-70 million healthy sperm
per ejaculation, fertilization probability declines and brings up
infertility. Low sperm count may have different causes as explained in the table.
Hormonal imbalance may cause low sperm count, If this is the reason for low
sperm count, taking needed hormones may boost sperm production. Sometimes
the male immune system produces large amounts of antibodies that cover the
sperm or kill it, and prevent them from binding to the egg. A varicose vein may
also prevent sperm maturation by increasing the temperature, which is quite dan-
gerous for sperm production. This is caused because of enlargement of this vein
which increases blood circulation.
A man with low-sperm count may store his sperm from several ejaculations at
an infertility clinic. After excess seminal liquid is removed, the sperm concentra-
tion is increased. When the necessary concentration is reached, the sperm are
transferred into the female genital tract, and usually fertilization can be achieved. The answer to cardiovas-
New improvements have made the solution to infertility easier. Even a single cular genetics
sperm can be taken and injected into an egg, as in the in vitro fertilization process. The Japanese eat very lit-
tle fat and suffer fewer
Besides all these reasons, malnutrition and some other illnesses effect sperm heart attacks than the British or
quality too. Americans.
On the other hand, the French eat a

Reproduction and Development

lot of fat and also suffer fewer heart
attacks than the British or
Americans.
The Japanese drink very little red
wine and suffer fewer heart attacks
than the British or Americans.
The Italians drink excessive
amounts of red wine and also suffer
fewer heart attacks than the British
or Americans.
Conclusion:
Eat and drink what you like. It is
speaking English that kills you.

Genetics explains why you

look like your father and, if
you don't, why you should.

67
 Female infertility
Female reproductive structure is more complicated than that of males and
abnormality of any part of the structure may cause infertility. Many infertile women
have irregular menstrual cycles which makes ovulation time (conception time)
unclear. In a 28-day cycle, ovulation usually occurs around the 14th day after men-
struation (bleeding) begins, and this is the most fertile time.
Many conditions causing hormonal imbalance may result in irregular ovulation.
A tumor in the ovary or pituitary gland, an underactive thyroid gland, or use of
steroid-based drugs such as cortisone, might be the reason for irregular ovulation.
Sometimes the female produces too much prolactin, which suppresses ovulation,
especially in new mothers.
Fertility drugs can stimulate ovulation, but also may cause superovulation (ovu-
lation of more than one egg) which results in multiple birth. If a woman has no
ovary at all (because of any reason such as an operation or birth defects), she can
only conceive by using a donor oocyte. Ovary transplantation may be another
solution, but it is only possible in identical twins for now.
Blocked fallopian tubes are also a common cause of female infertility. Blockage
can prevent sperm from reaching the egg (full blockage), or may keep the fertil-
ized ovum in the fallopian tube and cause ectopic pregnancy (improper implanta-
tion, commonly in the fallopian tube).The reason for the blockage may be a birth
defect or infection and usually it can be corrected or opened temporarily.
Excess tissue growing in the uterine wall can cause infertility too. A fibroid
tumor or endometriosis that makes the uterine wall unsuitable for implantation are
examples of such tissues. In endometriosis, menstrual bleeding is heavy and
painful, and usually occurs with cramps, A successful pregnancy usually decreas-
es further symptoms of endometriosis.
Besides morphological abnormalities, secretions also prevent successful fertil-
ization. Secretions of the vagina and cervix may harm sperm, or thick secretions
may trap them and make their movement difficult. Acidic or alkaline secretions
weaken or kill sperm. Women producing such secretions may correct the problem
by using low doses of estrogen or by daily douching with a weak acidic solution
(such as vinegar) or weak basic solution (such as baking soda) to alter th pH of
the vagina and make it more habitable for sperm.
Infertility is more common in older
women whose eggs have been affect-
ed by many agents, such as infection,
radiation and harmful biochemicals.
These eggs are usually not success-
fully fertilized or they can not develop
and the pregnancy is lost so early that
the woman doesn’t even know that
she was pregnant. These women usu-
Human

ally just observe a late menstruation,

which was actually a spontaneous
Structural infertility abortion.

68
 6. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
The development of a human from conception to birth follows an almost identical procedure to that
of other placental mammals and has many similarities with other classes of vertebrates. If intercourse has
taken place, fertilization occurs within one of the fallopian tubes of a woman on approximately the four-
teenth day of the menstrual cycle. Organisms have isolation mechanisms to prevent breeding between dif-
ferent species. So only appropriate sperm and egg can communicate and combine successfully. Eggs
secrete biochemicals to attract the sperm toward the correct fallopian tube and increase the chance of fer-
tilization. If the sperm is from a different species, fertilization does not occur and reproduction fails (a mule
is a sterile exception of mating between two species: donkey and horse).
Once, a correct and healthy sperm reaches the egg, it penetrates the egg wall using acrosomal enzymes,
and the head of the sperm enters the egg. Mechanisms prevent entrance of other sperm. After sperm
entrance, the egg completes its meiosis. The egg nucleus and sperm combine to form the diploid zygote.
The formation of a diploid zygote initiates cell division at rapid rate. The rate of growth and develop-
ment is so fast that, after only six weeks it has a recognizable human form. During the first eight weeks of
its development, it is referred to as an embryo. From then on it is known as a fetus, up until the point of
birth. A new born baby is known as a neonate and then as an infant after the first month of life up to the
second year. After this he or she is known as a child until adolescence.

Fertilization
Out of the millions of sperm that
The sperm are recognized as
make their way up the fallopian
invaders by the leukocytes of
tubes, only a fraction complete
the female, colored yellow.
the journey. The sperm in the
Many weak swimmers are
electron micrograph were rest-
attacked and engulfed.
ing on of the uterus wall.

The neck of the sperm is filled

The sperm swim against a
by a stack of ‘power packs’.
current produced by waves of
These consist of mitochondria
cilia, colored light green in the
and produce the ATP energy
electron micrograph.
for movement.

The single successful sperm

has penetrated the plasma In this electron micrograph,
membrane of the ovum using the sperm is jettisoning its tail
enzymes produced in its acro- as it is no longer needed.
some.

The moment of conception.

The nuclear material from the
ovum and sperm have made
contact and the ovum has
been transformed into a
diploid zygote.
Photo: Focus
velopment

69
 First and second mitotic divisions. Notice that the number of cells
is increasing but the amount of cytoplasm remains the same.
Many mitotic divisions later, a
hollow ball of cells has formed.

A diagrammatic view of a
fertilised egg.

The embryo is still

only a hollow ball
of small identical
cells. The zona pel-
lucida has now
been lost.
Human

left: The blastocyst has now embedded itself completely and is receiving
The blastocyst has now reached the uterus and starts to embed itself
nutrients from the blood vessel shown above. The cells of the blastula start to
into the endometrial wall.
differentiate into three different layers as cleavage progresses.

70
 6.1. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT It has recently been dis-
covered that research
This describes the 266 day period from conception to birth, also known as causes cancer in rats.
the gestation period. It involves first embryonic development then fetal devel-
opment.

Embryonic Development
The stages of development are divided into three periods of three months
known as trimesters. The first trimester begins with the fertilization of the ovum
and continues with cleavage and implantation, then gastrulation and formation
of the main organs. During the first eight weeks of the first trimester, the devel-
oping human is known as an embryo.

a. The First Trimester

The first twelve weeks of development are the most critical for the embryo
since this is the period of organogenesis. At this time, any ingestion or inhala-
tion of toxic substances might cross from the maternal blood through the pla-
centa into the embryo and interfere with its normal development. Nicotine,
alcohol, addictive substances and some medicines can all lead to damage and
malfunction of newly formed or forming organs.
The human zygote cleaves into two blastomeres 36 hours after fertilization.
Cleavage then proceeds at a much faster rate than this with divisions occurring
twice a day. As a result, the number of blastomeres increases from 8 to 50 in
only 3 days. The number of cells continues to increase, the overall volume of
cytoplasm remains the same as that of the one celled zygote. This is due to the
absence of a yolk sac to fuel any increase in growth.
By now the blastomeres have formed a mulberry shaped ball of cells known
as a morula. As mitotic divisions continue, the morula continues on its journey At the end of the first month: The ver-
down the fallopian tube. By the time it enters the uterus, successive divisions tebrate form is clearly visible. A U-
have formed a hollow ball of cells known as a blastocyst. The cells are still con- shaped heart has developed, the buds
of the arms are visible and the umbili-
tained within an outer membrane known as the zona pellucida (Figure–6.1). cal cord is forming.

Reproduction and Development

At the upper pole of the blastocyst is a clump of cells underneath the tro-
phoblast cells on the surface. These inner cells develop into the embryo and
the trophoblast cells form the chorion. Implantation takes place approximately
7 days after fertilization, after the zona pellucida surrounding the blastocyst has
degraded. Even before implantation, the embryo starts to secrete a hormone
known as human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) into the blood vessels of the
mother. It is the presence and concentration of this hormone that is used to
confirm a pregnancy. HCG plays a vital role as it stimulates the continued
secretion of progesterone and estrogen from the corpus luteum thus main-
taining the uterus lining and preventing further ovulation. In order to implant At the end of the third month: The sex
itself, the blastocyst orients itself so that the zone of inner cells is adjacent to of the fetus is now determined, the
the endometrial wall. The trophoblast cells in contact with the endometrial lin- main parts of the brain have formed
and all the limbs have developed. The
ing differentiate into a large mass of cells known as the syncytiotrophoblast. It digestive system is complete and the
is this structure that releases enzymes that degrade the epithelial lining of the kidneys have started to function.
uterus. The layer of cells surrounding the whole of the inner zone of cells also
Figure-6.1.: First trimester

71
 Is Windows a virus? differentiates to form cytotrophoblasts which will form the future placenta in asso-
No, Windows is not a ciation with the syncytiotrophoblast. Nine days after fertilization, implantation and
virus. Here's what gastrulation are underway simultaneously. The inner zone of cells becomes disc-
viruses do: like in shape comprising a double layer of cells. The primitive streak forms and the
1. They replicate quickly. OK, cells rearrange themselves into three distinct layers of ectoderm, endoderm and
Windows does that.
mesoderm. The neural tube forms and develops into the fore-, mid- and hind
2. Viruses use up valuable sys-
brain. The heart starts to beat and the reproductive, respiratory and digestive sys-
tem resources, slowing down
the system as they do so. OK, tems start to form (Table–6.1).
Windows does that.
3. Viruses will, from time to By the end of the first trimester of pregnancy, all the main internal organs of
time, trash your hard disk. OK,
the digestive and excretory system are being constructed and the fetus is also
Windows does that too.
capable of slight movement. The sex of the fetus is established, the placenta and
4. Viruses are usually carried,
unknown to the user, along umbilical cord have developed and the single-celled zygote has grown from
with valuable programs and approximately 130 µm in diameter to a fetus approximately 7 cm in length.
systems. Sigh... Windows does
that, too.
5. Viruses will occasionally
make the user suspect their
system is too slow (see 2) and
the user will buy new hard-
ware. Yup, that's with
Windows, too.
Until now it seems Windows is
a virus but there are funda-
mental differences. Viruses are
well-supported by their
authors, run on most systems,
their program code is fast,
compact and efficient and they
tend to become more sophisti-
cated as they mature.
So Windows is not a virus.
It's a bug.
Human

72
 b. The Second and Third Trimesters
The second and third trimesters are devoted to growth and differentiation of
the organs that formed in the first trimester. These complete their development by
the end of the fourth month and from then on increase rapidly in size, particular-
ly in the third trimester (Figure–6.2).
The bones continue to grow and ossify, erythrocyte production starts in the mar-
row of long bones and spleen and morphological changes start to occur that will
adapt the fetus to life outside its mother’s womb. The skin for example becomes less
moist and also becomes much thicker as additional layers are deposited. Up until the
sixth month of development, a fetus is incapable of survival if it is born prematurely
since its lungs, although fully formed, are unable to inflate properly and regular
breathing cannot be sustained. At seven months, a premature neonate has a good
chance of survival in an incubator since all vital developmental changes have been
completed. The final two months are spent in the deposition of fat under the skin.
At the end of the fourth month: The bones
and tooth buds have formed and blood pro-
6.2. BIRTH AND POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT duction has started in the fetal bone marrow.
The lungs as well as all the other vital organs
When the fetus has reached the end of its development within its mother, it is have also formed.
ready to be born. During the final weeks before birth, the fetus usually rotates so
that its head is pressed against the cervix. This position allows the baby to be born
most easily. During the birth process, the uncalcified plates of the head allow it to
be squeezed through the vagina without injury. The fetus also secretes epinephrine
and norepinephrine to help it through the extremely stressful experience of birth.
Some times in some women, the opening between pelvic bones is too small
and does not permit birth.The baby must be delivered by a surgical procedure
known as caesarean section, an operation through abdominal and uterine wall.
After birth the blood in the umbilical cord is diverted back into the neonate
since there is no further need for oxygen from the mother. In the heart, the orifice
known as the foramen ovale, which previously allowed the circulation of blood
through the left and right atria, snaps shut. Also the closure of the ductus arterio-
sus forces deoxygenated blood from the vena cava to be pumped through the pul-

Reproduction and Development

At the end of the eight month: All parts of the
monary circulation before it enters the systemic circulation again. In most cases, body are now completely formed, Fat is
the neonate suckles milk from its mother’s breasts immediately after birth. The being deposited under the epidermis and
the fetus is continuing to gain weight.
milk produced at the time of birth is known as colostrum and is high in antibod-
ies that are thought to strengthen the neonate’s immune system during the first
weeks of life. It also contains vitamins and nitrogen as well as hormones that stim-
ulate the development of the digestive system. The milk provided by the mother
during the first months of life meets all the nutritional needs of the neonate, espe-
cially vitamins C and D, as well as calcium to strengthen its bones and iron to pro-
duce the extra erythrocytes needed for increasing respiratory function. The level of
vision of the neonate increases, its brain continues to develop and it becomes
more and more aware of its surroundings.
After the first four weeks of life until the end of the first year, the baby is most Figure-6.2.: First trimester
at risk from disease since the liver and the immune system are not fully opera-
tional. Research has suggested that infants that have been breast-fed since birth
are more resistant to disease than those that have been bottle-fed.

73
 During the first few months of life, neonates and infants spend many
hours of the day asleep. This allows their central nervous system to contin-
ue to develop and for their neurons to become myelinated. During sleep,
the pituitary gland releases growth hormone. The first year of life has been
shown to be the time when an infant can gain most benefit from visual stim-
ulation which results in a surge in synapsing within the brain. Connections
made between neurons during this period are thought to determine pat-
terns of association in adult life. Infancy is also the time when the first of the
milk teeth appear and the child learns first to sit up, crawl and finally to walk
unaided. The body weight of the infant increases three-fold and is able to
eat more solid food as the digestive enzymes within the stomach and duo-
denum become functional.
6.3. CHANGES IN NORMAL HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Multiple Births
In some mammals it is normal for more than one ovum to be released
at ovulation. After fertilization in these mammals, implantation occurs at dif-
ferent sites on the double V-shaped, elongated uterine wall. Each embryo
Figure-6.3.: Fraternal twins result when the mother
produces two ova that are both fertilized. Both develops its own membranes and placenta and is genetically different from
implant at different points in the uterus and form sep- its neighbors. In humans and other large mammals, usually only a single
arate placentae and membranes. ovum is released at ovulation. However, out of every approximately eighty-
six births, two babies or twins are born. A little more than two thirds of twins
born are the result of the fertilization of two different ova by two different
sperm. They implant at different sites on the uterine wall and develop their
own membranes. These twins are known as fraternal dizygotic or noniden-
tical (Figure–6.3).
One third of all twins result from the separation of multipotent cells of
cleavage up to the 16-cell stage, within the blastomere. The trophoblast
cells remain as one structure and implant in the normal way, thus the two
or more embryos form separately, but have their own umbilical cord and
continue to share the same extra embryonic membranes and placenta.
These twins are identical (mono-dizygotic) and are always of the same sex.
The chances of three or four babies born together–triplets and quadru-
plets–is extremely rare under natural conditions. It is becoming more fre-
quent in women whose ovaries have been stimulated by fertility drugs. As a
general rule in humans, the greater the number of offspring born at once,
the lower the chances of all surviving beyond infancy (Figure–6.4).
1. Premature Birth
The normal period of gestation for a human baby is approximately 266
days from fertilization to birth. The chances of survival for a normal neonate
born in developed countries after full-term development is almost 100%.
This is due to the high level of care available to both mother and child
before, during and after birth. Occasionally when the mother is poor in
Human

Figure-6.4.: Identical twins result when the cells with- health, malnourished or has smoked or drunk heavily during pregnancy, her
in the blastomere split into two before its cells have baby may be born before the 266 day period has been completed. A baby
become differentiated. Since splitting occurs after
implantation, both embryos share the same placenta. born after eight months has over a 70% chance of survival with hospital

74
care, as its body systems are developed enough for it to be independent of its
mother. Since it still lacks body fat and muscle, its movements may be weak and
its skin may still not be developed properly. A baby born at seven months still has
a good chance of survival with intensive hospital care, and nowadays even babies
as premature as six months are able to survive. However, due to the lack of alve-
olar surfactant, the lungs fail to inflate properly and the premature baby may
develop hyaline membrane disease. Severely premature babies require a constant
stream of oxygen under pressure to force their alveoli to open. This can lead to
other complications, for example damage to the baby’s retina due to the high
pressure of oxygen in the blood. Approximately 85% of newborn death is because
of premature birth. Twins and triples (and more) are more likely to be born pre-
maturely, because of the stress on the uterine wall. Teens and malnourished
women experience premature birth more often. (Figure–6.5).
The most common reason for premature birth is infections like bacterial vagi-
nosis. Immature breathing/sucking reflexes are the most serious problems of pre- Figure-6.5.: Premature birth
mature babies. Full-term mature babies may also have problems like low weight,
because of malnutrition and some harmful substances like alcohol or smoking
residues.

Age at Puberty Days after Birth to

Species
(in months) Double Birth-Wt.
Man (Homo sapiens) 144-180 267
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) 100 227
Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) 12 120
Bat(Rhinolophus ferrumequinum) 15
Cat (Felis catus) 6-15 63
Cattle (Bos taurus) 6-14 281
Dog (Canis familiaris) 6-8 63
Ferret (Mustela furo) 42

Reproduction and Development

Fox, red (Vulpes fulva) 10 52
Goat (Capra hircus) 8 148
Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus) 2-3 68
Hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) 1.3-2 16
Horse (Equus cabballus) 12 336
Mink (Mustela vison) 8-9 50
Monkey, rhesus (Macaca rhesus) 36 160
Mouse (Mus musculus) 1.2 19
Opossum (Didelphys virginiana) 8 12.5
Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) 5.5-8.5 31
Rat (Rattus rattus) 1.5-3 22
Sheep (Ovis aries) 7-8 151
Swine (Sus scrofa) 5-8 114

75
 6.4 BIRTH DEFECTS
Approximately 3% of newborns have abnormalities or birth defects that are
caused by genetic problems or exposure to toxic substances. The specific nature
of birth defects depends on structures developing when exposures occur, and the
chromosomal abnormality controlling the specific process or characteristics. The
period when genetic, toxic and infectious reasons can cause defect is known as
the critical period. Different body parts have different length critical periods. For
example, limbs (fingers, toes, arms and legs) have critical periods from 3-5 weeks,
whereas the brain has a very long period (entire pregnancy to 2 years after birth).
Most birth defects include mental retardation. This is because of the brain’s sensi-
tivity to harmful substances. Of birth defects, 70% are due to disruption during the
embryonic period and usually cause learning disabilities and mental retardation,
but the same causes after the sixth month create difficulties in learning to read.
One of the common defects, phocamelia, appears during 3-5 weeks because
of an abnormal inherited gene which alters development of limbs. It produces flip-
per-like structures instead of arms and legs.
Some toxic substances that are known as teratogenic substances also cause
birth defects (Table–6.2). For example, a drug called Thalidomide also acts during
3-5 weeks of development and causes severe limb shortening as in phocomelia.
Twin transfusion is another defect, where twins grow connected at different levels.
They can be separated surgically, but the degree of success varies depending on
the level of fusion.

Some teratogenic factors and their effects are summarized below.

Infections
Thesaurus is an ancient
reptile with an excellent Heredity was thought to be the reason for many birth defects. Later, Gregg
vocabulary. showed that measles during pregnancy causes developmental abnormalities.
Later it was understood that many infectious agents can pass through the pla-
centa and act teratogenically.
Some teratogenic agents are listed below:
Measles: depending on the developmental stage it causes eye deformities
like cataracts, deafness, heart defects and teeth enamel deformities.
Cytomegalovirus: causes microcephaly, cerebral calcification, blindness and
chorioretinitis.
Herpes simplex: causes mental retardation, liver and brain defects
70 % of birth
defects are caused by Varicella (chicken pox): causes anatomical defects such as reduction of
disruption during the legs and arms, mental retardation and muscle defects
embryonic period and
Toxoplasmosis: caused by a protozoan (Toxoplasma gondii) that are trans-
usually cause learning disabili-
ties and mental retardation, but
mitted by raw or undercooked meat, pets and dirt. It causes cerebral calcification,
hydrocephalus, and mental retardation.
Human

the same causes after the sixth

month create difficulties in Syphilis: causes deafness, mental retardation, fibrosis in liver and lungs.
learning to read.

76
 High Temperature of mother (because of illness or sauna)
High temperature is very dangerous during the first trimester. It may cause liq-
uid loss and some deformities, such as anencephaly (cranial and brain defects).
Radiation
Pregnant women who experienced the nuclear explosions in Japan had serious
defects, 28% had spontaneous abortion, 25% had children die within one year, and
25% microcephaly, central nervous system damage and mental retardation.
Chemical agents
Chemical substances are usually taken as medical substances, food preserva-
tives or via pollution. Some common medical substances are:
Thalidomide (sleeping pill): Amelia and meromelia.
Isomethionine (vitamin A equivalent): causes heart defects, mandible
hypoplasy and hydrocephaly (Figure–6.6).
Aminopterin: inhibits and/or disturbs mitosis and causes development
problems such as anencephaly, meningocele, meningocephaly, hydrocephaly and
lip and mandible deformations.
Diphenylhidantoine (DPH) is used in some medicines and causes cranial
defects, growth defects, mental retardation and hand deformities.
Valproic acid and trimethadione: causes congenital anomaly, short nose,
ear deformities, strabismus, absent kidney and ureter, and meningocele and
omphalocele. 87% of such pregnancies are lost or produce such deformities.

Alcohol : Alcohol is a teratogen and was even noticed by Aristotle more than
2300 years ago. Aristotle observed extraordinary abnormalities in children of alco-
holic mothers. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) is the term used to express alcohol
based abnormalities. A pregnant woman who has just one or two drinks a day is
at high risk of having a baby with FAS. Since alcohol metabolism differs slightly

Reproduction and Development

between individuals, physicians advise avoiding drinking during pregnancy or
when trying to become pregnant. Children with FAS have a small head, mispaired
eyes, flat face and slow growth of face and nose.They have impaired intellect vary-
ing from minor learning disabilities to mental retardation. Effects of FAS continue
even after childhood. Teens and young adults with FAS have symptoms as in chil-
dren, a wide space between the upper lip and nose, lack of learning and problems
with social and communication skills

COCAINE: Cocaine is very dangerous and highly teratogenic to unborn

babies, because it causes constriction of fetal arteries. It usually damages the fetus
and causes abortion. Cocaine causes mental retardation and heart defects. If
cocaine-exposed children survive, they are generally distracted and unable to con-
centrate on their surroundings.

Heroin is another dangerous toxic drug that causes abortion or premature

birth. Figure-6.6.: Mandible deformities

77
 CIGARETTES: Over two hundred harmful substance in cigarettes create stress
on the fetus. Carbon monoxide prevents oxygen transport to the fetus, and many
other chemicals prevent its nourishment. The placentas of women who smoke
lack important growth factors and cause low-weight births, Smoking during preg-
nancy increases the risk of spontaneous abortion, stillbirth and premature birth.

Besides these dangerous toxins, excess nutrition, like malnutrition, also acts
like drugs and may cause damage. Especially vitamins are such substances. For
example, medical isotretinoin (Accutane) derived from vitamin A, causes abortion,
heart defects, and facial and nervous system defects. Excess vitamin C exposure
Figure-6.7.: Omphalocele may cause dependency, and scurvy may appear under even normal vitamin C lev-
els. Excess vitamin D causes mental retardation. Even simple aspirin inhibits
growth of the fetus, especially kidneys. Some medical drugs and their effects are
listed below.

Hot topic CLONING

Introduction
The possibility of human cloning, raised when Scottish scientists at Roslin
Is it true that if you clone Institute created the much-celebrated sheep “Dolly” (Nature 385, 810-13, 1997),
yourself four times, one aroused worldwide interest and concern because of its scientific and ethical impli-
will be Chinese?

Oh clone, my clone, how

can you bear it
To exist knowing you have
only one parent?
No zygote you, when haploid cells met
You were produced with a full chro-
mosome set.
And now I can see that you are con-
fused
To discover your genes have arrived
slightly used.
To answer your questions is the aim
Human

of this poem
You who are like me, my clone, oh
my clone.

78
cations. Cloning is the term traditionally used by scientists to describe
different processes for duplicating biological material.

What is cloning? Are there different types of cloning?

When the media report on cloning in the news, they are usually
talking about only one type, called reproductive cloning. There are
different types of cloning however, and cloning technologies can be
used for other purposes besides producing the genetic twin of anoth-
er organism. The following three types of cloning technologies will be
discussed: (1) recombinant DNA technology, or DNA cloning, (2)
reproductive cloning, and (3) therapeutic cloning.

Recombinant DNA Technology or DNA Cloning

The terms “recombinant DNA technology,” “DNA cloning,”
“molecular cloning,” or “gene cloning” all refer to the same process:
the transfer of a DNA fragment of interest from one organism to a
self-replicating genetic element such as a bacterial plasmid
Scientists studying a particular gene often use bacterial plasmids
to generate multiple copies of the same gene. Plasmids are self-repli-
cating extra-chromosomal circular DNA molecules, Plasmids and
other types of cloning vectors are used by the Human Genome
Project researchers to copy genes and other pieces of chromosomes
to generate enough identical material for further study.
Plasmids can carry up to 20,000 bp of foreign DNA. Besides bac-
terial plasmids, some other cloning vectors include viruses, bacteria
artificial chromosomes (BACs), and yeast artificial chromosomes
(YACs).
Reproductive cloning is a technology used to generate an animal
that has the same nuclear DNA as another currently or previously

Reproduction and Development

existing animal. Dolly was produced by reproductive cloning technol-
ogy. In a process called “somatic cell nuclear transfer” (SCNT), sci-
entists transfer genetic material from the nucleus of a donor adult cell
to an egg whose nucleus, and thus its genetic material, has been
removed. The reconstructed egg containing the DNA from a donor
cell must be treated with chemicals or electric current in order to
stimulate cell division. Once the cloned embryo reaches a suitable
stage, it is transferred to the uterus of a female host where it contin-
ues to develop until birth.
Dolly or any other animal created using nuclear transfer technol-
ogy is not truly an identical clone of the donor animal. Only the
clone's chromosomal or nuclear DNA is the same as the donor.
Some of the clone's genetic materials come from the mitochondria
in the cytoplasm of the enucleated egg. Mitochondrial DNA units are
believed to play an important role in the aging process.

79
 You were not produced Therapeutic Cloning
from between sweaty
sheets Therapeutic cloning, also called “embryo cloning,” is the production of
In fact, you arose from cells human embryos for use in research. The goal of this process is not to create
scraped off of my cheek. cloned human beings, but rather to harvest stem cells that can be used to
Your genes gently placed in an egg study human development and to treat disease. Stem cells are important to
we provided
biomedical researchers because they can be used to generate virtually any type
And then shocked with a current
until they divided.
of specialized cell in the human body. Stem cells are extracted from the egg
You sat there a while till it was time
after it has divided for 5 days. The egg at this stage of development is called a
to fish blastocyst. The extraction process destroys the embryo, which raises a variety
That thing that was you from that of ethical concerns. Many researchers hope that stem cells can be used to
petri dish. serve as replacement cells to treat heart disease, Alzheimer's, cancer, and
(And though it may seem churlish at other diseases..
this time to mention,
we suspect that the dish had post- What are the risks of cloning?
partum depression).
Reproductive cloning is expensive and highly inefficient. More than 90% of
cloning attempts fail to produce viable offspring. More than 100 nuclear trans-
Oh clone, my clone, don't fer procedures could be required to produce one viable clone. In addition to
feel angst or feel grief low success rates, cloned animals tend to have more compromised immune
Because the genes that
function and higher rates of infection, tumor growth, and other disorders.
you have are not bought
but are leased. Japanese studies have shown that cloned mice live in poor health and die
You have no mother, but that's no early. About a third of the cloned calves born alive have died young, and many
impediment of them were abnormally large. Many cloned animals have not lived long
Indeed, you've bypassed the whole enough to generate good data about how clones age. Appearing healthy at a
Complex of Oedipus.
young age unfortunately is not a good indicator of long term survival. Clones
To your one parent you can always
relate have been known to die mysteriously. For example, Australia's first cloned
To do otherwise is a form of self hate. sheep appeared healthy and energetic on the day she died, and the results
Who can tell us apart when we from her autopsy failed to determine a cause of death.
answer the phone?
In 2002, researchers, reported that the genomes of cloned mice are com-
No one at all, my clone, oh my clone.
promised. In analyzing more than 10,000 liver and placenta cells of cloned
mice, they discovered that about 4% of genes function abnormally. The abnor-
Think of all the experi- malities do not arise from mutations in the genes but from changes in the nor-
ences we'll have! mal activation or expression of certain genes.
(That is, once they allow
you to go from the lab). Common Risks of Cloning
I'll take you to places that I've
already been
When we hear of cloning successes, we learn about only the few attempts
So you can see them once more for that worked. What we don't see are the many, many cloning experiments that
the first time again. failed! And even in the successful clones, problems tend to arise later, during
Let's go to work, where I think we the animal's development to adulthood.
will find
That we'll get twice as much done in 1. High failure rate
just half the time.
And should we play tennis, our Cloning animals through somatic cell nuclear transfer is simply inefficient.
Human

opponents have troubles The success rate ranges from 0.1 percent to 3 percent, which means that for
As they must play singles, but we every 1000 tries, only one to 30 clones are made. Or you can look at it as 970
shall play doubles.
to 999 failures in 1000 tries. That's a lot of effort with only a speck of a return!

80
 2. Problems during later development Oh clone, my clone, I see
you are vexed
Cloned animals that do survive tend to be much bigger at birth than their nat-
By ethical issues admitted-
ural counterparts. Scientists call this “Large Offspring Syndrome” (LOS). Clones ly complex.
with LOS have abnormally large organs. This can lead to breathing, blood flow If you are my clone, are you wed to
and other problems. my wife?
And would having two husbands
3. Abnormal gene expression patterns cause marital strife?
Suppose that we clone her? Then
Are the surviving clones really clones? In cloning one challenge is to re-pro- what would that be?
gram the transferred nucleus to behave as though it belongs in a very early embry- Bigamy, polygamy, or polyandry?
onic cell. This mimics natural development, which starts when a sperm fertilizes
Oh, the guilt I would have would go
an egg. to the bone
In a naturally-created embryo, the DNA is programmed to express a certain set If I accidentally slept with your wife,
oh my clone.
of genes. Later on, as the embryonic cells begin to differentiate, the program
changes. For every type of differentiated cell–skin, blood, bone or nerve, for exam-
ple–this program is different.
In cloning, the transferred nucleus doesn't have the same program as a natu-
ral embryo. It is up to the scientist to reprogram the nucleus, like teaching an old Perhaps it would be better
if we lived all our days
dog new tricks.
Away from each other --
and go separate ways.
4. Telomeric differences I would stay here and live with my
As cells divide, their chromosomes get shorter. This is because the DNA mate
sequences at both ends of a chromosome, called telomeres, shorten with age. And you would take yours to some
other state
The older an animal is, the shorter its telomeres will be. This is a natural part of
Perhaps to Alaska, with Northern
aging. Lights blue
When scientists looked at the telomere lengths of cloned animals, they found To live off the land, in a hut or igloo.
no clear answers. Chromosomes from cloned cattle or mice had longer telomeres And with a deep sense of pride all
than normal. Scientists aren't sure why cloned animals show differences in telom- my friends would be shown
ere length. Many pictures of your house, a
Nome clone dome home.

Should humans be cloned?

Reproduction and Development

Physicians from the American Medical Association and scientists with the
American Association for the Advancement of Science have issued formal public
statements advising against human reproductive cloning. Currently, the U.S. Oh clone, my clone, you
impressive feat
Congress is considering the passage of legislation that could ban human cloning.
The one person born with
Due to the inefficiency of animal cloning many believe that it would be uneth- no help from gametes.
ical to attempt to clone humans. In addition, scientists do not know how cloning When you have troubles getting
could impact mental development. While factors such as intellect and mood may yourself to sleep
not be as important for a cow or a mouse, they are crucial for the development of Do you think on your compatriot,
Dolly the sheep?
healthy humans. With so many unknowns concerning reproductive cloning, the
It's true that we both share our
attempt to clone humans is considered potentially dangerous and ethically irre- genetic information
sponsible.
But I know that your mind performs
its own peregrinations.
In the end I am me, and you are just
you alone

81
 6.5. BIRTH CONTROL

When it is not desirable to become pregnant and have a baby, different birth control methods (contra-
ception) can be used to avoid pregnancy. Different techniques of birth control have been developed. These
contraceptives vary from long term injections to morning-after pills that contain hormones, or mechani-
cal techniques.Most of these common techniques and their comparison are listed in the table below.
Human

82
 (e.g., unusual type pneumonia or skin cancer) occur.

Hot topic 2) Without intensive medical treatment, an AIDS

patient usually dies about 7-9 years after infection.
6.6. SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES 3) Recent combination therapy of several drugs
(STDs) allows AIDS patients to live longer.

1. STDs are caused by organisms ranging from 5. Transmission

viruses to arthropods. a. AIDS is transmitted by sexual contact with an
a. Humans cannot develop lasting immunity to any infected person (vaginal or rectal intercourse and
STDs. Therefore, prompt medical treatment should be oral/genital contact).
received when exposed to an STD. b. Needle sharing among intravenous drug users is a
b. To prevent STDs, a condom can be used. high-risk behavior.
Spermicide with nonoxynol-9 gives added protection. c. Largest increases in AIDS cases now involve het-
c. It is difficult to cure STDs caused by viruses. erosexual contact and intravenous drug use.
Treatment is available for AIDS and genital herpes. d. Women now account for 19% of all newly diag-
d. STDs caused by bacteria (e.g., gonorrhea, nosed cases of AIDS.
chlamydia, and syphilis) are treatable with antibiotics. e. Increase of AIDS among women of reproductive
age causes an increase in AIDS in children.
A. AIDS
f. HIV can cross the placenta or be transferred
1. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is through breast-feeding.
caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
2. HIV attacks the helper T cells that stimulate activ- B. Genital Warts
ities of B lymphocytes to produce antibodies. 1. Genital warts are caused by human papillo-
3. After an HIV infection begins, helper T cells maviruses (HPVs).
decline in number. A person becomes susceptible to 2. Many carriers are asymptomatic or they have min-
infections. imal symptoms.
4. AIDS has three stages of infection, called catego- 3. If visible warts are removed, they may recur.
ry A, B, and C

Reproduction and Development

4. HPVs are now associated with cancer of the cervix
a. Category A stage may last about a year. as well as tumors of vulva, anus, and penis.
1) Individual is asymptomatic but can pass on infec- 5. Some researchers believe viruses are involved in
tion. 90-95% of all cases of cancer of the cervix.
2) After testing positive, a person may remain well as C. Genital Herpes
long as he or she can maintain sufficient helper T cells
1. Genital herpes is caused by herpes simplex virus.
(above 500/mm3).
2. Type 1 causes cold sores and fever blisters. Type 2
b. Category B stage may last six to eight years.
more often causes genital herpes.
1) Lymph nodes swell.
3. Individuals infected with this type can be an
2) There is weight loss, night sweats, fatigue, fever, asymptomatic carriers.
and diarrhea.
4. Symptoms include painful ulcers on genitals,
c. Category C stage is full-blown AIDS. fever, painful urination, and swollen lymph nodes.
1) Nervous disorders and opportunistic diseases 5. Exposure to herpes in birth canal can cause neu-

83
 rological disorders and even death in a newborn. b. The second stage involves the appearance of a
rash all over the body, including palms and feet.
D. Hepatitis
1. Hepatitis A is acquired from sewage-contaminated c. The third stage involves neurological and cardiac
drinking water: also an STD by oral/anal contact. disorders.

2. Hepatitis B is spread in the same manner as AIDS, 1) The infected individual may become mentally
but is more infectious. A vaccine is available. retarded, insane, blind, or walk with a shuffle.

3. Hepatitis C is called post-transfusion hepatitis. 2) Large destructive ulcers develop on the skin or
within internal organs.
4. Hepatitis infections infect liver and can lead to liver
failure, liver cancer, and death. 3. Syphilitic bacteria can cross the placenta, causing
birth defects or stillbirth.
E. Chlamydia
4. Unlike the other STDs discussed, there is a blood
1. Chlamydia is named for the bacterium that caus-
test to diagnose syphilis.
es it: Chlamydia trachomatis.
5. Tracing sexual partners is very important to control
2. New chlamydial infections are occurring in higher
syphilis.
numbers than any other STD.
H. Vaginitis
3. It also causes pelvic inflammatory disease (PID).
1. Vaginitis is caused by Trichomonas vaginalis (flag-
4. It also causes cervical ulcerations which increase
ellated protozoa) or Candida albicans (yeast).
the risk of acquiring AIDS.
2. Protozoan infection causes frothy, foul-smelling
5. If a baby is exposed at birth, inflammation of the
discharge with itching.
eyes or pneumonia can result.
3. Protozoan infection is transmitted through sexual
F. Gonorrhea
intercourse.
1. Gonorrhea is caused by bacterium, Neisseria gon-
orrhoeae. 4. Yeast infection causes white, curdy discharge with
itching.
2. Male diagnosis is easy. Typical symptoms include
urination pain and a thick, greenish yellow discharge. 5. Candida albicans is a normally-occurring organ-
ism in the vagina. Yeast infections can result from taking
3. Latent infections lead to PID. Vasa deferentia or birth-control pills or antibiotics.
oviducts become infected and inflamed.
6.7. AGING
4. As tubes heal, they may become partially blocked,
resulting in sterility or infertility. Aging is a fact of life that starts much earlier than
5. If a baby is exposed at birth, an eye infection can thought. Connections between neurons continue to
lead to blindness. All newborns are given eye drops. increase, but by two years of age a child has his maxi-
mum number of brain cells. At age 10, he has optimum
6. Previously easily cured by antibiotics, nearly 40% hearing. After age 10, brain cells begin to die (1000 cells
of modern strains are antibiotic resistant. each day). Besides brain cell loss, the thymus glands
G. Syphilis begin to shrink and immune system activity declines.
1. Syphilis is caused by the bacterium Treponema pal-
lidum. Muscle strength reaches its maximum level in the
twenties and then decreases. All theses changes are
2. The disease has three stages, typically separated invisible at this age. After the thirties, visible features of
Human

by latent periods. aging start with small wrinkles on the face and around
a. The primary stage involves the appearance of a the eyes. This is because of loss of skin flexibility and
hard chancre (ulcerated sore). declining cell division rate. Height also start to decrease,

84
but it is not detectible yet. Actually 30 is the midpoint of life, and after this Brain cells begin to die
almost everything get worse biologically. Hearing decreases, heart muscle

10 YEARS
becomes thicker (but not stronger), ligaments become less elastic, hair
Thymus begins to shrink
grays and becomes thinner (or lost), immune system activity declines and a
person becomes ill more easily and more often. The early fifties bring fur-
ther declines. The skin becomes less elastic and wrinkles are everywhere,
taste buds die, nail growth is slow and sexual stimulation is almost finished.
The early sixties adds sexual insufficiency because of menopause in Sexual maturity

20 YEARS
females, and decrease in semen production in males. Memory loss, and Peak of male sexuality
height loss (2 cm) and cartilage growth in face, are typical aging symptoms
of the 60 and 70s.

30 YEARS
The reasons for aging are still not clear. Some known mechanism of Peak of muscle strength
aging can be summarized as follows. Aging includes degeneration of pro-
tein fibers in connective tissue, which makes the skin less elastic. DNA
errors may accumulate, resulting in cell death. Repair enzymes may not cor-
rect replication errors of DNA because of intensive exposure to chemicals,
Peak of hair thickness; skin
radiation or infections. In old cells, lipids break down (resulting in mem-

40 YEARS
becomes less elastic;
brane leaks and mitochondrial destruction). Production of free radicals may declines in hearing and
stimulate cellular degradation. Aging also appears as formation of some height; peak of female sexu-
new substances, such as lipofuscin granules that age nerves and muscles. ality, heart muscle thickens

Certain disorders also

accelerate aging, as in proge- Back slumps; increase in
rias. One important disorder weight; decrease in height;

50 YEARS
hair grays and thins; declin-
of this group is Hutchinson-
ing number of white blood
Gilford syndrome. The chil- cells; farsightedness
dren with this inherited disor-
der have normal appearance
after birth, but age dramati-
Skin sags; decline in visual
cally within a few years. acuity; menopause; decline
60 YEARS

Wrinkles, baldness, fat depo- in sense of taste; decline in

sition in arteries and other nail growth; increased risk

Reproduction and Development

aging symptoms are all seen of diabetes; declines in mus-
cle mass, weight, metabo-
and children usually die at lism, and memory
about 12, because of a stroke
or heart attack. Cells die
much earlier in these disor- Decrease in height (about
70 YEARS

ders. For example, a normal 3/4 inch); decrease in lung

cell undergoes 50 divisions, capacity
but in progeria cells die after
10 to 30 divisions due to nor-
mal factors that appear in the Decrease in height (about 1
cells (such as lipofuscin, inch); further decline in
membrane destruction etc.). sense of taste; nose, ears,
(Left Figure). and eyes appear prominent
80 YEARS

as skin sags, facial fat

decreases, but cartilage
grows

85
 CHILD CARE

Screening Tests for Infants

Some of the most important screening tests for children are performed at the beginning of life and at regularly sched-
uled health maintenance visits.
Among the diseases that are routinely tested for at birth are phenylketonuria, galactosemia, sickle-cell anemia, and
thyroid deficiency. Blood is collected via a heel stick immediately after birth. The test is repeated after two weeks because
some of the tests may not become positive until after the infant has been fed for at least 24 hours.

Vision
Several tests are used to test vision. In the cover test, which checks for strabismus (cross-eyes), the doctor simply
asks the child to stare at an object and then covers one eye with a hand, noting whether the other eye must move to
focus on the object. If it does, strabismus may be a problem. Once your child is about 30 to 36 months of age or older,
strabismus may be tested with a random-dot steriogram, in which the child is asked to identify a three-dimensional E
among dots on a card.
When your child is 4 or 5, the doctor may use the standard eye chart to test his or her ability to read letters or indi-
cate the direction of characters from a standard distance. If the child seems to have difficulty, the physician may rec-
ommend a more comprehensive examination by an ophthalmologist.

Hearing
The child's ability to hear sounds of varying frequency and volume is also assessed periodically. The doctor will use
a simple, painless technique called tympanography to measure the eardrum's absorption of sound under different air
pressures in the external ear canal. The result is a graphic printout called a tympanogram. Once the child is 4 to 5 years
old, he or she will be tested using pure-tone audiometry , the delivery to each ear of the same tone over several different
frequencies. Many school systems also schedule this kind of hearing test to screen for potential educational difficulties.

Developmental Skills
Motor, speech, language, and interpersonal skills are assessed using standard indicators such as the Denver
Developmental Screening Test. The doctor compares the child's ability to perform skills and respond to questions
against that of other children of the same age. If the child does not function at the appropriate developmental level for
his or her age, the doctor may suggest a referral for formal developmental testing. Parents are often involved in the
assessment by means of a questionnaire regarding the child's motor, language, and interpersonal skills.

Laboratory Tests
Screening tests may require performing a blood test for hidden conditions such as lead poisoning. Iron-deficiency
anemia is routinely screened for in the blood at 1 year. A skin test for tuberculosis is performed at 1 year and every two
to three years after that, following the recommendation of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). The AAP also rec-
ommends a screening urinalysis at 2 years and a urine culture for girls at 3, 5, and 8 years of age. These are all simple
tests that are relatively inexpensive and do not cause a great deal of discomfort but can reveal underlying conditions that
may be present but not producing symptoms.
The table contains a complete list of the illnesses covered in this section. You can use this table to go directly to the
specific illness which interests you. You can also go to the section which interests you using the menu in the left hand
Human

column. If you have suggestions on diseases/disorders that you think should be included, please do not hesitate to con-
tact us.

86
 Age Visits to Physician Tests Special Tests
Hearing : At 18 months, or ear-
Height and weight; blood test lier if a child had an infection at
for levels of hemoglobin (a pro- birth, there were birth compli-
tein in red blood cells that cations, or there is a family his-
transports oxygen, needed by tory of hearing impairment in
At 2, 4, 6, 12, 15, all cells in the body) and hema- childhood. Erythrocyte proto-
Birth to 18 months tocrit (the ratio of the volume porphyrin (lead poisoning test):
and 18 months. of red blood cells to whole For infants exposed to lead or
blood) once during infancy living near busy highways or
(these can detect several kinds hazardous waste sites
of anemia and other red blood
abnormalities).

At least once for immuniza-

tions (measles, mumps, Height and weight; blood pres-
rubella, diphtheria, pertus- sure; eye exam for strabismus
sis, tetanus, polio, hepatitis (crossed or wandering eye) and
2-6 years B, and Haemophilus amblyopia (diminished vision
influenza type b). in the affected eye), at ages 3-
4; and urinalysis for bacteriuria
(bacteria in the urine).

Height and weight, and blood

7-12 years As needed.
pressure.
At least once for immuniza-
13-18 years tions (tetanus, possibly hep-
atitis).

Immunization (vaccination)
At birth, infants have immunity to certain diseases because antibodies have passed through the placenta from the
mother to the unborn child. After birth, the breastfed baby gets the continued benefits of additional antibodies from

Reproduction and Development

breast milk. But in both cases, the immunity is only temporary.
Immunization (vaccination) is a way of creating immunity to certain diseases by using small amounts of a killed or
weakened microorganism that causes the particular disease.
Microorganisms can be viruses, such as the measles virus, or they can be bacteria, such as pneumococcus. Vaccines
stimulate the immune system into reacting as if there were a real infection. The immune system then fights off the “infec-
tion” and remembers the organism so that it can fight it off quickly if it enters the body at some future time.
The following vaccinations and schedule are recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). Please
note that some variations are acceptable and that changes in recommendations frequently occur as new vaccines are
developed. Your child's doctor will determine the best vaccinations and schedule for your child.

Hepatitis B
Hepatitis B (HBV) is a virus that infects the liver. Those who are infected can become lifelong carriers of the virus and
may develop long-term problems such as cirrhosis (liver disease) or cancer of the liver.

87
 Immunization Schedule
Hepatitis B vaccine usually is given as a series of three injections. The first shot is given to infants shortly after birth.
If the mother of a newborn carries the hepatitis B virus in her blood, the infant needs to receive the first shot within 12
hours after birth. If a newborn's mother shows no evidence of HBV in her blood, the infant may receive the shot any time
prior to leaving the hospital. It may also be delayed until the 4- or 8-week visit to the child's doctor.
The second shot is given at 1 to 4 months and the third at 6 to 18 months. For infants who don't receive the first
shot until 4 to 8 weeks, the second shot is given at 3 to 4 months and the third at 6 to 18 months

Pneumococcal Vaccine (PCV)

The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) protects against pneumococcal infections. The bacterium is the lead-
ing cause of serious infections including pneumonia, blood infections, and bacterial meningitis.
Children under 2 years old are most susceptible to serious pneumococcal infections. The pneumococcus bacterium
is spread through person-to-person contact. The vaccine not only prevents the infection in children who receive it, it also
helps stop its spread.
Immunization Schedule
PCV immunizations are given as a series of four injections starting at 2 months of age and following at 4 months, 6
months, and 12 to 15 months. Children who miss the first dose or may have missed subsequent doses due to a recent
vaccine shortage should still receive the vaccine, and your child's doctor can give you a modified schedule for immu-
nization.
The PCV vaccine should also be considered for children between the ages of 2 years and 5 years who are at risk of
getting serious pneumococcal infections, including children who are under 3 years of age, are of Alaska Native,
American Indian, or African American descent, or who attend group child-care centers.

DTaP
The DTaP vaccine protects against:
diphtheria–a severe infection of the throat that can block the airway and cause severe breathing difficulty
tetanus (lockjaw)–a nerve disease, which can occur at any age, caused by toxin-producing bacteria contaminating a
wound
pertussis (whooping cough)–a respiratory illness with cold symptoms that progress to severe coughing (the “whoop-
ing” sound occurs when the child breathes in deeply after a severe coughing bout); serious complications of pertussis
can occur in children under 1 year of age, and those under 6 months are especially susceptible.
Immunization Schedule
DTaP immunizations are given as a series of five injections and are usually administered at ages 2 months, 4 months,
6 months, 15 to 18 months, and 4 to 6 years (before starting school). After the initial series of immunizations, a vaccine
called Td (the booster for tetanus and diphtheria) should be given at ages 11 to 12 if at least 5 years have passed since
the last dose of DTaP. Then, Td boosters are recommended every 10 years.

Hib
Human

Hemophilus influenzae type b bacteria were the leading cause of meningitis in children until the Hib vaccine became
available.

88
 Immunization Schedule
The Hib vaccine is given by injection at ages 2 months, 4 months, and 6
months (however, some Hib vaccines are available that do not require a dose at 6
months). A booster dose is given at 12 to 15 months.

IPV
Polio is a viral infection that can result in permanent paralysis.
Immunization Schedule
The inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) is usually given at ages 2 months, 4 Vaccines provide health and happines
months, 6 to 18 months, and 4 to 6 years before entering school.
Until recently, the oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) was given in the United States.
Updated recommendations by the Advisory Committee on Immunization
Practices now call for IPV injections. This change eliminates the previous small
risk of developing polio after receiving the live oral polio vaccine.

MCV4
The meningitis vaccine protects against meningococcal disease, a serious
bacterial infection which can lead to bacterial meningitis.
The vaccine is recommended for kids who are 11 years old, and for kids who
are 15 years old, or entering high school or college, who have not had the vac-
cine yet. It's also recommended for those who are entering college, and will be liv-
ing in a dormitory setting. Derby Horse
A jogger running down a
MMR country road is startled as
a horse yells at him "Hey-
The MMR vaccine protects against measles, mumps, and rubella (German come over hear buddy".
measles). MMR vaccinations are given by injection in two doses. The first is The jogger is stunned but runs over
administered at age 12 to 15 months; the second generally is given prior to to the fence where the horse is
school entry at age 4 to 6 years. standing and asks, "Were you talk-
ing to me"?

Reproduction and Development

Varicella The horse replies, "Sure was, man
I've got a problem. I won the
The varicella vaccine protects against chickenpox (varicella), a common child- Kentucky Derby a few years ago
and this farmer bought me and now
hood viral illness.
all I do is pull a plow and I'm sick of
Immunization Schedule it. Why don't you run up to the
house and offer him $5,000 to buy
The varicella vaccine is given by injection between the ages of 12 and 18 me. I'll make you some money 'cuz I
months. Older children who have not had chickenpox may also receive the vac- can still run."
cine. Children 13 years or older would need two vaccines at least 1 month apart. The jogger thinks to himself, "Boy a
talking horse." Dollar signs start
appearing in his head. So he runs to
the house and the old farmer is sit-
ting on the porch. The jogger tells
the farmer, "Hey man, I'll give you
$5,000 for that old broken down
nag you've got in the field".
The farmer replies, "Son you can't
believe anything that horse says.
He's never even been to Kentucky."

89
 SUMMARY 6. A cavity called a blastocoel develops, forming a hol-
low ball called a blastula.
Developmental Stages
7. Gastrulation is invagination of some cells into the
A. Fertilization blastocoel to form three primary germ layers.
1. Fertilization requires that sperm and egg interact to a. Middle mesoderm begins as an outpocketing of the
form a zygote. primitive gut.
a. Sperm have three parts: 1) The outpocketings grow and fuse, forming a two-
layered mesoderm.
1) Head contains haploid nucleus covered by a cap-
like acrosome containing enzymes allowing sperm to pen- 2) The space between them is the coelom that con-
etrate the egg. tains the body organs.
2) Middle piece contains ATP-producing mitochondria. 3) Mesoderm gives rise to skeleton, dermis of skin,
skeletal system, muscular system, excretory system,
3) Tail is flagellum that allows sperm to swim.
reproductive system (including most epithelial linings),
2. Fertilization involves the following steps which are and outer layers of respiratory and digestive systems.
species specific.
b. Outer layer of cells becomes ectoderm. It gives rise
a. Male releases so many sperm that egg is covered by to epidermis of skin, epithelial lining of mouth and rec-
them. tum, and nervous system.
b. Egg has a plasma membrane, a glycoprotein c. Inner layer of cells becomes endoderm that gives
vitelline envelope, and a jelly coat. rise to epithelial lining of digestive tract and respiratory
c. Acrosome enzymes digest away zona pellucida tract, associated glands of digestive system and respirato-
around egg as it extrudes a filament that attaches to a ry system, and lining of urinary bladder.
receptor on the vitelline jelly layer envelope. 8. Germ layers develop into future organs, a theory first
d. This interaction between filament and receptor is a proposed by Karl E. Von Baer in the 19th century.
lock-and-key reaction that is species specific. C. The Effect of Yolk
e. Egg plasma membrane and sperm nuclear mem- 1. Amount of yolk affects how animals complete first
brane fuse, allowing nucleus to enter. three stages of development (cleavage, blastulation, and
gastrulation).
f. Fusion takes place and zygote begins development.
2. Lancelet and frog develop quickly in water into lar-
g. As soon as plasma membranes of sperm and egg
vae that can feed themselves.
fuse, plasma membrane and vitelline envelope undergo
changes that prevent entrance of any other sperm. 3. Chick has abundant yolk inside a hard shell; devel-
opment continues until chick can exist on its own.
h. Vitelline envelope is now fertilization envelope.
4. Frog embryo cells at animal pole have little yolk and
B. Embryonic Development
those at vegetal pole contain more yolk.
1. Development includes all changes that occur during
5. Presence of yolk causes cells to cleave more slowly;
life cycle of an organism.
thus cells at animal pole are smaller.
2. Most go through same embryonic stages: zygote,
6. Chick cell cleavage is incomplete; only cells lying on
morula, blastula, early and late gastrula.
top of yolk cleave and spread out over yolk surface, in
3. Yolk is dense nutrient material. contrast to ball-like morula of lancelet.
4. After fertilization, a zygote undergoes cleavage, cell 7. Chick blastocoel is created when cells lift up from
Human

division without growth. yolk and leave space between cells and yolk.
5. DNA replication and mitosis occur repeatedly; cells a. There is so much yolk that endoderm formation
get smaller with each division. does not occur by invagination.

90
 b. Instead, upper layer of cells differentiates into ecto- a. Differentiation begins before specialized cell types
derm; lower layer differentiates into endoderm. are recognizable.
c. Mesoderm arises by invagination of cells along b. Eggs contain substances called maternal determi-
edges of longitudinal furrow in embryo midline, called the nants that influence course of development.
primitive streak. c. Cytoplasmic segregation parcels out maternal deter-
d. Later, newly formed mesoderm will split to form minants as mitosis occurs and determines how various
coelomic cavity. cells of morula develop.
D. Neurulation and the Nervous System d. Hans Spemann (Nobel Prize in 1935) found that
particular chemical signals within gray crescent turn on
1. Newly formed mesoderm cells along main axis coa-
genes that control development.
lesce to form a dorsal notochord. It persists in lancelets but
is replaced in frogs, chicks, and humans by vertebral column. B. Induction
2. Nervous system develops from midline ectoderm 1. As development proceeds, differentiation involves
located just above notochord signals from neighboring cells.

a. At first, cells on dorsal surface of embryo thicken, 2. Induction is the ability of one tissue to influence
forming neural plate. development of another tissue.

b. Then neural folds develop on either side of a neural 3. Cell migration occurs during gastrulation; one set of
groove which becomes the neural tube when the folds fuse. cells can influence migratory path of another set.
4. Spemann showed dorsal lip of a blastopore (primary
c. At this point the embryo is called a neurula
organizer) was necessary for development.
d. Later, anterior end of neural tube develops into
a. Cells closest to the primary organizer become endo-
brain.
derm; those farthest away become ectoderm.
3. Midline mesoderm cells that did not contribute to form-
b. A molecular concentration gradient acts as a signal
ing notochord now become 2 longitudinal masses of tissue.
to induce germ layer differentiation.
a. Two tissue masses become blocked off into somites.
5. Hans Spemann and Hilde Mangold worked on dorsal
b. Somites give rise to segmental muscles in chor- side of embryo where notochord and nervous system develop.
dates; in vertebrates they also form vertebrae. a. Presumptive notochord tissue induces formation of
Developmental Processes the nervous system.
A. Development requires growth, differentiation, and 6. The process of induction is thought to go on con-

Reproduction and Development

morphogenesis. tinuously with cells always influencing each other
1. Cellular differentiation occurs when cells become Human Embryonic and Fetal Development
specialized in structure and function. A. Development covers events from conception (fertil-
2. Morphogenesis produces a change in shape and ization) to birth (parturition).
form of a body part; includes cell movement and pattern 1. Human gestation period is 9 months, calculated by
formation. adding 280 days to start of last menstruation.
3. Each body cell contains a full set of chromosomes, B. Human development is divided into embryonic and
so differentiation is not due to parceled out genes. fetal development.
4. Only red blood cells produce hemoglobin, etc.; 1. Embryonic development during months 1 and 2 is
therefore there is differential gene expression. when major organs are formed.
5. Two mechanisms, cytoplasmic segregation and 2. Fetal development occurs during months 3-9, dur-
induction, seem especially important. ing which organ systems grow and mature.
6. Cytoplasmic Segregation C. Extraembryonic membranes lie outside of embryo

91
 and protect and nourish embryo and, later, fetus. b. Trophoblast secretes enzymes to digest away some
a. Surrounding water prevents desiccation and pro- tissue and blood vessels of uterine wall.
vides a protective cushion. c. Trophoblast begins to secrete human chorionic
b. For an embryo on land, these functions are per- gonadotropin causing corpus luteum to be maintained.
formed by extraembryonic membranes. d. Yolk sac forms below embryonic disk; with no nutri-
tive function in humans, it is site of blood cell formation.
1. In Birds
e. As in chick development, a human amnion and its
a. Chorion lies next to shell and carries on gas exchange.
cavity are where embryo (and then fetus) develop.
b. Amnion contains protective amniotic fluid that
f. In humans, amniotic fluid insulates against thermal
bathes developing embryo.
changes; it cushions and protects fetus from trauma.
c. Allantois collects nitrogenous wastes.
g. Gastrulation occurs during this week, resulting in
d. Yolk sac surrounds remaining yolk that provides inner cell mass flattening into embryonic disc.
nourishment.
1) Embryonic disk is composed of two cell layers: ecto-
2. Humans have these membranes; their function is derm above and endoderm below.
modified for internal development.
3. The Third Week
a. Chorion develops into fetal half of placenta.
a. The nervous system is the first organ system to
b. Yolk sac is first site of blood cell formation. become visually evident.
c. Allantoic blood vessels become umbilical blood vessels. 1) It appears as a thickening along entire dorsal length
d. Amnion surrounds embryo and cushions it with of embryo; invagination occurs as neural folds appear.
amniotic fluid. 2) When neural folds meet at the midline, the neural
3. Therefore, all chordate animals develop in water, tube is formed.
either in bodies of water or within amniotic fluid. b. The development of the heart begins in the third
D. Embryonic Development week and continues into the fourth.

1. The First Week 1) Right and left heart tubes fuse; heart begins pump-
ing blood, although chambers are not fully formed.
a. Fertilization occurs in upper third of oviduct; cleav-
2) The veins enter this largely tubular heart posteriorly,
age begins as embryo transits this tube to uterus.
and the arteries exit anteriorly.
b. By the time embryo reaches uterus on third day, it is
3) Later the heart twists so that all major vessels are
a morula.
located anteriorly.
c. By the fifth day, morula is transformed into blastocyst.
4. The Fourth and Fifth Weeks
1) Blastocyst is a hollow ball of cells, resulting from
a. Bridge of mesoderm (body stalk) connects caudal
cleavage.
(tail) end of embryo with chorion, which has projections
2) Blastocoel is fluid-filled cavity contained within a (chorionic villi).
blastocyst.
b. Fourth extra embryonic membrane (allantois) is con-
3) Trophoblast is outer single layer of cells, which later tained in this stalk; its blood vessels become umbilical vessels.
gives rise to chorion.
c. Head and tail lift up, and body stalk moves anterior-
4) Inner cell mass is mass of cells from which embryo, ly by constriction.
and eventually fetus, will develop. d. Once this process is complete, umbilical cord is fully
Human

2. The Second Week formed.

a. At end of first week, embryo begins process of e. Limb buds appear from which will develop the arms
implantation. and legs

92
 f. Head enlarges and sense organs become more b. Each organ has a sensitive period during which a
prominent. substance can alter normal development.
g. Rudiments of the eyes, ears, and nose are evident.
c. A pregnant woman who takes thalidomide tranquil-
5. The Sixth Through Eighth Weeks
izer between days 27 and 40 is likely to have an infant with
a. Developing human becomes more humanlike in
deformed limbs.
appearance.
b. As brain develops, head achieves its normal rela- F. Fetal Development and Birth
tionship with body as a neck region develops.
1. Fetal development (months 3-9) involves an extreme
c. Nervous system is developed well enough to permit increase in size; weight multiplies 600 times.
reflex actions (e.g., startle response to touch).
d. Now embryo is 38 mm long and weighs no more 2. Genitalia appear in third month; gender can be identified.
than aspirin tablet; all organs are established. 3. Fetus soon acquires hair, eyebrows, eyelashes, and nails.
E. Structure and Function of the Placenta
4. Fine, downy hair (lanugo) covers limbs and trunk; it
1. Providing gas, nutrient and waste exchange, placen-
later disappears.
ta begins formation once embryo is fully implanted.
2. Chorionic villi are tree-like extensions of chorion. 5. Skin grows so fast it wrinkles; a waxy vernix caseosa
a. They project into maternal tissues. protects skin from watery amniotic fluid.
b. Later, these disappear in all areas except where pla- 6. A fetus at first only flexes its limbs; later it moves limbs
centa develops. vigorously; a mother feels movements from fourth month.
3. By tenth week, placenta is fully formed and has
already begun to produce progesterone and estrogen. 7. Fetus begins to suck its thumb, swallow amniotic

a. Due to negative feedback control of hypothalamus fluid, and urinate.

and anterior pituitary, no new follicles mature. 8. After 16 weeks, fetal heartbeat is heard through a
b. They maintain lining of uterus; there is no menstru- stethoscope.
ation during pregnancy.
9. Fetus born at 24 weeks may survive; lungs are still
4. Chorionic villi are surrounded by maternal blood

Reproduction and Development

sinuses; maternal and fetal blood do not mix. immature and often cannot capture O2 adequately.
5. Exchange of molecules between fetal and maternal G. Stages of Birth
blood takes place across walls of chorionic villi.
6. CO2 and wastes move from fetus; O2 and nutrients 1. When fetal brain matures, hypothalamus causes pitu-
from maternal side. itary to stimulate adrenal cortex so androgens are released.

7. Umbilical cord stretches between placenta and fetus. 2. Placenta uses androgens as precursor for estrogens
8. Umbilical arteries transport CO2 and other waste that stimulate production of prostaglandin and oxytocin.
molecules to placenta for disposal; umbilical vein trans- 3. Hormones estrogen, prostaglandin, and oxytocin all
ports O2 and nutrient molecules from placenta to rest of
cause uterus to contract and expel the fetus.
fetal circulatory system.
9. Harmful chemicals can cross placenta. 4. Process of birth (parturition) has three stages: dila-
a. This is of particular concern during embryonic peri- tion of cervix, birth of baby, and expulsion of afterbirth
od, when various structures are first forming. (placenta and extraembryonic membranes).

93
 7. TISSUES (Histology)
In a unicellular organism, all life processes such as nutrition, reproduction,
excretion and respiration are performed by organelles in the cytoplasm. In more
complex multicellular organisms, individual cells are specialized and form groups
known collectively as tissue. Together they can perform specific functions required
Figure-7.1.: Meristematic tissue for digestion, reproduction, impulse transmission or locomotion.
Each tissue is composed of cells of characteristic size and arrangement that
can easily be identified under the light microscope.
Each cell is in communication with those around it by projections on its sur-
face and via an intercellular matrix. This enables rapid material exchange between
neighboring cells.
The Organization of Living Things
The cell is the basic unit of any organism. Functionally identical cells group
together form a tissue which, in turn, operates in conjunction with other tissues to
form an organ. A number of organs all performing a specialized task together form
a system that is responsible for one of the major life processes. Collectively, all
these vital systems makeup the complete organism.

7.1. PLANT TISSUES

The first embryonic plant tissue develops as a result of mitotic division of the
zygote after fertilization. The endosperm develops from the fusion of a sperm
nucleus with the polar nuclei inside the embryo sac. Once it has developed, it is
this tissue that provides the energy source for germination.
Plant Tissues

Using this tissue, the embryo can form the tissues and organs necessary to sur-
vive as an autotroph.
Plant tissues are categorized into two groups:
Figure-7.2.: Longitudinal sections show-
ing the apex of a shoot and its meristem- Meristematic tissues
atic tissue.
Permanent tissues

94
 7.1.1. MERISTEMATIC TISSUES
The meristem is a zone of continuously dividing cells. Its role is to produce lon-
gitudinal and lateral growth. Each cell has the ability to divide and is characterized
by a large nucleus, a large amount of cytoplasm, small vacuoles, a thin cell wall
and high metabolic rate. Repeated cell division produces differentiated permanent
tissue cells. Meristematic tissues provide unlimited growth by their continuous divi-
sion. In contrast, animals have the ability to grow only during a limited period of
their life. Animal growth ceases when the animal reaches maturity (Figure-7.1-2). Figure-7.3: Longitudinal diagrams of
Meristematic tissues are categorized in two different ways: grasses.

1. According to Location as:

a. Apical Meristematic Tissue

Apical meristematic tissue is located at the tip of the root, stem and branches.
It provides longitudinal growth of these organs.

b. Intercalary Meristematic Tissue

Intercalary meristematic tissue is located between permanent tissue at the
point where a leaf or side branch develops. For example at the base of an intern-
ode. It also provides longitudinal growth (Figure-7.1).

The Intercalary Meristem in Grasses

Despite their delicate appearance, grasses have shown time and time again
that they can compete successfully with most other plant species. One reason for
this is due to their ability to survive attacks from herbivores, fire and drought.
Grasses survive since their stems form from the basal rootstock underground and
also because the meristem of these stems is at ground level, not at the tip of the
stem as is the case for most other plants (Figure-7.3).
The basal intercalary meristem enables the stem to keep growing even if most
of its upper regions have been broken, mown or bitten off. This important but vul-

Reproduction and Development

nerable part of the plant is enclosed by a tough leaf sheath which protects and Figure-7.4.: (Top) A longitudinal diagram
supports it. showing the apical meristem of a typical
shoot.
c. Lateral Meristematic Tissue
It is located laterally within the stem or root and provides an increase in the
diameter or girth of a plant.
2. According to Origin
Primary Meristematic Tissue
Primary meristematic tissue retains the ability to divide throughout the life of
the plant. It is located at the tips of roots, stem and branches. The region where
the cell continuously divides is known as the growth region. These regions main- Figure-7.5: Longitudinal diagrams show-
ing the differentiation of meristematic tis-
tain the growth of plant organs and are the origin of new tissue (Figure-7.4-5). sue in a typical stem and root into vascu-
lar and connective tissue.

95
 The growth regions of the root and stem are divided into three germ groups:
dermatogen, periblem and plerom. Dermatogen develops into epidermis, peri-
blem into cortex and plerom into the central canal or stele.
Secondary Meristematic Tissue
Secondary meristematic tissue is composed of permanent tissue cells that
have regained their ability to divide by the stimulation of hormones. They are
structurally identical to cells of primary meristematic tissue, but the cells are
Figure-7.6.: Transverse section through a longer. This tissue is termed secondary meristematic tissue since it does not
young stem of a wilow originate as dividing tissue. Cambium and spongy cambium are examples of
this type of meristematic tissue.
CAMBIUM: The stem of a plant consists of ground material, or
parenchyma, in which are bundles of vascular cells adapted for con-
ducting water and nutrients. These vascular bundles are arranged in
a ring in dicotyledons--plants that have two seed leaves. In some
dicotyledons, secondary meristematic tissue known as cambium
forms in between these bundles in both the stems and roots.
Dicotyledons capable of such growth are known as woody plants.
The level of cambial activity in plants growing in temperate regions
varies according to the season. Generally the metabolic activity of
cambium cells in perennial plants decelerates in the autumn, accel-
erating again in spring (Figure-7.6-7).
Figure-7.7.: Diagrammatic representation of the vascular
cambium responsible for producing new xylem and Thus every year, two rings of new cells are produced known as
phloem tissue annual rings. Due to more accelerated growth the ring formed in
spring is wider than that produced in the autumn (Figure-7.8).
The new cambial cells are also formed at any site of damage. The scar tissue
that develops prevents pathogens from entering the affected portion of the plant.
Spongy meristematic tissue in the cambium forms periderm which in turn
produces cork cambium. The cork cells produced by the cork cambium form a
hard protective outer layer known as the bark. (Figure-7.9).

7.1.2. PERMANENT TISSUES

They are formed by the growth and differentiation of primary and secondary
meristematic tissue. Once a cell of permanent tissue has been produced, it gen-
Figure-7.8.: Annual growth rings of a woody erally loses its ability to divide and can only enlarge. Such cells have a large vac-
perennial plant
uole, a low metabolic rate, a small nucleus and a thick cell wall formed by the
accumulation of lignin and suberin. Most cells of permanent tissue are
living, but such tissues can be comprised of dead cells. In between cells
are intercellular spaces, required for air circulation.
Plant Tissues

Permanent tissues are divided into the following groups according to

their structure:
Parenchymatous Dermal
Supportive Vascular
Figure-7.9.: Spongy meristematic tissue Glandular

96
 1. Parenchymatous Tissue
Parenchymatous cells form the bulk of the tissues of the root,
stem cortex and leaf mesophyll layer. They are large, thin-walled and
generally undifferentiated. They occupy the spaces between other tis-
sues and interconnect them.
Parenchymatous tissue has many functions within the plant body,
primarily in the healing and regeneration of damaged structures,
photosynthesis, respiration, storage, secretion and movement of
water and food.

a. Synthetic Parenchyma
Synthetic parenchyma is located in the leaf mesophyll layer. It is Figure-7.10.: a) The stem of Solanum tuberosum is
rich in chloroplasts and synthesizes organic foodstuffs. adapted as a food storage area. The diagram shows
parenchyma cells containing many starch granules.
b) The parenchyma of elodea contains many large air
b. Vascular Parenchyma spaces.
Vascular parenchyma is found between the vascular bundles and
synthetic parenchyma. It transports water and minerals between
these two structures.

c. Storage Parenchyma
Storage parenchyma is found within the vascular bundles and is
also involved in the transport of water and foodstuffs (Figure-7.10).

d. Aerolar Parenchyma
Aerolar parenchyma has air spaces between its cells. These cells
are large and contain large vacuoles. Aerolar parenchyma is espe-
cially common in plants living in very wet habitats. The spaces with-
in the tissue provide air (Figure-7.11). Figure-7.11.: A photomicrograph showing a section
through a leaf of an aquatic plant with its aerolar
2. Dermal Tissue parenchyma.

Reproduction and Development

Dermal tissue covers the outer surface of the root, stem, leaves
and fruits, protecting the inner cells from external hazards. It consists
of epidermis and periderm. It functions in the reduction of water loss
in terrestrial plants during hot and dry periods.
a. Epidermis
The whole of the aerial plant body of herbaceous and woody
plants is protected by the epidermis. It is composed of a single layer
of rectangular cells that have no spaces between them. Directly Figure-7.12.: A diagrammatic view of the important epi-
above the epidermis is a waxy transparent cuticle secreted by the epi- dermal features of a terrestrial plant. Notice the thickened
dermal cells. Its thickness is dependent on the environment in which cellulose cell walls and a thick layer of waterproof cuticle.
the plant lives. In hot dry habitats, the cuticle is thick, preventing
water loss. In regions where available water is plentiful, for example in aquatic
regions, the cuticle is very thin. Within this layer of epidermal cells may be small
hair-like outgrowths, known as trichomes, stomata and also hydrathodes through
which excess water can be lost. (Figure-7.12).

97
 Stoma: Air is needed for transpiration, photosynthesis and respira-
tion. Atmospheric air enters the plant through stomata. These tiny
structures are formed by the differentiation of epidermal tissue. A
stoma is composed of a pair of bean-like cells known as guard cells
with a space between them. The inner walls of stomal cells are thicker
than the outer walls. This difference in diameter under the influence of
turgor pressure controls the opening and closure of stomata. As more
water passes into the plant, the thin outer walls stretch. Simultaneously
the thicker inner walls are pulled apart from each other, opening the
stomal pore. Oxygen and water vapor is allowed to diffuse out while
carbon dioxide molecules diffuse in (Figure-7.13).

b. The Periderm
The periderm is a thick impermeable layer surrounding the stem of
woody plants. It is formed from the division of epidermal parenchyma
cells producing secondary meristematic tissue. Repeated divisions
result in phellem, or cork, and phelloderm--an inner secondary cortex.
Figure-7.13.: It differs from epidermis in that its structure is multilayered. There are
a) General view of the longitudinal structure of a hops no spaces between its constituent cells which are simple flattened rec-
trichome
b) The thorn-like trichome of the herb oregano tangular or hexagonal cells. After maturing, the spongy cambium cells
c) The spine-like unicellular trichome of a hollyhock die and become filled with air (Figure-7.14).
d) The multicellular trichome of a tobacco plant.
e) The branched multicellular trichome of the mullein The periderm protects plants from temperature changes, physical
plant Verbascum thapsus damage and prevents gas and water loss.
Periderm is formed from three structures known as phelloderm,
phellogen and phellem (Figure-7.16).
The periderm may form a layer on the outer surface of the plant or
may sometimes be present deeper within the plant body. For instance,
the formation of a layer of periderm between the stem and the base of
the petiole results in leaf fall, or abscission. The periderm layer pre-
vents the passage of water and food between the stem and leaf, thus
the leaf is starved and falls to the ground as leaf litter. Simultaneously,
Figure-7.14.: Diagrammatic longitudinal section through spongy tissue located in deeper regions of the stem causes fragmen-
the branch of a pear tree sapling showing the periderm. tal drop of periderm (Figure-7.16).
Lenticels: In dicotyledons, the outer tissue becomes woody as the
plant matures and ages. The stomata lose their ability to function and
are replaced by lenticels--small spherical-shaped raised pores under
which is spongy tissue containing many intercellular spaces. They
maintain gas exchange between woody plants and the atmosphere and
are found mostly on the roots, stem and branches (Figure-7.15).
Plant Tissues

3. Supportive Tissue
All higher land plants require support to help them withstand the
effects of environmental conditions such as wind and rain. The type of
supporting structure is dependent on the size and location of the plant.
For example, herbaceous plants are small in size and turgor pressure
Figure-7.15.: Lenticels replace stomata as organs of
gas exchange in plants with secondary thickening. is sufficient to raise them above the ground and to enable them to per-

98
form their life functions. Woody plants require a stronger system of sup-
port and have extensive supportive tissues known as collenchyma and
sclerenchyma.
a. Collenchyma
Collenchyma is a living tissue found in the leaves and stalks of flow-
ers and fruits of actively growing perennial plants.It is also found in
some annual plants. The cells of this type of tissue are characterized by
their thickened cell walls due to the deposition of cellulose and pectin.
Collenchyma cells usually form strands or rings giving flexibility as well
as mechanical support (Figure-7.17).
b. Sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma is the main supporting tissue of woody plants. As
each cell matures, it accumulates first cellulose and pectin, then
becomes lignified. As the cell walls become thicker, diffusion of materi-
al in and out of the cell becomes impossible, resulting in death. The
cytoplasmic space then becomes filled with lignified deposits forming Figure-7.16.: (Top) Photomicrograph of a section of
an extremely hard structure. like in pears and quince. They may also be bark from a pear tree. (Bottom) Diagrammatic devel-
opment of periderm in a sapling of Sambucus nigra
elongated with tapering ends, forming fibers. These fibers are found in (Elder).
patches in the phloem or may occur singly. When they form bundles,
for example in flax, they can be utilized in the weaving of rope and linen
(Figure-7.18).
4. Vascular Tissue
All terrestrial plants need a vascular system to transport minerals and
water to the leaves for photosynthesis, and then to distribute the prod-
ucts of photosynthesis through the plant. Their vascular tissue is com-
posed of xylem and phloem vessels. The xylem transports water and
water-soluble elements from the roots to the leaves. Xylem is made of
dead cells and forms the wood part of woody plants. The phloem trans-
ports the products of photosynthesis from the leaves to the other areas Figure-7.17.: Diagrammatic illustration showing collen-
of the plant. Phloem is made of living cells and is located just under the chyma tissue from Sambucus nigra (a) and Begonia (b).
bark in woody plants (Figure-7.19).

Reproduction and Development

In herbs, phloem and xylem are found together as closely connect-
ed bundles, called vascular bundles. In monocotyledonous plants they
have random locations in the stem (Figure-7.20).
5. Secretory Tissue
Secretory cells may function either as a group or individually. Their
by-products of metabolism perform many useful roles. Resins and
tanins, for example, are secretions that protect the plant from attack by
pathogens or predators. Nectar from the nectaries at the base of flower
petals provides an energy source for insects which in turn pollinate the
female gametophyte. Alkaloids are secretory poisons that defend the
plant against herbivores. Some alkaloids, such as digitalin, produced by
Digitalis purpurea, have useful medical applications. Digitalin is a heart
stimulant used in treatment of heart attack victims.
Figure-7.18.: Different types of sclerencyhma
Secretory tissues can be classified as either external or internal.

99
 a. External Secretory Tissues
There are three main types of external secretory tissues:
Hydathodes: These are pores in the epidermis and resemble an open
stoma. Any excess water diffuses from the end of the xylem into the pore
from the parenchyma tissue directly below it and is extruded as drops. This
is also known as guttation (Figure-7.21).
Nectaries: These structures form at the base of petals of plants that are
insect-pollinated. A concentrated sugar solution known as nectar is secret-
ed by patches of epidermal cells closest to the end of the phloem.
Digestive Glands: Plants living in nitrogen deficient soils have an alterna-
tive strategy for meeting their nitrogen requirements. Drosera rotundifolia,
for example, is insectivorous, utilizing nitrogen from insect protein. Insects
stick to stalked, sticky red glands which produce protease enzymes. When
an insect has become stuck, the glands bend towards the center of the
plant, trapping the insect and slowly digesting it.

Figure-7.19.: A longitudinal view of the aerial

transport tissue of sugar cane (Saccharum offici-
narum).

Figure-7.21.:The stages of formation of fragrant oil vesicles by Pelargonium

b. Internal Secretory Tissues

Some plants, such as Euphorbia helioscopia, contain a poisonous
milky sap, known as latex produced, by specialized latex cells. The sap is a
complex mixture of useful and poisonous excretory compounds and func-
tions in storage, excretion of substances and defense against predators. In
fact, most latex-containing plants are poisonous.
Schizogenous glands are simply enlarged intercellular spaces. Some
conifers, such as the Corsican pine Pinus nigra, secrete and store resin in
these glands.
Lysigenous glands are formed from the breakdown of a group of cells.
Plant Tissues

Citrus limonia secretes aromatic oils into glands in its glossy evergreen
leaves.
In the same way that plants have developed cells to perform specific
Figure-7.20.: (Top). A photomicrograph showing
the position of vascular bundles.
functions, so too have animal cells. The great extent to which animal cells
(Bottom). The vascular bundles of monocotyledons have become specialized explains why animals are capable of movement,
are distributed randomly throughout the stem. communication and sensory perception (Figure-7.22).

100
 7.2. ANIMAL TISSUES

7.2.1. Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial cells form a layer covering the outer surface of the body and
the internal and external surface of organs. They are closely packed
together and one surface adheres to a basement membrane, also known
as the basal lamina. This layer is composed of polysaccharides and tiny
fibers, but lacks blood vessels, nerves or any other type of cell. The con-
nective tissue beneath the basal lamina contains blood capillaries which
supply nutrients to the epithelial cells. Epithelial tissue is classified as:
Simple Epithelial tissue, which contains a single cell layer on
basal lamina Figure-7.22.: Secretory cells. A gland devel-
oped from secretory tissue containing a large
Stratified epithelial tissue, which contain multiple layers of cells on vesicle of aromatic oil. Genus Laurus.
basal lamina
Further classification can be made as shown in figure-7.23.

Reproduction and Development

Figure-7.23.: Classification of epithelial tissue

1.Covering Epithelium
This type of epithelium forms a layer over the internal and external
surfaces of the body. Its shape may vary from squamous to cuboidal or
columnar according to its function and level of metabolic activity.
Covering epithelium may be found in either a single layer or in multiple Figure-7.24.: (Top) A section through an alveolus
layers. (Bottom) A diagrammatic view of the section shown
above

101
 a. Simple Epithelial Tissue
Simple Squamous Epithelial Tissue: These flat wide cells with a cen-
tral oval nucleus have a large surface area to volume ratio. They are in an
ordered sequence, forming a single layer directly above the basal lamina.
This type of epithelium is present in regions of the body where there is
diffusion and no risk from abrasion, as lungs (Figure-7.24).
Simple Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue: This type of epithelial tissue is
composed of cube-like cells with a central circular nucleus forming a sin-
gle layer directly above the basal lamina. Their external surface may be
structurally specialized according to their functions. For instance, cells
involved in nutrient absorption have many microvilli on their external sur-
face to increase the area of absorption. Other cells, such as those of the
uterine lining, have cilia on their upper surface. Simple cuboidal epitheli-
um is also found in the thyroid gland, the subbranches of bile duct, and
the proximal convoluted tubules (Figure-7.25).
Simple Columnar Epithelial Tissue: This type of epithelium is formed
from a single layer of longitudinal cells located directly above the basal
Figure-7.25.: Typical simple cuboidal epithelial tis- lamina. Their nuclei are large and are located at the base of each cell. On
sue from the lumen of the small intestine their free surface there may be cilia. The seminiferous tubules, the epi-
didymis of males and the bile duct all contain these tissues. The free sur-
face of the columnar cells of the small intestine contain both villi and
microvilli for increased absorption. Simple columnar epithelial tissue
may also take the form of glandular cells. The mucosa of the stomach,
for example, is involved in both absorption and secretion (Figure-7.26).

b. Stratified Epithelial Tissue

Multilayered tissue is formed from more than one layer of epithelial
cells. It is classified as multilayered squamous, multilayered cuboidal, or
multilayered columnar according to its cell shape. Stratified Squamous
Epithelial Tissue: It generally forms the epidermal layer of vertebrate skin.
Its cells are known as squamous since the outermost cells of this tissue
are flattened forming an irregular pavement. The layers of cells located
in the region of the basement membrane contain large nuclei, and the
Human and Animal Tissues

border between cells is almost impossible to discern (Figure-7.27).

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue: This type of epithelium is found
in some tissues where secretion is important. For example, the ducts of
the sweat glands and sebaceous glands. There are several layers of cells.
Those of the bottom layer are smaller than those of the top layer (Figure-
7.28).
Stratified Columnar Epithelial Tissue: This type of epithelial tissue is
uncommon in the body. It comprises a multiple layer of cuboidal cells
above which is a single layer of columnar cells. The cells are adapted for
either secretion or for movement of material by means of cilia. It forms
Figure-7.26.: (Top): A section through gall bladder tis- surfaces that need to be kept moist, such as the nasal surface, the
sue showing simple columnar epithelium. (Bottom):
The section (shown above) in diagrammatic form.
ureters and the mucosal membrane of the anus (Figure-7.29).

102
Figure-7.27.: Photomicrograph of stratified squa- Figure-7.28.: Photomicrograph of an ovary showing strati-
mous epithelial tissue in the layer of the tongue fied cuboidal epithelial tissue
(Bottom): The same section in diagrammatic form (Bottom): Diagrammatic view of the section shown

Reproduction and Development

Figure-7.29: Photomicrograph of a prostate gland Figure-7.30: (Top): Photomicrograph of a prostate gland
showing stratified columnar epithelial cells. showing stratified columnar epithelial cells.
(Bottom): Diagrammatic view of the section shown (Bottom): Diagrammatic view of the section shown above.

103
 c. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelial Tissue
This type of tissue is composed of a single layer of cells. However,
since the shape and the position of the nucleus of each cell varies, the tis-
sue appears to be composed of multiple layers. It forms the respiratory
tract and reproductive ducts and is involved in the movement of sub-
stances, protection and secretion (Figure-7.30).

d. Transitional Epithelial Tissue

It is composed of multiple layers of cuboidal cells on a basement
membrane. When the epithelium is stretched, for example in the bladder,
the epithelial cells change their shape and become elongated. In this way,
the size of the bladder can increase as it fills (Figure-7.31).

2. Glandular Epithelial Tissue

The cells of glandular tissue are adapted for the secretion of sub-
stances either into a duct or directly into the blood stream. To achieve
this, basic materials are first absorbed from the blood capillaries located
beneath the basal lamina. These materials are used in the synthesis of a
product such as a protein or glycoprotein. Then they are accumulated
within vesicles at the periphery of the golgi until their contents are
released (Figure-7.32).
During embryological development, glandular epithelial tissue is
formed by projection of covering epithelium into connective tissue and its
subsequent differentiation. The main branch of this projection forms the
excretory tract and is attached to covering epithelium.
Figure-7.31.: A section from the urinary bladder Glandular epithelial tissue is categorized according to the method by
showing transitional epithelial tissue. which its products are secreted. Endocrine glands release products
(Bottom): A diagrammatic view of stretched tran-
sitional epithelium directly into the bloodstream whereas exocrine glands release their secre-
tions through a duct.
Human and Animal Tissues

Glandular epithelial tissue can be categorized as exocrine or endocrine

according to its site of secretion.

a. Endocrine Glands
Endocrine glands have no duct or channel. Subsequently their prod-
ucts are secreted directly into the blood through the cell membrane. The
products of endocrine secretion are generally hormones (Figure-7.33-34).

b. Exocrine Glands
During embryonic development, the divisions of some epithelial cells
Figure-7.32.: A photomicrograph of skin, show- form tube-like projections into the body. These are known as exocrine
ing a sweat gland. glands. These secretions are usually enzymes.

104
 Figure-7.34.: A transverse section from a pituitary gland.

Figure-7.33.: Diagrammatic view of exocrine and endocrine glands.

Exocrine glands are tubular and release their secretions into a duct.
Endocrine glands release their secretions directly into the blood cir-
culation. Figure-7.35.:Types of sensory epithelial tissue

3. Sensory Epithelium

Reproduction and Development

The epithelial tissue found in sensory epithelium has a specific role. Namely in
the conversion of mechanical, chemical and optical stimuli from the environment
into a form that is meaningful to the organism. Projections from the epithelial cells
are involved in reception of stimuli and are known as receptors. (Figure-7.35).

7.2.2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Connective tissue is formed by the mesoderm layer, or mesenchyme, of the
embryo. It is composed of cells that produce extracellular fluid. It also produces
structures known as ground substance and fibers. These structures form a mesh,
and the spaces between them are filled by water and mucopolysaccharides.
Functions:
Provision of mechanical support.
Maintenance of the optimum medium for diffusion between capillaries and
cells. This facilitates the nutrition and metabolism of cells.

105
 Effective defense of the body.
Recovery of damaged tissue and its regeneration.
Provision of an optimum medium for the penetration of blood vessels and
nerves into all sites of the body.
1. The Structure of Connective Tissue
The connective tissue is composed of cells and intercellular substance.

Figure-7.36.: Collagen fibers greatly magnified a. Cells

Fibroblasts: They synthesize the matrix--connective fibers and ground sub-
stance. They are also involved in the regeneration of damaged connective tissue
and in phagocytosis of antigens after infection.
Macrophages: They are the second most common cells of connective tissue
and are oval-shaped with irregular cytoplasmic extensions.
They are the defense cells of the body, phagocytosing ingested microorgan-
isms and antigens as well as dead cells.They move throughout the body by amoe-
boid motion and engulf (destroy) any foreign particles.
Pigment Cells: They are irregular in shape and contain the pigment melanin
in their cytoplasm. They are found in the choroid layer of the eye sphere, eyelid and
in the reproductive organs. They are not fixed to any particular structure in the body.
Mast Cells: These large cells secrete heparin, a substance which prevents
coagulation of blood in the vessels. Furthermore, they help to combat inflamma-
tion by the production of the protein histamine.
Plasma Cells: They are oval leukocytes and are involved in the synthesis of
Figure-7.37.: Transverse section through a
venule and arteriole showing the elastic antibodies. Plasma cells are found in the bone marrow, lymphatic organs, loose
fibers. connective tissue, spleen, kidneys and liver.

b. Intercellular Substance
Intercellular substance is composed of collagen, elastic fibers, reticular fibers
and a transparent gelatin like matter known as ground substance.
Human and Animal Tissues

Collagen Fibers: These proteinaceous fibers are the most common fiber of
connective tissue. They form bundles 1-12 microns in thickness, attached to each
other by an adhesive substance. Collagen fibers are durable under tension, do not
enlarge and can only be elongated by 5% of their original length. In the intestines
they are soft, pliable, thin and branched. However, they are thick, strong and rigid
in the tendons and ligaments where they function in connecting muscle to bones
(Figure-7.36).
Elastic Fibers: They are composed of the protein elastin and this enables
them to elongate to 100-140% of their original length. Elastic fibers play an impor-
tant role in the alveoli where the network they form enables the alveoli to enlarge
and shrink during respiration.They play a similar role in the blood vessel walls,
allowing them to swell and shrink as blood is forced through under pressure
Figure-7.38.: A photomicrograph of retic-
ular fibers in red bone marrow. (Figure-7.37).

106
 Reticular Fibers: These fibers are of the same structure as collagen,
but of much smaller diameter. They form a branched network that sup-
ports other cells. Reticular fibers are present in organs of immunity such
as the spleen, red bone marrow, liver and blood vessels (Figure-7.38).
2. Specific Types of Connective Tissue
Connective tissue is categorized into the following groups or tissues
according to the type and quantity of the fibers in the matrix
connective tissue proper
blood
cartilage
bone
Figure-7.39.: Aerolar (loose) connective tissue is com-
1. Connective Tissue Proper posed of fibrocytes, mast cells and various fibres.

a. Mucosal Connective Tissue

It is present in the embryo and fetus up to the time of birth. Its inter-
cellular substance is soft and gel-like, containing fibers and fibroblasts. It
generally acts as padding, especially for blood vessels in the umbilical cord.

b. Loose Connective Tissue

Reproduction and Development

Figure-7.40.: All these principle types of connective tissue form from embryonic mesenchyme.

107
 Also known as aerolar tissue, it is composed of cells and fibers and is found
extensively throughout the human body. It is generally present in the intercellular
matrix of the cells of an organ. (Figure-7.39).
Loose connective tissue supports and protects the tissues and organs of an
organism, providing a medium through which soluble nutrients and wastes can
pass in and out of blood vessels.

c. Dense Connective Tissue

This type of tissue is also known as collagenous tissue. It is composed of tight-
ly packed, thick collagen fibers and is durable against mechanical forces and pres-
sure. Only a few fibroblasts are present as compared to the number of fibers
(Figure-7.41). It is found in the dermis of the skin, the cortex of the brain, tendons
and ligaments

d. Elastic Tissue
This type of tissue is composed of a net of branched elongated elastic fibers
as well as collagen and fibroblasts. Its ability to elongate and then spring back to
1Figure-7.41.: (Top): A section of kidney
cortex. The capillaries and glomeruli are its original size accounts for its presence in the bronchi, ligaments and the vocal
embedded in dense connective tissue. cords (Figure-7.42).
(Bottom): Dense connective tissue
e. Adipose Tissue
Adipose tissue is composed of many cells specialized for fat storage. In
between them are reticular fibers and collagen. Fat or lipid droplets are first syn-
thesized by lipoblasts, then combine with others to form a large drop. As lipid fills
the cell, its cytoplasm is confined to a limited space and is pressed up against the
plasma membrane as a thin layer (Figure-7.43).
The main functions of fat in the body are as follows:
storage of excess water

Figure-7.42.: The vocal cords contain a maintenance or a friction-free surface between organs
large amount of elastic tissue.
as a buffer against mechanical pressure
insulation against cold, especially in aquatic mammals
Human and Animal Tissues

lubrication of the skin

In fish, particularly eels, genus Anguilla, fat is stored in the mus-
cles. This energy is then consumed during reproduction or migra-
tion. European freshwater eels migrate to the Saragosa Sea. During
this long journey, they consume the fat stored in their muscles.
The body temperature of newborn babies is regulated by brown
fat cells in adipose tissue. Their defective electron transport system
converts food into heat energy in order to compensate for the heat
constantly lost due to their large surface area.
Figure-7.43.: Adipose tissue. Notice that the nucleus is
squashed to the side of each cell to make room for the fat
globule.

108
 2. Cartilagenous Tissue Ground matrix of
It is generated from the mesoderm layer of the embryo in vertebrates and is bone contains large
amounts of fibers that
composed of cells known as chondrocytes (chondroblasts) and a ground sub-
make bone strong, and
stance of collagen bundles. Each chondrocyte cell is embedded within a single minerals that make bone hard.
lacuna or cavity and secretes its own matrix. The number of oval or rounded nuclei
present varies according to the species.
The embryonic skeleton of all vertebrates is composed
of cartilage, ossifying later in development. However, the
skeleton of a shark remains cartilaginous throughout its
adult life. Since cartilage has no blood vessels within its
structure, it obtains its nutrients by diffusion and subse-
quently consumes less oxygen. That is why it requires a very
long time to heal when it is damaged (Figure-7.44).
Cartilage tissue is a firm, plastic-like tissue and exists in
three main forms: hyaline, elastic and fibrous. Each is clas-
sified according to the type, organization and amount of the
fibers it contains.
1. Hyaline Cartilage
It is the most common and hardest form of cartilage in
the body and is composed of a network of fine collagenous
fibers in a translucent, pearly blue-white ground substance.
This type of cartilage ossifies into bone most rapidly and
can just as rapidly degenerate.
Main Locations: It is found in the trachea, larynx, nose,
ribs, tips of long bones and in the whole of the shark skele-
ton.
2. Elastic Cartilage
This type of cartilage is flexible, yellow in color and is
composed of mostly elastic fibers embedded in a matrix.

Reproduction and Development

Ossification and degeneration is rare in this type of carti-
lage.
Main Locations: It is found in lightweight flexible sup-
porting structures such as the pinna of the ear, the epiglot-
tis of the throat and the auditory tube connecting the mid-
dle ear to the upper throat, larynx and nasopharynx.
3. Fibrocartilage
It is the strongest cartilage, composed of dense collage-
nous fibers embedded in a matrix. Fibrocartilage is fibrous
and gray in color and is as durable and able to resist tension
as dense connective tissue.
Main Locations: It is found in intervertebral disks and
forms the fleshy pad between the pubic bones. Figure-7.44.: Cartilaginous tissue. Notice the absence of blood ves-
sels and nerves. If this tissue ossifies, it will become bone.

109
 3. Bone Tissue
Bone differs from the other types of connective tissue in
its extremely rigid structure. Its strength is due to its special
structure, a low water content and the presence of inorgan-
ic salts in its ground tissue. It is therefore hard and strong. It
functions as a firm structure to which muscles can attach to
produce movement. It also protects vital organs such as the
central nervous system, heart, bone marrow and the lungs.
The bone tissue of a normal healthy adult contains 25%
collagen fibers, 1.5% water, 1.25% proteins and 60-65%
inorganic minerals.
1. Ground Tissue
It contains a solid, rigid matrix of mainly collagen fibers.
This makes the bone flexible and contributes to its strength.
2. Bone Cells
There are four main types of cells in bone structure: osteogenic
cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts and bone-lining cells.
1. Osteogenic Cells: They are the precursors of
osteoblasts and can be converted rapidly into osteoblasts
during healing. They are found in the deepest layers of the
periosteum and endosteum.
2. Osteoblasts: They are bone-forming cells capable of
synthesizing and secreting a ground substance known as
osteoid. When secreted, the matrix contains no minerals. It
is later calcified into bone matrix by the deposition of calci-
um ions. They are mainly found in regions of bone that are
actively growing.
Figure-7.45.: Compact Bone Structure
3. Osteocytes: They develop from osteoblasts and are
the principal cells of a fully developed bone. Each osteocyte
has a cell body occupying the spaces in the bone lacunae
Human and Animal Tissues

and has long cytoplasmic projections which adhere to neigh-

boring osteocytes. They maintain the homeostatic balance
of calcium in the body by releasing calcium ions into the
blood when needed.
4. Osteoclasts: They are multinucleated giant cells origi-
nating from monocytes in the blood. They are active on the
surface of bones and their role is to dissolve and absorb
damaged bone or surplus material. They are active in the
shaping of new bones.
3. The Morphological Structure of Bone Tissue
Bone tissue is classified as either spongy or compact
Figure-7.46.: Bone Structures according to its ground substance (Figure-7.45).

110
 a. Spongy Tissue
It is found inside most bones, such as the flat bones of the skull, and the
epiphysis regions of long bones. It is lightweight and contains many hollow cav-
ities. However, it lacks Haversian canals. Its main function is the synthesis of
blood cells by the red bone marrow in its cavities. In all bones, the outer sur-
face of spongy bone is surrounded by a rigid wall of compact bone (Figure-
7.46).

b. Compact Bone Tissue

This type of bone tissue is dense in structure and has great tensile strength
due to the collagen fibers that form a circular lamellar structure in its ground
substance. Each of these cylinders of lamellae, or osteons, is composed of
compact bone. At the center of each cylinder is an orifice known as a Haversian
canal. The blood and lymph vessels within the central Haversian canal supply
nutrients to the bone tissue along branches known as Volkmann's canals
(Figure-7.45-46).

4. Blood Tissue
Blood tissue originates from mesenchyme cells during embryonic develop-
ment. It is composed of cells such as erythrocytes, leukocytes and thrombo-
cytes. The intercellular matrix is composed of liquid plasma (Figure-7.47-48).
Erythrocytes are disc-like, transport oxygen and help CO2 transport.
Leukocytes are shapeless and protect the body against microorganisms and
foreign substances. Thrombocytes are cell fragments, provide blood clotting
and stop bleeding.
A healthy adult has approximately 5 liters of blood. Of this volume, 45%
consists of cells and the remainder is made up of plasma. Erythrocytes trans-
port O2 and CO2, leukocytes are involved in the defense of body against
invaders, and thrombocytes are involved in blood coagulation after damage to
the skin.

Reproduction and Development

The concentration of plasma is affected by various factors. It increases by Figure-7.47-48.: Erythrocytes (small red
up to 50% after profuse sweating and can decrease by up to 60% after drink- cells) and Leucocytes (large cells).
ing much water.

5. Muscular Tissue
Muscular tissue is generated from embryonic
mesoderm. It is specialized for contraction and is
under the control of the nervous system.
Contraction (shortening) is produced when muscle
fibers (actin and myosin fibers) slide between each
other The function of all muscular tissue is con-
traction.
Myosin filaments are thicker and more
branched than actin filaments. They are 100-150 Å

111
 in thickness and 1.5 microns in length. They contract by sliding over actin
filaments.
When a muscle is stimulated, actins move toward each other by
myosins, and the muscle shortens (contracts).
1. Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle is found in parts of the body that move vigorously and
voluntarily for short periods. It may be either red or white in color. Both
color types contain long, thin, cylindrical multinucleated cells. Red mus-
cle is characterized by a large quantity of the red respiratory pigment myo-
globin, as well as a rich network of capillaries.
The great number of mitochondria produce large amounts of ATP and
creatine phosphate needed for vigorous movement. The nucleus of each
cell is located at the edge of the muscle fiber, directly beneath the sar-
colemma.
White muscle contains only a very small amount of myoglobin, has
few capillaries running through it and almost no fat or glycogen. It is gen-
erally characteristic of animals that have no need for active movement.
The meat of a chicken is an example of this type (Figure-7.49).
Figure-7.49.: Muscle tissues
2. Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle is found in areas of the body where slow prolonged
involuntary contraction is needed. For example, the slow mixing of food
and gastric juices in the stomach, the squeezing of food through the intes-
tine and the regulation of the diameter of blood vessels. Smooth muscle
differs from skeletal muscle in that each long thin cell contains only one
long, flattened nucleus and the actin and myosin-type filaments do not
form striations. The cells are linked by collagen fibers and gap junctions
to form tissue.
3. Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart of a vertebrate and is well
suited to its function to pump blood continuously around the body. Each
cell can contract regularly and tirelessly for many years. This is due to its
Human and Animal Tissues

characteristics of both skeletal and smooth muscle. A cardiac cell is stri-

ated and has large quantities of mitochondria and myoglobin to fuel its
constant activity. A group of cardiac cells always beat rhythmically togeth-
er. This is due to their close attachment to each other by means of inter-
calated discs.

6. Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue is composed of specialized cells known as neurons and
is involved in the transfer of messages about physical and chemical
changes in the body and the immediate environment. These messages
are transferred to the central nervous system from receptors in different
parts of the body.
Figure-7.50.: The structure of a typical neuron

112
 The nervous system stimulates the muscles of the body to respond
to changes and to maintain the homeostasis of the organism.
The General Functions of the Nervous System:
Reception of stimuli
Physical and chemical transmission of stimuli
Initiation of activities of some organs and glands
In order to transmit messages rapidly over long distances, a neuron
is specialized in different ways from other cells.
For example, it is composed of dendrites, a cell body and an axon. A photomicrograph of nervous tissue
The cell body is a structure where organelles and the nucleus of the
neuron are located.
The dendrites are extensions of the cell surface and are responsible
for receiving information from different receptor sites all over the body.
They achieve this by means of their branched projections which can
receive many impulses from a single site.
These messages are passed into the cell body where the nucleus
and organelles of the neuron are situated.
They are then transferred on to a single thick extension of the cell
known as an axon. The axon transmits the impulse to the next struc-
Figure–7.51: Photomicrograph of the brain showing
ture (usually another nerve or muscle) and can relay information rapid- myelinated neurones
ly to the central nervous system by means of changes in potential dif-
ference over its surface. A bundle of axons forms a nerve (Figure-7.50-
51).

Reproduction and Development

113
 ___4. A placental mammal would be
SELF CHECK A) larviparous B) viviparous C) nefarious
D) oviparous E) ovoviviparous
___1. Which statement is NOT true about reproduc-
tive timing?
A) Most wild mammals produce offspring once a year.
B) Reproductive cycles in invertebrates are associat-
ed with changes in day length.
C) Many temperate zone mammals mate in the fall ___5. The male reproductive system includes all EX-
CEPT which of the following?
and produce offspring in the spring.
D) Animals determine the timing of their reproduc- A) testes B) epididymis C) penis
tive behavior by temperature changes. D) prostate E) fimbriae
E) Melatonin production in the pineal gland is relat-
ed to the timing of reproductive behavior.

___2. Which of the following statements is NOT true ___6. Sperm mature within the
about fertilization?
A) seminal vesicles B) vas deferens
A) Amphibians, birds, and reptiles lay shelled eggs. C) seminiferous tubule D) ejaculatory duct
B) Most terrestrial animals practice internal fertiliza- E) epididymis
tion.
C) Many terrestrial males have a copulatory organ for
sperm transfer.
D) Internal fertilization is required for the production
of shelled eggs.
E) Most aquatic animals practice external fertiliza- ___7. In the human male, the tube used to carry both
tion, releasing gametes into the water. sperm and urine is the
A) ureter B) seminiferous tubule C) vas deferens
D) urethra E) fallopian tube
Human and Animal Tissues

___3. Reptile and bird eggs have

A) no chorion.
B) no amnion. ___8. A functional advantage of having human testes
in the scrotum rather than in the abdomen is
C) no extraembryonic membranes, since the young
are inside an egg. A) lack of room in the abdomen.
B) a shorter sperm duct.
D) a placental connection, since these are advanced
animals. C) more direct blood flow.
E) a plentiful and large yolk, since it must support all D) lower temperature.
early development. E) greater protection for the testes.

114
___9. If we cut a cross-section through the testes, we ___13. The impotency drug Viagra acts by
would see
A) increasing whole body blood pressure.
A) individual sperm follicles with all future immature B) stimulating erotic mental images.
sperm present.
C) inhibiting the breakdown of cGMP which stimu-
B) large chambers lined with developing sperm. lates artery dilation.
C) small tubules lined with developing sperm. D) providing supplementary cGMP to stimulate ar-
D) flat layers of tissue, like pages, lined with develop- tery dilation.
ing sperm. E) causing vein sphincter constriction.

___10. Trace the correct path of the sperm during

ejaculation.
___14. A male accessory organ that often becomes
A) urethra - vas deferens - seminal vesicles - testes
enlarged, infected or cancerous in older men is the
B) testes - urethra - vas deferens - penis
A) testis B) prostate gland C) epididymis
C) seminiferous tubules - epididymis - vas deferens -
urethra D) bulbourethral gland E) vas deferens
D) seminiferous tubules - vas deferens - epididymis -
urethra
E) vas deferens - seminiferous tubules - epididymis -
urethra ___15. The substances found in semen are produced
by all EXCEPT which of the following?
A) prostate B) vas deferens
C) bulbourethral glands D) seminal vesicles
E) testes
___11. In the human male, sperm cells are produced
in the

Reproduction and Development

A) interstitial tissue B) urethra
C) seminiferous tubules D) vas deferens ___16. Which part of the sperm is lined with mito-
E) seminal vesicles chondria and expends the energy needed to pro-
pel the sperm?
A) acrosome B) head
C) tail E) middle piece

___12. Which association concerning structures in

the human male is INCORRECT?
A) testes - produce sperm ___17. What is the last part of the male reproductive
B) prostate gland - seminal fluid tract through which the semen passes?
C) vas deferens - carries urine A) vas deferens B) urethra
D) urethra - conducts sperm C) epididymis D) prostate

115
 ___18. What is the function of the sustentacular cells ___21. LH is an abbreviation for luteinizing hormone
in the male reproductive tract? which was described as a female hormone con-
trolling the ovary. In the male, LH
A) produce the sperm cell through meiosis.
B) produce alkaline fluid added to semen. A) does not exist, since males lack ovaries.
C) activate the sperm cells so they can swim rapidly. B) exists in rudimentary levels since LH is made by
the anterior pituitary.
D) support and regulate the cells that produce sperm
cells. C) is exactly the opposite chemical from male hor-
mones, in an antibody/antigen fashion.
E) produce a fluid added to the semen just before
D) is sometimes called ICSH and controls produc-
ejaculation.
tion of testosterone.

___22. Secondary sexual characteristics in the male

are directly maintained by the hormone
A) estrogen B) FSH C) LH
D) testosterone E) progesterone

___19. What is the main sex hormone in the human

male?
___23. The energy source for sperm to swim comes
A) testosterone from
B) estrogen A) stored fat molecules in the acrosome.
C) luteinizing hormone (LH) B) stored sugar molecules in the sperm head.
D) follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) C) fructose sugar in the surrounding seminal fluids
E) interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) added by the seminal vesicles.
D) protein breakdown by mitochondria in the mid-
piece of the sperm.
E) dissolved lipids in the seminal fluids added by the
prostate gland.
Human and Animal Tissues

___24. The role of the acrosome during the fertiliza-

___20. Approximately how many sperm are produced tion process is to
each day in a healthy adult male?
A) increase the sperm's motility.
A) fifty to seventy thousand B) direct the sperm to the egg.
B) several hundred thousand C) contain enzymes that help a sperm head digest its
C) one to two million way into an egg.
D) several hundred million D) transport chromosomes into the egg.
E) one to two billion E) store energy for swimming to the egg.

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___25. The egg is propelled down the oviduct (fallop- ___29. What is the main sex hormone of the female?
ian tube) by
A) testosterone B) LH C) FSH
A) cilia on the layer of nurse cells surrounding the egg. D) estrogen E) ICSH
B) simply drifting on the prevailing current of body
fluids.
C) oviduct cilia and tubular muscle contractions.
D) suction from the uterine contraction.

___30. Approximately how many mature egg cells are

released by a woman during her fertile years?
A) 100
___26. Fertilization in humans normally occurs in the
B) 400
A) uterus C) 4,000
B) vagina D) several hundred thousand
C) abdominal cavity E) several million
D) ovarian follicle
E) oviducts or fallopian tubes

___31. The luteal phase of the ovarian cycle occurs, in

___27. The structure from which an egg is released a 28-day cycle, at about
during ovulation is called a(n)
A) days 1-5 B) days 6-13
A) ovarian cyst
C) day 14 D) days 15-28
B) primary follicle
C) corpus luteum
D) secondary follicle
E) Graafian follicle

Reproduction and Development

___32. Which of the following hormones is most as-
sociated with maturation of the egg?
A) LH B) FSH C) HCG
___28. Normal human sperm and eggs are similar in
D) testosterone E) progesterone
which of the following respects?
A) Their locomotion is achieved with equal facility.
B) They have the same relative amount of cytoplasm
surrounding their nuclei.
C) Approximately the same number of gametes are
produced from both gonads.
___33. In the human female, the uterine cycle is on
D) Both use meiosis to produce four sperm or four
the average ____ days.
eggs from the parent cell.
E) The have the same number of chromosomes in A) 20 B) 24 C) 28
their nucleus. D) 38 E) 48

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 ___34. During a 28-day uterine cycle, ovulation usu- ___39. The lining of the uterus that is discharged dur-
ally occurs on the ____ day. ing the menstrual phase is the
A) 5th B) 9th C) 14th A) endocardium B) oviduct C) endometrium
D) 20th E) 25th D) hymen E) myocardium

___35. Menstruation begins because

A) the pituitary triggers it.
B) LH activity is at its peak. ___40. Pregnancy occurs when
C) estrogen activity is at a peak. A) the sperm and egg combine.
D) progesterone production is highest. B) the fertilized egg implants in the ovary.
E) progesterone and estrogen levels are both declining. C) the developing embryo embeds itself in the en-
dometrial lining.
D) sperm are in the vagina.
E) sperm are in the uterus.

___36. In the human female, estrogen and proges-

terone exert feedback control over the
A) testes B) ovary C) pituitary
D) uterus E) prostate gland ___41. The hormone produced by cells around the
embryo that maintains the corpus luteum and the
pregnancy is called
A) estrogen
B) progesterone
C) LH
___37. The uterine cycle at day 12 would primarily be D) FSH
Human and Animal Tissues

under the influence of E) human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

A) estrogen B) progesterone C) epinephrine
D) thyroxin E) testosterone

___38. Which structure in humans produces FSH? ___42. The organ that exchanges molecules between
A) penis B) ovaries fetal and maternal blood is the
C) pituitary D) both penis and ovaries A) vagina B) oviduct C) uterus
E) hypothalamus D) placenta E) mammary gland

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___43. Trace the path of the sperm through the fe- ___47. Which of the following is NOT true after a per-
male reproductive tract. son has had a vasectomy?
A) vagina - uterus - oviduct - cervix A) Cowper's glands are not affected by the operation.
B) urethra - vagina - oviduct - cervix B) The vas deferens still transport sperm to the urethra.
C) vagina - cervix - uterus - oviduct C) The interstitial cells can still release hormones.
D) urethra - uterus - cervix - fallopian tube D) The semen will not contain sperm.
E) cervix - fallopian tube - vagina - uterus E) The oviduct will not be affected.

___44. What two hormones influence the develop- ___48. Which is NOT a barrier method of birth control?
ment of the secondary sexual characteristics of
the female? A) condom B) cervical cap
C) diaphragm D) douche
A) testosterone and estrogen
B) androgen and estrogen
C) FSH and LH
D) progesterone and estrogen
E) testosterone and progesterone
___49. The medication know as mifepristone or RU-
486
A) kills sperm as they enter the female reproductive
tract.
___45. Menopause refers to B) blocks progesterone receptors of cells in the uter-
ine lining and causes menstruation.
A) the menstrual phase
C) prevents an egg from maturing and being released
B) premenstrual phase - essentially a stronger regular birth control pill.
C) a time when men pause. D) destroys the embryo, which in turn causes a
D) cessation of menstruation. spontaneous abortion.

Reproduction and Development

E) onset of menstruation. E) prevents development of a uterine lining.

___46. The hormone ___ from the ____ causes mam-

mary lobules in the breast to contract causing ___50. Which of the following would NOT result in in-
milk to flow. fertility?
A) prolactin, hypothalamus A) Egg is fertilized and implants.
B) prolactin, anterior pituitary B) Egg is fertilized but does not implant.
C) oxytocin, hypothalamus C) Egg is not fertilized due to low sperm count.
D) oxytocin, anterior pituitary D) endometriosis
E) estrogen, ovaries E) Egg is not ovulated.

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 ___51. Retroviruses are responsible for ___55. In human males, sperm cells are suspended in
a fluid medium. The main advantage gained from
A) syphilis B) gonorrhea C) chlamydia
this adaptation is that the fluid
D) herpes E) AIDS
A) removes polar bodies from the surface of the sperm.
B) activates the egg nucleus so that it begins to divide.
C) acts as a transport medium for sperm.
D) provides currents that propel the egg down the
oviduct.
E) prevents deformed sperm or those containing
___52. The primary function of progesterone in the mutations from fertilizing the egg.
menstrual cycle is to
A) stimulate development of the egg.
B) stimulate development of the endometrium.
C) stimulate development of the corpus luteum.
D) stimulate development of the follicle.
E) trigger ovulation ___56. Which of the following is an INCORRECT
statement about human oogenesis.
A) One ovum is produced from each parent cell.
B) Primary oocytes can sit halted in prophase I for years.
C) After puberty begins, one primary oocyte, on av-
___53. In humans, sperm are produced by spermatoge- erage, re-enters meiosis every 28 days.
nesis and ova are produced by oogenesis. D) One polar body is produced from each parent cell.
If both processes occur normally, what is the re- E) Meiosis II begins after a secondary oocyte is fertil-
sulting number of each gamete formed? ized by sperm.
A) one sperm and one ovum
B) two sperm and two ova
C) four sperm and four ova
D) four sperm and one ovum
E) one sperm and four ova
Human and Animal Tissues

DEVELOPMENT PART
___1. How does a sperm penetrate an egg?
A) Enzymes in the acrosome dissolve the jelly coating.
B) The sperm melts its way inside using nucleic
___54. Which structures control the cyclic nature of acids in its DNA.
the menstrual cycle? C) The forward pressure of the flagellum forces it
through the vitelline membrane.
A) oviducts and uterus
D) Spermatids are wedge shaped and are chemically
B) pituitary and testes
attracted to the inside of the vitelline membrane.
C) ovaries and umbilical cord
E) The haploid set of chromosomes match across
D) pituitary and ovaries the membrane, and this triggers the membrane
E) oviduct and thyroid to dissolve.

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___2. Generally, only one sperm fertilizes an egg because ___7. Which association is INCORRECT?
A) sperm are so few that two are unlikely to arrive at A) gastrula - blastopore
the same time. B) blastula - blastocoel
B) sperm compete against one another before en- C) gut - archenteron
tering, and only the most fit one is accepted.
D) primitive streak - morula
C) one small entry hole called the blastopore allows
E) cleavage - zygote
only one sperm to fit through and then seals.
D) many sperm may enter but only one set of chro-
mosomes can fuse with the egg nucleus; the oth-
er sperm are absorbed.
E) when the first sperm membrane fuses with the egg
membrane, it separates the fertilization mem- ___8. Which of these best represents morphogenesis?
brane and forms a barrier to any other sperm.
A) cells divide and get larger
B) cells become specialized in structure and function
C) body parts are shaped and patterned into a spe-
cific form
D) All of the above are correct.
___3. A fertilized egg undergoes cell division without
E) None of the above are correct.
further growth in the process called
A) cleavage B) gastrulation C) differentiation
D) morphogenesis E) embryology

___4. The coelomic cavity is derived from the

___9. During gastrulation in vertebrates, the pore cre-
A) blastocoel. ated by invagination will become the
B) folding of the neutral tube. A) brain B) heart C) mouth

Reproduction and Development

C) splitting of the mesoderm. D) anus E) ear
D) elimination of the yolk sac nutrients.
E) space left after organs develop.
___5. Implantation begins at the end of the
A) fertilization B) first week C) second week
D) second month E) forth month
___10. Which of these best represents differentiation?
A) cells divide and get larger
B) cells become specialized in structure and function
___6. During the formation of an embryo, a solid ball C) body parts are shaped and patterned into a spe-
of cells with a hollow cavity inside is termed a(n) cific form
A) morula B) blastula C) blastocoel D) All of the above are correct.
D) gastrula E) neurula E) None of the above are correct.

121
 ___11. Which of these best represents development? ___15. The neural tube of vertebrates develops during
morphogenesis of the nervous system by the
A) cells divide and get larger
B) cells become specialized in structure and function A) folding of ectoderm tissue.
C) body parts are shaped and patterned into a spe- B) migration of mesoderm cells.
cific form C) fusion of ectoderm and mesoderm.
D) All of the above are correct. D) contraction of the endoderm away from the
E) None of the above are correct. mesoderm.
E) extension of endoderm into a thin spiral column.

___12. Which of these best represents growth?

A) cells divide and get larger
B) cells become specialized in structure and function ___16. Which system below develops first in an embryo?
C) body parts are shaped and patterned into a spe- A) reproductive B) circulatory C) excretory
cific form D) respiratory E) nervous
D) All of the above are correct.
E) None of the above are correct.

___17. Which of the following describes the process

in which cells become specialized in structure and
function?
A) development B) growth C) differentiation
___13. In a chordate embryo, which of the following D) morphogenesis E) embryology
stages occurs first?
Human and Animal Tissues

A) gastrulation B) neurulation
C) blastulation D) cleavage

___18. During development, which of the following

describes the correct sequence?
A) growth - differentiation - morphogenesis
___14. In a chordate embryo, which of the following B) differentiation - growth - morphogenesis
stages occurs second? C) differentiation - morphogenesis - growth
A) gastrulation B) neurulation D) morphogenesis - differentiation - growth
C) blastulation D) cleavage E) differentiation

122
___19. In a chordate embryo, which of these stages ___23. Which stage would show the development of
occurs last? the notochord?
A) gastrulation B) neurulation A) gastrulation B) neurulation
C) blastulation D) cleavage C) blastulation D) cleavage

___24. Somites, which form segmental muscles and

vertebrae, develop from which germ layer?
A) epiderm B) ectoderm C) endoderm
___20. Which of the following is NOT a chordate em- d) mesoderm e) myoderm
bryo?
A) lancelet B) frog C) human
D) starfish E) chick

___25. The nervous system develops from which

germ layer?
A) epiderm B) ectoderm C) endoderm
D) mesoderm E) myoderm

___21. Which stage would show the development of

the ectoderm and endoderm germ layers? ___26. A homeotic gene codes for a ____ protein, a

Reproduction and Development

A) gastrulation B) neurulation sequence of 60 amino acids, sets of which deter-
C) blastulation D) cleavage mine pattern formation.
A) ion B) morphogenetic C) growth
D) regulatory E) homeodomain

___22. Which stage would show the development of ___27. Genes that determine how segments develop
the mesoderm germ layer? during morphogenesis are termed _____ genes.
A) gastrulation B) neurulation A) induction B) cleavage C) differentiation
C) blastulation D) cleavage D) homeotic E) home alone

123
 ___28. Which of the following is NOT one of the ex- ___32. Which part of the blastocyst will develop into
traembryonic membranes? the human embryo?
A) chorion B) amnion C) placenta A) archenteron B) blastopore C) chorion
D) yolk sac E) allantois D) trophoblast E) inner cell mass

___29. Which association is INCORRECT?

A) chorion - gas exchange ___33. Which of the following serves as the site of the
B) allantois - waste storage first production of blood cells in the embryo?
C) amnion - blood vessels A) chorion B) amnion C) placenta
D) yolk sac - food storage D) yolk sac E) allantois

___34. How many days after the last menstrual peri-

od is birth of the fetus expected to occur?
___30. The allantois A) 210 B) 230 C) 255
A) gives rise to umbilical blood vessels in humans. D) 280 E) 300
B) is a structure composed of two germ layers.
C) lies next to the shell in chicks.
D) has the same function in chicks as humans.
Human and Animal Tissues

E) becomes the chorionic villi.

___35. A pregnancy test is based on the production

of ____ by the _____.
A) FSH, anterior pituitary
___31. The ____ develops into the fetal portion of the B) estrogen, ovary
placenta. C) progesterone, corpus luteum
A) amnion B) archenteron C) chorion D) HCG, trophoblast
D) yolk sac E) allantois E) GnRH, hypothalamus

124
___36. The human blastocyst ___40. Preparation for the implantation of the embryo
is regulated by the
A) gives rise to umbilical blood vessels.
B) contains a central cavity. A) cerebellum, pituitary, and testes.
C) is the expanded end of the gastrula. B) hypothalamus, pituitary, and ovaries.
D) has three germ layers. C) uterus, ovaries, and amnion.
E) is the fertilized egg. D) pituitary, amnion, and ovaries.
E) hypothalamus, pituitary, and amnion.

___37. Which statement is NOT correct about the pla-

centa?
A) Oxygenated blood flows to the fetus via the um- ___41. The series of cellular divisions by which a one
bilical vein. cell layered structure becomes a three layer em-
B) Fetal blood flows to maternal blood via umbilical bryo is known as
artery. A) gastrulation B) cleavage C) blastulation
C) Oxygen and nutrients go to fetus from maternal D) meiosis E) nondisjunction
circulatory system.
D) Maternal and fetal blood mix with each other.
E) The placenta produces progesterone and estrogen.

___42. Which of the following structures is derived

from the ectoderm?
A) nerves B) stomach C) heart
___38. At twenty four weeks, or about six months, a D) lungs E) liver
fetus has a chance of surviving, although it may have

Reproduction and Development

A) kidneys that fail to function.
B) an incomplete digestive system.
C) lung difficulties. ___43. Which of the following structures would NOT
D) problems with brain development. have developed from mesoderm?
E) an incomplete heart and circulatory system. A) muscle B) heart C) kidneys
D) bones E) liver

___44. In humans, the developing embryo tends to

___39. During which stage of labor will the cervix be attach to this structure
dilated? Stage ___. A) fallopian tubes B) oviduct C) endometrium
A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 D) cervix E) ovary

125
 ___45. The first of the following to occur during labor
is that
A) a baby is forced toward the vagina.
B) the amniotic sac breaks.
C) muscle contraction expand the cervix.
D) fluid rushes out of the vagina.

___46. The navel (your belly button) is a scar left from

the attachment of the
A) placenta B) chorion C) umbilical cord
D) afterbirth E) amniotic sac

___47. During implantation, the outer layers of the

blastocyst form the
A) endoderm and mesoderm
B) amnion and ectoderm
C) amnion and chorion
D) chorion and mesoderm
E) ectoderm and chorion
Human and Animal Tissues

___48. The structure that contains ____ artery(ies)

and ____ vein(s), and forms after three months of
development is the ______.
A) 2, 1, placenta
B) 2, 2, umbilical cord
C) 2, 1, chorion
D) 1, 2, umbilical cord
E) 2, 1, umbilical cord

126