LINE SIZING AND PRESSURE

DROP PHILOSOPHY
 The following guideline shall be used when selecting the minimum line sizes:

• 2" NB Minimum nozzle size for vessels, tanks, heat exchangers

• 2" NB Minimum process (hydrocarbon) line size
• 1½" NB Minimum utility line size
• ¾" NB Minimum bridle drain or pump casing vent / drain
• 1” NB Minimum chemical injection.
• 2” NB Minimum on pipe rack or pipe sleeper
• 4" NB Minimum for (wrapped and coated) underground lines.
• 4” NB Minimum for storm water runoff sewer drain lines

Sizing Methods
Single phase line sizing can be done using different correlations for friction factor.
The following roughness coefficients are typically considered for different pipe material:

Pipe Material Roughness (mm)

Carbon steel pipe 0.0457
Carbon steel corroded - pipe) Note-1 0.457
Stainless steel pipe 0.0254
Galvanized Steel 0.13
Plastic 0.005
Brass, Aluminum, Copper 0.03

Note-1 : Higher roughness to be used for brownfield projects.

Crane Data Book may be referred for selecting the pipe roughness. Crane Data Book may be
referred for the equivalent length of pipe fittings and valves.
DEP 31.38.01.11-Gen can also be referred to for Shell projects or in cases where such
information is not available in crane handbook.
For special pipe materials like GRE, cladded / coated pipes; Vendor provided data should be
used.

Pipe Sizing Criteria for Single Phase Fluid

The recommended velocities are based on vibration, noise and erosion considerations. The
recommended pressure drop limitations are based on economic considerations and reasonable
pump heads. It is difficult to establish the exact limits of min/max velocities and pressure
drops analytically. The recommended values are based on common established engineering
practices prevalent in the industry. Large size headers and bulk line pipes for pipeline
transport are selected based on economic analysis of investment and operating cost, the
guidelines in this document may not entirely apply to such situations.
Line sizing criteria for both liquid phase and vapour phase flow regimes are described below.
Sizing Criteria for Liquid Phase Flow

For a specific duty, line sizing criteria for liquid phase is tabulated below:

RECOMMENDED ALLOWABLE
SERVICE LINE SIZE MAXIMUM PRESSURE DROP
VELOCITY
(m.s-1) MAX.
(bar/100m)
Pump suction, bubble point  3” 1.1 0.045
(Note- 2,5)
4” – 8” 1.4 – 1.8 0.045 to 0.05
( Note-1) ( Note-1)
10” 1.8 0.07

Pump suction, subcooled  3” 1.1 0.136

(Note-5)
4” - 8” 1.4-1.8 0.136 to 0.226
( Note-1) ( Note-1)

10” 1.8 0.226

Pump discharge  3” 1.8 0.339

(Note-6) 4” – 8” 2.4-4.3 0.339-0.453
10” 4.9 0.453
Unit line liquid bubble point  3” 1.1 0.1
or liquid with dissolved gas 4” – 8” 1.4 – 1.8 0.1
(Note-4) ( Note-1)
10” 1.8 0.1
Gravity run lines 0.6 -2.5 0.04 to 0.09
Amine Solution:
Rich Amine 1.5
Lean Amine 2.0
Sour water 2.0
Service water  2” 1.5 0.35
(Note- 3) 3”-6” 2.0 – 3.0 0.35
8”- 12” 2.5 -4.2 0.35
 12” 3.0 - 5.0 0.35
 Notes :
1) Lower limit of velocity and pressure drop corresponds to lower sizes of pipe.
2) Applicable to liquid feeding to thermosiphon reboiler and liquid containing
dissolved gas.
3) Higher velocity can be used in pipe if water quality is good.
4) Unit subcooled liquid lines will be sized similar to pump discharge.
5) Line size must meet the pump NPSH requirement.
6) Higher pressure drop and velocity can be allowed in Alloys/SS lines .

Sizing Criteria for Vapor Phase Flow

Vapor flows in process piping can be split into two general categories:
1. Incompressible flow
2. Compressible flow
The correct line sizing criteria must be selected, depending on the vapor flow type.

Incompressible Vapor Flow

Vapor flow is considered incompressible, when both the following criteria are met:
Vapor velocity is less than 60 m/sec.
Total pressure drop is less than 10% of the initial pressure.

Normal in plant process and utility vapor flows fall in this category and the lines are sized for
isothermal incompressible flow.
Process and utility lines in vapor service (excluding flare, vent, PSV and depressurization lines)
fall in isothermal incompressible flow. These lines can be sized in accordance with the criteria
presented in the following table. The v2 criteria are governed by consideration of vibration
and forces on piping supports. The v3 criteria are governed by consideration of noise levels.
By exceeding these criteria, the energy of the fluid can damage the material (piping, fatigue
of pipe supports, etc.) and personnel in the form of excessive noise.
Line size to be selected based on recommended velocity and allowable pressure drop. Lines
where pressure drop is not critical for compression power, should be sized based on maximum
velocity.
 For a specific duty, line sizing criteria for Gas phase is tabulated below:
SERVICE ALLOWABLE RECOMMENDED RECOMMENDED
PRESSURE DROP MAXIMUM MAXIMUM
VELOCITY v²
MAX. ms-1 (kg.m-1.s-2)
(bar/100m)
Gas ; General (Note- 1,2)
P  Atm 0.06 38 or 122/1/2 15,000
Atm < P  7 bar g 0.12 Whichever is
7 < P  70 bar g 0.45 lower
P >70 bar g 0.6% of upstream = density in
pressure kg/m3

Column gas outlet

P  Atm 0.011-0.022 40-60
atm < P  3.5 bar g 0.033 18-30
P > atm 0.15 12-15
Compressor suction (Note-2)
0.07

Compressor discharge (Note- 0.12 to 0.22

2)
Refrigerant Suction lines 4.5-10.7
Refrigerant discharge lines 10.7-18
Intermittent operation (anti-
surge, startup etc) 25,000

Notes :

1) The above indicated line sizing criteria are valid for continuous operation. In
general, the pressure drop should be less than 10 % of the static terminal absolute
pressure for long pipe segments and 5% for short segments. For intermittent
operation, these limits may be exceeded, on a case by case analysis.
2) In addition to these criteria, flowing limitations on a noise point of view have to be
considered (maximum V3 = 200,000 kg.s-3). V3 > 100,000 kg.s-3 may need acoustic
induced vibration analysis. This requirement should be checked.
Compressible Vapor Flow

When piping pressure drop is between 10% and 40% of the upstream pressure, the application
of compressible or incompressible flow needs to be reviewed case by case. This situation
occurs in relief and blow down lines and long pipelines. For proper sizing criteria of
compressible flow, refer to the section on “Line Sizing Criteria for Flare and Relieving
Devices”.
Adiabatic condition is usually considered for short, well-insulated lines; while flow in long
pipelines approaches isothermal condition. In general, isothermal pressure drop is greater
than or equal to adiabatic pressure drop.
If pressure drop in a pipe segment exceeds 10% of the upstream pressure, pipe shall be divided
into segments to keep pressure drop in each segment below 10% of the upstream pressure (of
each segment). This is usually done using a suitable computer program to account for changes
on the vapor physical properties due to pressure change in the pipeline.

Design Margin
There is inevitably some inaccuracy associated with the line sizing as the design information is
not always exactly the same as actual conditions. Therefore, it is a normal practice to consider
design margin on the theoretical pressure drop calculations.
In instances when there are no project specific requirements, the following design margins
should be used over the “Normal Flow Rate” to obtain the “Design Flow Rate”:
For all process lines: 10%
For intermittent lines used during startup: 5%
For all utility main headers and distribution lines: 20% (or future expansion requirements as
applicable to specific cases shall be considered).
For recirculating flow e.g. heating or hot oil : 25%
For two-phase pressure drop calculations, a 50% design margin on the pressure drop is usually
considered to allow for inherent inaccuracies in the calculation methodology.
For very low pressure systems, margins are individually assessed especially for tank vent
pipework.

Pipe Sizing Criteria for Two Phase Fluid

Many two-phase pressure drop correlations are quoted in the literature. However, for piping
within plant boundaries where two-phase lines are short, pressure drop based on average
density is generally adequate. For longer lines a more complex method such as modified
Panhandle equations for wet gases or Beggs and Brill equation.

Flow Regime
The interaction of the liquid and vapor phases is complex and depending on vapor/liquid ratio,
pipe size, and layout, the fluid flows in differing patterns or flow regimes. Where emulsions
may form, the actual pressure drop may be higher than anticipated as the viscosity of the
continuous phase would increase considerably When phase change is expected, unstable flow
regimes may result in hydraulic and vibration problems.
Flow regime inside a pipe depends on flow rate and physical properties of gas and liquid phases
as well as the pipe characteristics such as diameter, length and vertical/ horizontal
orientation. These parameters decide the flow regime type i.e., mist flow, stratified flow,
slug flow, etc.
The transition from one flow regime to another is relatively gradual and is depicted in “flow
regime map”. The boundaries shown in flow maps separating the different regimes should not
be interpreted as sharp changes in flow pattern.
The flow maps are generalized by using the gas and liquid Froude numbers based on the feed
pipe velocity and diameter.
The advantage of this general representation is that the flow maps are then unaffected by
variations in flow conditions, physical properties and feed pipe geometry. This means that the
flow maps can be used for a wide range of flow conditions, physical properties and feed pipe
diameters.
The gas and liquid Froude numbers are defined as follows:

Gas Froude number:

G
FrG = vG
(L − G) gD

Liquid Froude number:

L
FrL = vL
( L − G) gD

The flow regime map in a horizontal two-phase flow is shown in Figure-1.

Figure-1
The flow regime map in a vertical two-phase flow is shown in Figure-2.
 Line Sizing Criteria

For a two-phase fluid, the mixture density and velocity can be calculated as follows:
ρm = W
WL/ρL + WV /ρV

Vm = W / 3600
(ρm) (πxD2 / 4)

where: ρL Liquid Phase Density, kg/m3

ρV Vapour Phase Density, kg/m3
ρm Apparent Mixture Density, kg/m3
WL Liquid Flow Rate, kg/h
WG Vapour Flow Rate, kg/h
W Total Flow Rate, kg/h
Vm Mixture Velocity, m/s
D Internal Diameter of the line, m

The fluid erosion velocity (the velocity above which erosion may occur) can be determined by
the following empirical equation as per API 14E:
C
V =
m
e

where Ve = Erosion Velocity, ft/s

ρm = Apparent Mixture Density, lb/ft3
C = Empirical Constant

For solid free fluids, C= 100 for continuous service and C=125 for intermittent service are
conservative.
For solid-free fluids where corrosion is not anticipated or when corrosion is controlled by
inhibition or by employing corrosion resistant alloys, values of C= 150 -200 may be used for
continuous service. Values upto C=250 have been used successfully for intermittent service.
For SI unit conversion, the empirical constant to be multiplied by 1.22.
Example: If Ve is m/s, ρm in kg/m3 and empirical constant should 122 in the place of 100.
API 14E recommends following:
• The fluid velocity must be lower than the erosion velocity.

This
 • If possible the minimum velocity in two phase lines should be about 10 ft/s (3.05
m/s) to minimize the slugging of separation equipment. This is particularly
important in long lines with elevation changes.
• If solids production is anticipated fluid velocity should be significantly reduced
from above calculated erosion velocity. Different values of Empirical constant C
may be used for specific applications if such recommendations are appropriate.

Accepted Flow Regimes

• For two-phase flow lines:

− where mixture is essentially gas, gas criteria will be used,

− where mixture is essentially liquid, liquid criteria will be used.
• For horizontal lines, stratified, mist, annular or bubble flow is acceptable. Slug
and plug flow regimes shall be avoided.
• For vertical lines, mist, annular or bubble flow is acceptable. Slug flow regime
shall be avoided.

Simple Pressure Drop Models

As per API 14E, the pressure drop for two phase flow in steel piping may be estimated using a
simplified Darcy equation.
ΔP = 0.000336f W2
ρm di5
Where: ΔP = Pressure Drop, psi/ 100 ft
W = Mixture Flow Rate, lb/hr
f = Moody friction factor, dimensionless
ρm = Apparent Mixture Density at flowing press and temp, lb/ft3
di = pipe inside diameter , inches
The use of above equation should be limited to a 10% pressure drop due to inaccuracies
associated with changes in density.
If the Moody friction factor is assumed to be an average of 0.015 the above equation becomes:
ΔP = 5x10-6 W2
ρm di5
Korf hydraulic software specifies several correlation methods to calculate the 2 phase
pressure drop. They are Duckler method, Lockhart-Martinelli method, Chenoweth- Martin
method etc. Appropriate method should be selected as per pipe geometry and corresponding
method as recommended in Korf manual.

Piping Arrangement for Two-Phase Flow

Piping arrangement for two-phase flow shall consider:

This
 • Adequate support to avoid vibration.
• Distribution from two-phase manifolds/ headers shall consider equal/
symmetrical distribution to different branches. Branched lines shall be
connected in horizontal direction and shall slope towards the equipment, if
possible.

Line Sizing Criteria for Flare and Relieving Devices

This section describes sizing criteria for relief valve inlet/outlet lines and depressurization
lines as well as flare and cold vent headers.

Lines Upstream of Relieving Devices

Pressure Safety Valves ( PSV) :

Sizing of PSV inlet lines shall be based on the maximum relieving capacity of the PSV for the
selected orifice. Line sizing shall be in accordance with the API 520/521 guidelines.
• P between the protected equipment and the PSV shall be less than 3% of PSV set
pressure.
• Inlet Pipe Diameter shall be greater than or equal to the PSV inlet size

Depressurization Devices
Lines upstream or downstream of depressurization devices/blowdown valves shall be sized
based on the calculated depressurization rates for the system and shall be in accordance with
the criteria provided below:
• Minimum Line Size 2"
• Max V² shall not exceed 200,000 kg/m/s2 Pressure drop criteria do not apply to these
lines, the pressure loss shall be such that it does not impose any restriction on
depressurization objectives.
• Velocity shall be limited to 0.8 Mach.
• Due to high velocities/V2/V3, Acoustic Induced Vibration analysis may be required.

Lines Downstream of Relieving Devices, Flare Headers

Lines downstream of PSV, depressurization and other relieving devices and flares headers and
sub-headers shall be sized in accordance with the following criteria:
• Minimum line size 2".
• Back pressure consistent with relieving capacity of pressure-relieving devices
and with design pressure of the protected equipment.
• Velocity and V²
Sonic velocity is calculated as below:

This
 105 * k * P
Sonic velocity: C=

where:
C Sonic velocity, m/s
k Cp/Cv
P Pressure, bara
 Density, kg/m3
Mach no velocity/C

Lines downstream relieving devices and sub-headers:

The basic criteria for sizing the discharge piping and relief header is the back pressure which
may be developed at any point in the system does not reduce the relieving capacity of any of
the relieving devices required to protect the equipment from overpressure. The back pressure
must be maintained within specific safety valve stability limits to avoid chatter.
0.8 Mach maximum and V² < 200,000 kg.m-1.s-2 considering the maximum capacity of the
relieving devices.
The discharge shall be higher than or equal to outlet of relief devices.
Flaring line downstream of pressure control valve shall be designed for a maximum velocity of
0.5 Mach (continuous flow) and maximum value of V² < 200,000 kg.m-1.s-2
Headers:
0.7 Mach maximum and V² < 200,000 kg.m-1.s-2 considering the maximum flow rate;
however, a velocity of 0.8 Mach could be accepted for a long straight line without elbows and
connections (e.g. stack, line on bridge ).
The actual back pressure at the PSV outlet shall be checked to make consistent with back
pressure limitations.
Acoustic induced vibration study may be required for lines where V² values are high. PAM
group will address the impact and propose the mitigation measures.
If relief is a two phase/multi-phase, the following criteria may be followed:
Potential slug/plug flow velocity shall be limited to 50 m/s
Homogeneous flow ( i.e there is no slip between phases) maximum mVm² < 200,000 kg.m-
1.s-2

Utility Line Sizing

Steam Lines
The following sizing criteria may be used for preliminary pipe sizing of steam lines:
Max ΔP, bar/100 m Recommended
Pressure, barg Max.Velocity
Main Headers Branch Lines
m/sec
Up to 2.0 0.06 0.11 Saturated : 60

This
 2–7 0.09 0.17 Superheated: 75
7 – 20 0.11 0.23
20  P 0.23 0.34

For exhaust steam lines, pressure drop upto 0.33 bar/100 m can be considered.
Condensate Lines

Condensate piping is sized more generously than normal liquid service to provide allowance
for flash steam that is generated.
The condensate lines should also be checked for the startup load and piping shall be sized to
provide adequate pressure drop for traps and control valves in the system, taking into account
for flashing. Steam traps are usually sized for 200 to 300 % of normal flow.
If significant amount of flash is occurring the two phase flow sizing criteria shall be used.
Note: Mixing flashing condensate with sub-cooled condensate can cause a “water hammer”
effect resulting in excessive pipe movement.

Cooling Water/Sea Water Lines

Cooling water headers and distribution piping is sized to keep the pressure drop per 100 m of
piping less than 0.44 bar.
Maximum velocity should be limited to 3.0 m/s for 12” and below. For 14” and above,
maximum velocity should be limited to 4.5 m/s.
Velocity restrictions may apply for large cement lined pipes and should be checked with
suppliers. In general, higher pressure drop can be allowed for Corrosion Resistant Alloy (CRA)
lines to reduce cost.

Fire Water Lines

Sizing of fire water lines shall be based on available system pressure and allowable flow
velocities.
In the ring main pipe work, the same sizing criteria as presented for “Cooling Water/Sea Water
Lines” may be used.

Downstream of the deluge, the flow velocities shall normally not exceed 10 m/s. Some areas
may require velocities higher than 10 m/s in order to hydraulically balance the systems which
is acceptable provided the reaction force within the system does not cause excessive stress in
the pipe work or the supports.
Oily Water Lines

The lines for oily water to water treatment facilities shall be sized based on pressure drop
available. Typically the velocity should not exceed 3 m/s.

This
 Chemical Lines

Chemical lines are usually designed for a maximum velocity of 1.5 m/s.
Recommended maximum velocity in lines carrying chemicals are as below:

Instrument Air, Plant Air and Nitrogen

Gas line sizing criteria shall be used for IA, PA and Nitrogen lines.

Special Cases

Reboiler Lines

Reboiler Feed Line:

Allowable pressure drop 0.03 to 0.07 bar/100 m
Allowable velocity 0.9 to 1.5 m/s

Reboiler Return Line:

Allowable pressure drop 0.07 bar/100 m

Miscellaneous Fluids

The following velocity criteria may be used in special service conditions:

• Liquid with sand: 0.8 m/s as min. velocity; 3 m/s max.

• Solid-liquid mixture lines: 1 to 2.75 m/s max.

• Pulverized catalyst standpipes (dense-phase flow): 1.7 m/s max.

• Pulverized catalyst carrier lines (dilute-phase flow): 12 m/s max. Velocity of 7.5
m/s is preferred. However, for densities under 0.8 kg/m3 higher velocities may
be used.

• Cement pipe or coal tar Enamel liquid pipe carrying salt water : 4.5 m/s max.

• Plastic pipe or rubber lined pipe carrying liquid in general : 3.0 m/s max.

Service Recommended max velocity (m/s)

CS pipe carrying phenolic water 0.9
CS pipe carrying concentrated H2SO4 1.2
CS pipe carrying caustic solution 1.2

This
1. SIZING VALUES

1.1 Pressure drop : AP

It directly affects pump and compressor discharge pressure. So, its optimization is essential.

1.2 Fluid velocity : V

It must be limited, either for technological reasons concerning some pieces of equipment, or for speed
of sound reasons (high velocity flows), or for static electricity reasons.

1.3 Kinetic energy: pV2/2

It must be limited, since it is an indicator of stresses to be withstood by piping. Noise and vibrations
are also related to the fluid kinetic energy. In practice, reference is made to the pV2 •

2. PROCESS LINES

2.1 Pump suction and discharge

Suction and discharge lines can be quickly and simultaneously sized using graph II-1. This graph shall
only be used for preliminary sizing. Checking at contract stage shall be made on the basis of criteria
developed hereafter.
Beside velocity and pressure drop, NPSH is an additional sizing criterion for the pump suction line. In
the case of centrifugal pumps, required NPSH increases when differential pressure or flowrate
increases. In the case of reciprocating pumps (more specifically when there is a single piston), pulses
make the NPSH problem more critical (since it also depends on the length and diameter of the suction
line).
In this latter case, it is necessary not to be too restrictive, and, at contract stage, to transmit isometrics
of all suction lines of reciprocating pumps to the Mechanical Department.
Often accepted criteria at pump suction are the following

a) Liquids at bubble point or with dissolved gases

Pressure drop
Normal 0.6 bar/km
Maximum 0.9 bar/km

Maximum velocity
Line size up to 2" 0.6 mis
Line size from 3" to 1O" 0.9 mis
Line size from 12" to 18" 1.2 mis
Line size higher than 20" 1.5 mis
 -·-·...-
GRAPH II.1- Pump suction and discharge - Quick sizing

-·
. !
.,,
... *'
aoot

nu

aJ
,...,;.,
;:,
0
ti}

. ..

.. .. ,�

'
"
I'\.

........... . ft

SJUI hJ!�OJ81\ .
 b) Liquids far from bubble point

Pressure drop
Normal 2.3 bar/km
Maximum 3.5 bar/km

Maximum velocity

Line size up to 2" 0.9 mis

Line size from 3" to 6" 1.2 mis
Line size from 8" to 18" 1.5 mis
Line size higher than 20" 1.8 mis

It should be noted that if the liquid is very hot (near 300 °C or higher), it is recommended to remain
conservative to provide an additional safety margin to take into account pressure drops due to
expansion loops.
Optimization of discharge lines is only the research of a compromise between investment and
operating costs. Operating costs increase very fast when differential pressure rises.
The following criteria are as a use considered at pump discharge

Pressure drop
Normal 3.5 bar/km
Maximum 7.0 bar/km

Maximum velocity 3.0 mis (4.5 mis in case of high flowrate)

2.2 Suction and discharge of compressors

Regarding suction and discharge of compressors, kinetic energy is an important sizing criterion.
Velocity must be limited to remain within acceptable vibration ranges (see Graph II-2).
In case of low suction pressure, the acceptable pressure drop may be restrictive, and thus fix the
suction line diameter.
The use of pulsation dampers should allow flow pulses of a reciprocating compressor to be lowered to
an acceptable level (sizing by the equipment Vendor).
The engineer must not overlook sizing the bypass of a reciprocating compressor to allow starting at a
very low compression rate.
 GRAPH Il-2

1
'' �" RECOMMENDEO GAS VELOCITY
.

"'
FOR LINES ATTACHED TO COMPRESSORS

2
' '\
��

i"\..
3
� r'\ I'
\�
..
'",
'-- �
'
100
� II,._

'.,, ''
��
� \�
�

",�
�

--
r\.

, ... '
'"
r'\
'"
� ��
"\

"
-!L!

-�
:::.
..:::-
�Ill
�

" ',,
��

"" '"' "

.Q �
-:"'
-
-
((l
(!)
'...
�
�� I'\'-
'\�
i"\
' '" '
i\
� �

'., ...
"IO
\

""'
2

-3

Axial compressors: acceptable velocity in area delimited by lines 1 and 2.

Reciprocating and Centrifugal compressors: acceptable velocity in area delimited by lines 2 and 3.
I I I
!Gas Density (kg/m')
I I

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

2.3 Column draw-off

Draw-off flows either towards a pump suction or towards another vessel by gravity.
In the first case, liquid is pumped at its bubble point (see paragraph 2.1). In the second case, for
gravity flow sizing criterion, see paragraph 2.12.
Currently accepted criteria for draw-off towards pump suction are the following:

Pressure drop
Normal 0.6 bar/km
Maximum 0.9 bar/km

Velocity
A vertical downpipe shall be installed as close as possible to the tower, immediately after the nozzle. It
shall be at least 3 m long, with the same diameter as the nozzle. Velocity in this downpipe shall be
limited to 0.6 mis for piping up to 2" and to 0.9 m/s for those 3" and larger.
The diameter may then be reduced, velocity criteria being then those accepted for liquids far from
their bubble point, provided that pressure drop criteria defined above are complied with.

2.4 Column head

Graph II.3 gives the allowable pressure drop as a function of the column service pressure.
It is also necessary to avoid vibrations for columns operating at high pressure with high density
overhead vapors. So, it is necessary to check that the pV2 is not too high (:::::15 000 Pa). The velocity in
vacuum distillation overhead line will be limited to 90 mis, and the line pressure drop limited to
5 mmHg maximum.
GRAPH Il-3 - Allowable differential pressure

'
10 ·····T···rTTT .. ........"....,,,...,
..)

Allowablei\.P
111
'
bar/km

"
vv
/
/

..

�
�--···--· I/ ---�--

//v
�
7
/

r•bi
p
�

111
0,1
0,1 10 100
2.5 Condenser outlet

If the effluent is totally liquid, gravity flow criteria are used (see paragraph 2.12).

If the effluent is a gas/ liquid mixture, experience demonstrates that using the same criterion as for
condenser inlet, with average density method, is satisfactory.

2.6 Reactor inlet and outlet

If the reactor is operating m liquid phase, it is then part of the pump discharge system (see
paragraph 2.1).

Very often, reactors operate in vapor phase (HDT, reforming for instance), or in mixed phase (HDS,
hydrocracking, etc.). In this case reactor inlet/ outlet lines shall be sized on the basis of the pressure
drop allocated to the reaction loop or, on the basis of a pV2 criterion.

It may be useful to verify that flow modes ofliquid / gas phases are continuous.

2.7 Feed and return lines attached to forced flow reboilers

Feeding of a forced flow reboiler is simultaneously a pump discharge (see paragraph 2.1) and an
exchanger inlet (paragraph 2.9). So, the design shall be based on the most stringent constraints.

For return line, whether mixed phase or vapour phase, it is the pV2 that fixes the piping diameter (see
paragraph 2.9) with, in the case of a mixed phase, the additional constraint to have a continuous flow
regime (annular or dispersed in most cases).

2.8 Feed and return lines attached to natural circulation reboiler

The whole system must be sized so that the difference of hydrostatic pressure between inlet and outlet
should balance the pressure drops.

The pressure drop in line is only an element of a more global calculation that is described in details in
the exchanger design guide to which one should refer for further details (Part 4 - Section 2 - Sub­
Section 2.2).

The Heat Exchangers Department is responsible for the sizing of lines and determination of the
relative position of the reboiler and the column. A final checking is made with lines isometrics.
 For mixed phase return line, empirical formulae enable to estimate the optimum diameter and pressure
drop:

( )0.167
Optimum diameter 0.737Qy 0.42 �

PL-X
7 2
AP 2 x 10- PmVm LID (to be compared to the average density method,
Chapter III paragraph 1.3 .1)

Optimum diameter In inches

Qv Vapor volume flowrate in m3/h
Pv Vapor density in kg/m3
PL Liquid density in kg/m3
X Weight vaporized fraction
AP Pressure drop in bar
Pm Average density of the mixed phase in kg/m3
Vm Average velocity of the mixed phase in mis
L Piping length in m
D Pipe diameter in m

Large capacity units shall be the subject of the utmost care. It is necessary to provide at project initial
stage either a substantial column elevation (about 6 to 7 m) or to adopt a column bottom arrangement
providing a substantial hydrostatic head (preferential circulation, once-through, feed from chimney
tray). The purpose is to have a sufficient allowable pressure drop in the system. Indeed, the suitable
type of flow (annular or dispersed) is generally attached to a substantial specific pressure drop: 0.5 to
0.8 bar/km according to the average density method.
Actual allowable pressure drop in the return line of a natural circulation reboiler is approximately 0.20
to 0.40 bar/km.
For a kettle type reboiler, velocity in feed line shall be limited to 0.6 mis and the pressure drop in
vapour outlet line shall be between 0.2 and 0.4 bar/km.

2.9 Inlet and outlet nozzles of shell and tubes exchanger

Because of erosion and vibrations, pV2 in inlet and outlet nozzles of shell and tubes exchangers,
tubeside as well as shellside, shall be limited to 6000 (4000 in British units). This limit is
recommended by TEMA (see paragraph 4.6.2. in TEMA, 1999 issue), at shell or bundle entrance.
There is no requirement for tu beside in the TEMA. However, for the purposes of proper distribution of
fluid in tubes, the same limit shall be considered for tubeside nozzles.
In case of revamping, some latitude then exists regarding this limit (to be agreed with the Client).
The diameter of inlet and outlet lines can be lower than nozzles diameter, but the reverse situation
should not occur, as a rule.
2.10 Feed and outlet lines of a reboiling furnace

As the furnace is fed by a pump, sizing criteria attached to pump discharge will be applied for the feed
line (see paragraph 2.1). The stream at outlet is in mixed phase. It is kinetic energy, i.e. pV2, which
will fix the maximum velocity, and consequently the piping diameter.

2.11 Feed and outlet lines of a heating furnace

This case differs from the previous one in that the outlet stream can be also fully liquid or fully
vapour.
If the outlet stream is vapour, it is always the maximum pV2 that will govern.
If the outlet stream is liquid, it is the pump discharge conditions that remain applicable.
In the case of a mixed phase stream at outlet, there are very frequent examples met in refining
industry : atmospheric or vacuum transfer lines.
Experience gives pressure drop (AP) values for transfer lines. As example, for an atmospheric transfer
line, the recommended values are :

Small units
Carton steel 3 bar/km
Alloy steel 5 to 7 bar/km

Large units
Alloy steel 2 to 3 bar/km

On the other hand, in large capacity units, the transfer line reaches a substantial length (an
approximately 50 m long straight section). The pressure drop in this line must be limited in order to
avoid cracking in the furnace in case of severe operating conditions with cracking sensitive crude oils.
In this case, the total pressure drop in the transfer line is limited to 0.5 bar for atmospheric distillation
and to 0.35 bar for vacuum distillation.
It is not easy to correctly size the vacuum transfer line since the vaporization rate is very sensitive to
pressure drop. Calculation must be iterative per sections.
Allowable velocity may reach 80% of sound velocity.
It is necessary to check that the diameter chosen is consistent with the type of flow, either annular or
dispersed.
2.12 Gravity flow lines

The pressure drop is usually limited to 0.45 bar/km.

Normal velocity : 0.6 mis.

2.13 Lines connecting two vessels at different pressure values

The maximum allowable pressure drop is directly given by the difference between the two pressure
values ; maximum velocity will be deduced from the limitation of the pV2 due to vibration risks
(< 15 000 Pa for a vapor or a mixed phase). For gases and steam, it may be allowed to exceed this
limit when conditions allow it (steam let-down stations for instance) or require it (revamping for
instance). However, 25 000 Pa is the value not to be exceeded.

2.14 Release to atmosphere

In case of process release to atmosphere (regeneration effluents from reactors, for instance), the same
criteria as those indicated for flare lines shall be used (see paragraph 5).

3. UTILITY LINES

Sizing of utility lines is within the duties of the Process Department.

These diameters shall be estimated using fast estimation graphs.

3.1 Steam lines

The following recommendations shall be complied with

Allowable Pressure Drop

(bar/km)
Steam Pressure
Normal Maximum
1 bar Long line (iJ 0.12 0.24
Short line 0.46 0.92
10to30 bar Long line <11 0.23 0.92
Short line 1.16 2.30
40 bar Long line < 1 > 0.35 0.92
Short line 1.16 2.30

(1) These values may be adopted as a first basis

 Maximum velocity
(m/s)

Line diameter Saturated steam Superheated steam

:,;;;2" 10 15

3" to 8" 30 40

� 10 II
40 60

The pV2 , shall be limited to 15 000 Pa as general rule. When there is an important available
pressure drop (in a pressure let-down station for instance), higher pressure drops may be allowed
and the pV2 limit can be extended to 25 000 Pa.

Pressure drop in long lines feeding turbines shall be subjected to special care in order to deliver
(and extract) steam under conditions specified for these machines.
 3.2 Water and fuel oil lines

The following recommendations shall be followed

SERVICE ALLOWABLE PRESSURE ALLOWABLE VELOCITY REMARKS

DROP
(bar/km) (m/s)

COOLING WATER Allowable pressure drop to be

modulated according to each
• Main headers between 1.5 1.5 to 3 specific case. If the pumping
pumping station and units station is close to units, a much
higher value may be allowed.
Generally, the velocity is the
sizing criterion for large
diameters.
• Lines within units "'1.5 (to be modulated) 1.5 for 2" Small diameter lines used for
for long lines 2 for 3" cooling of rotating equipment
2.5 to 3.5 for short lines 2.5 for4" must be conservatively sized at
3 for 6" and higher project initial stage since
Vendor's data, provided much
later, often cause unpleasant
surprises.
SEA WATER SYSTEMS 2.5 to 3.5 Not less than 2 m/s to prevent
fixation of mussel, algae and
other organisms.

BOILER FEED WATER

• Pressure lower than 50 bar 3.5 to 4.5 3 to 6
• Pressure higher than 50 bar 7 to 9 3 to 6

FUEL OIL 3.5 to 4.5

3.3 Air, nitrogen and fuel gas lines

Use graph II-4.

3.4 Steam condensate lines

Upstream steam trap, the line shall have the same diameter as the exchanger outlet nozzle.
Downstream steam trap, lines shall be sized on the basis of a pressure drop of 0.2 to 0.3 bar/km.
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4. LINES IN OFFSITES

In offsites, the length of lines is the major element differing from the lines in units. The piping cost
ratio shall be higher than in units. This is why an economic balance will favour smaller lines and
costlier pumps.

4.1 Pump suction lines

In the case of a storage tank feeding the pump with a significant head of liquid, sizing criteria for a
liquid far from its bubble point will be selected.

It should be noted that some clients impose velocity limits in their general specifications.

In case of storage tank feeding the pump with low head of liquid, the main criterion to be considered is
the pump NPSH.

A particularly critical line is the suction line of the pump feeding the crude oil atmospheric distillation
unit. Sizing the diameter of this line requires the following elements to be taken into consideration:

■ True vapor pressure (RVP +---➔ TVP correlation) calculated for maximum pumping temperature
■ Crude oil heating in line (for long lines in hot climate countries)
■ Pump required NPSH (high for high duty pumps)
■ Paraffin deposit in the line: this requires a safety margin to be considered

Note : In some cases, the suction line may be under vacuum. Some regulations prohibit vacuum
conditions when the flowrate is measured by a meter (risk of air intake).

4.2 Pump discharge lines

Selection of the diameter results from the following criteria:

■ Sizing recommendations set out in paragraph 2.1

■ Economic balance
■ Surge pressure (water hammer)
■ Pump standardization
4.3 Connections between units and offsites

In most design studies, pressure available at battery limits is fixed a priori. Knowledge of the line
routing enables to determine the actual pressure drop. Conventional pressures at battery limits are as
follows:

• Gasoline 4 bar g
■ Kerosine, jet fuel 4 bar g
■ Gas oil 4 bar g
■ Distillates 5-7 bar g
■ Residues 5-7 bar g
■ Bitumen / Furfural extracts 10 bar g
■ Waxes from dewaxing unit 7 bar g
■ Lube oil bases 7 bar g

These values usually prove conservative with diameters calculated within units battery limits. Velocity
limit is identical with that of pump discharge lines.

REMARKS

Limit velocity for kerosene I jet fuel

In the case of lines outside units battery limits, it is required not to exceed a 3 mis velocity (with an
average of 2 mis). At tank inlet (piping sections in tank dyked area) or at loading station inlet (over a
50 to 100 m long piping section), velocity shall be limited to 1 m/s.

5. FLARE LINE

Discharge lines of safety relief valves, flare headers and sub-headers shall be sized according to three
simultaneous criteria :
■ Pressure drop
■ Fluid velocity
■ Kinetic energy of the fluid

Pressure drop shall be limited by maximum allowable back pressure allowed at relief valve discharge.

Velocity shall be limited to 0.3 to 0.5 times the critical velocity of the fluid, which can be calculated
using the following formula, based on ideal gas hypothesis

Ve In m / s
y Isentropic expansion coefficient (it is equal to specific heat ratio,
Cp / Cv, in case of ideal gas)
R Ideal gas constant = 8313 J/0K/kmoles
Ta Fluid temperature upstream pressure relief valve in °K
PM Fluid molecular weight in kg/kmoles
 Pipe fittings generate turbulences the impact of which is the reduction of the effective flow area and the
increase of velocity, with the risk of flowrate limitation if sound velocity is reached.
Flare system sizing is the subject of a specific design guide and of a dedicated computer
program,

6. LINES TO BE CHECKED ON ISOMETRICS

Proper operation of some equipment may only be ensured if pressure drops in some lines are properly
checked.

During detail engineering, it is necessary to perform a check, as detailed as possible, of these critical
pressure drops, on isometrics.

This mainly concerns the following lines

• Suction lines of centrifugal pumps.

• Suction lines of volumetric pumps : in this case, the NPSH problem is complex and much depends
on the type of pump (reciprocating ... ).

• Suction lines of low pressure compressors.

• Recycling lines around a reactor (hydrotreatment, reforming) : the total pressure drop in lines and in
equipment determines the differential pressure of the compressor. Experience has demonstrated that
such calculation is required. The compressor is specified and ordered at contract initial stage. If
pressure drop in lines proves higher than expected, it is easier to modify the diameter of lines and
layout if necessary, than to modify the compressor.

• Relief valves upstream lines when they are not located directly on the equipment item to be
protected.

• Lines attached to natural circulation reboilers.

• Fractionation column overhead lines as well as draw-off lines.

• Flare system lines.