C h apter

ontents
PHYSICS
CBSE–XII
TERM – II
Syllabus Term - II

8. Electromagnetic Waves 01-14

9. Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 15-42

10. Wave - Optics 43-58

11. Dual Nature of Radiation & Matter 59-88

12. Atoms 89-110

13. Nuclei 111-118

14. Semiconductor Electronics 119-138

15. CBSE Sample Question Paper 139-150

16. Practice Question Bank 151-160

Note : A–R question answer inside this booklet is for practice only.
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 CBSE I

TERM-II SYLLABUS 2021 - 22 with deleted part

CLASS-XII
SUBJECT-PHYSICS
TERM – II
Units Topics No. of Periods Marks
Unit - 5 Electromagnetic Waves 2
Chapter–8: Electromagnetic Waves
Unit – 6 Optics 18 17
Chapter–9: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
Chapter-10: Wave Optics
Unit – 7 Chapter–11: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 7
Unit – 8 Atoms and Nuclei 11
11
Chapter–12: Atoms
Chapter–13: Nuclei
Unit – 9 Electronic Devices
7 7
Chapter–14: Semiconductor Electronics
Total 45 35

Unit V : Electromagnetic Waves 2 Periods Chapter–8:

Chapter–8: Electromagnetic Waves Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves, their characteristics, their Transverse nature Basic idea of displacement
(qualitative ideas only). Electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, current,
microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays)
including elementary facts about their uses.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\ XII Syllabus Term-II.docx

Unit VI : Ray Optics 18 Periods Chapter–9:

Chapter–9: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments Ray Optics and

Ray Optics :- Refraction of light, total internal reflection and its Optical Instruments
applications, optical fibers, refraction at spherical surface, lenses, thin Reflection of Light,
lens formula, lens maker's formula, magnification, power of a lens, spherical mirrors, mirror
combination of thin lenses in contact, refraction of light through a formula, Scattering of light
prism. blue colour of sky and
Optical Instruments :- Microscopes and astronomical telescopes reddish appearance of the
(reflecting and refracting) and their magnifying powers. sun at sunrise and Sunset.

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Chapter–10: Wave Optics Chapter–10: Wave Optics
Wave Optics :- Wave front and Huygen's principle, reflection and Resolving power of
refraction of plane wave at a plane surface using wave fronts. Proof of microscope and astronomical
laws of reflection and refraction using Huygen's principle. telescope, palarisation, plane
Interference, Young's double slit experiment and expression for fringe polarised Light Brewster's
width, coherent sources and sustained interference of light, diffraction law, uses of plane polarised
due to a single slit, width of central maximum. light and Polaroids.
Unit VII: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 7 Periods Chapter–11: Dual Nature
Chapter–11: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter of Radiation and Matter
Dual nature of radiation, Photoelectric effect, Hertz and Lenard's Davisson-Germer
observations; Einstein's photoelectric equation-particle nature of experiment
light. Experimental study of photoelectric effect Matter waves-wave
nature of particles, de-Broglie relation.
Unit VIII: Atoms and Nuclei 11 Periods Chapter–13: Nuclei
Chapter–12: Atoms Radioactivity, alpha, beta
and gamma particles/rays
Alpha-particle scattering experiment : Rutherford's model of atom;
and their properties;
Bohr model, energy levels, hydrogen spectrum.
radioactive decay law; half-
Chapter–13: Nuclei life and mean life, Binding
Composition and size of nucleus, Nuclear force Mass-energy relation, energy per nucleon and its
mass defect, nuclear fission, nuclear fusion. variation with mass number
Unit IX: Electronic Devices 7 Periods Chapter–14
Chapter–14: Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Semiconductor Electronics,
Simple Circuits Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors and Materials, Devices and
Simple Circuits Zener diode
insulators (qualitative ideas only) Semiconductor diode - I-V
and their characteristics,
Characteristics in forward and reverse bias, diode as a rectifier;
Zener diode as a voltage
Special purpose p-n junction diodes: LED, photodiode, solar cell.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\ XII Syllabus Term-II.docx

regulator .
Sustained interference of light, diffraction due to a single slit, width
of central maximum

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UNIT - V : ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES

CHAPTER 8 : ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
"The electromagnetic waves are those waves in which there are sinusoidal variations of electric
and magnetic field vectors to right angles to each other as well as at right angles to the direction
of wave propagation." (i.e., electric and magnetic fields vary with space and time).

c
x
z

An accelerating charge produces electromagnetic waves. An electric charge oscillating

harmonically with certain frequency, produces electromagnetic waves of the same frequency. An
electric dipole is a basic source of electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic waves carry energy as they travel through space and this energy is shared
equally by the electric and magnetic fields. Electromagnetic waves transport momentum as well.
When these waves strike a surface, a pressure is exerted on the surface. If total energy transferred
to a surface in time t is U, total momentum delivered to this surface is p = U/c.

MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electric and magnetic fields oscillate sinusoidally in space and time in an electromagnetic wave.
The oscillating electric and magnetic fields, E and B are perpendicular to each other, and to the
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\8. Electromagnetic Waves.docx

direction of propagation of the electromagnetic wave. For a wave of frequency , wavelength ,

propagating along x-direction, we have
E = Ey(t) = E0 sin (kx - t)
x x t
E 0 sin 2 t E 0s in 2
T
B = Bz(t) = B0 sin (kx - t)
x x t
B0 sin 2 t B0s in 2
T
E0
These are related by c
B0

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2 Physics
The speed c of electromagnetic wave in vacuum is related to 0
and 0
(the free space
1
permeability & permittivity constants) c .
0 0

Electromagnetic waves other than light also have the same velocity c in free space. The speed in
1
a material medium is given by v where is the permeability of the medium and its

permittivity.

ENERGY DENSITY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

We know that, in free space energy density of em waves have energy density of electric field and
magnetic field. i.e.
u = uE + uB
1 2 B2rms
u 0 E rms
2 2 0
E rms
But Brms
c
1 2 E 2rms 1
u 0 E rms But c=
2 2 0 c2 0 0

1 2 E 2rms 0 0 1 2 1 2
u 0 E rms u 0 E rms 0 E rms
2 2 0 2 2

2 B2rms
u 0 E rms Similarly u
0

CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

1. The electromagnetic waves travel in free space with the speed of light (3 × 108 m/s) irrespective
of their wavelength.
2. The electromagnetic waves are neutral. (These are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields) node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\8. Electromagnetic Waves.docx

3. The electromagnetic waves show properties of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and
polarization.
4. The ratio of magnitudes of electric and magnetic field vectors in free space is constant equal to c
i.e. 3 × 108 m/s
5. The speed of electromagnetic waves in a material medium is v = ( )–1/2
6. In an electromagnetic wave, the energy is propagated by means of electric and magnetic field
vectors in the direction of propagation of wave and electric energy density is equal to the
magnetic energy density.
7. These are transverse in nature .i.e. in an electromagnetic wave, the field vectors are perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of wave.

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 CBSE 3
Direction of Electromagnetic Waves: -
The direction of electromagnetic waves ( î ) is perpendicular to the plane containing the direction
of electric and magnetic vector.
î E B

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The classification of electromagnetic waves according to their wavelength or frequency is called
the electromagnetic spectrum.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\8. Electromagnetic Waves.docx

We now describe the various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum in the order of increasing
frequency.
1. Radio waves :- These are the e.m. waves of longest wavelength and minimum frequency.
Wavelength range - 600 m to 0.1 m
Frequency range - 500 kHz to 1000 MHz
source - Accelerated motion of charges in conducting wires or oscillating circuits.
Properties - Reflection, diffraction.
Uses of radio waves:
1. In radio and television communication systems.
2. In radio astronomy.

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Table- Some important wireless communication bands
Frequency band Service
540-1600 kHz Medium wave AM band
3-30 MHz Shortwave AM band
88-108 MHz FM broadcast
54-890 MHz TV Waves
840-935 MHz Cellular Mobile radio

2. Microwaves :- They are the e.m. waves having wavelengths next smaller to radio waves.
Wavelength range: 0.3 m to 10–3 m
Frequency range : 109 Hz to 1012 Hz
Source: Oscillating currents in special vacuum tubes like klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn
diodes.
Properties : Reflection, refraction, diffraction and polarization. Due to their shorter wavelengths,
they can travel as a beam in a signal.
Uses of Microwaves:-
1. In radar systems for aircraft navigation.
2. In long distance communication systems via geostationary satellites.
3. In microwave ovens.

3. Infrared waves- These radiations lie close to the low frequency or long wavelength of the
visible spectrum. Infrared waves produce heating effect, so they are also known as heat waves or
thermal radiation. The water molecules (and also CO2, NH3 molecules) present in different
materials readily absorb infrared waves, increase the thermal motions and hence heat up the
materials and their surroundings.
Wavelength range - 5 × 10–3 m to 10–6 m
Frequency range - 1011 Hz to 5 × 1014 Hz
Source- Hot bodies and molecules. node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\8. Electromagnetic Waves.docx

Properties - Heating effect, reflection, refraction, diffraction and propagation through fog.

Uses of Infrared waves:

1. In the remote control of a TV or VCR, the keypad of which contains a small infrared
transmitter.
2. In green houses to keep the plants warm.
3. In haze photography because infrared waves are less scattered than visible light by
atmospheric particles.
4. Infrared lamps in the treatment of muscular complaints.
5. In reading the secret writings on the ancient walls.
6. In knowing the molecular structure.

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 CBSE 5
4. Visible light- It is a very small part of the e.m. spectrum towards which the human retina is
sensitive. The visible light emitted or reflected from bodies around us gives information about
the world.
Wavelength range- 8 × 10–7 m to 4 × 10–7 m
Frequency range- 4 × 1014 Hz to 7 × 1014 Hz
Source- Radiated by excited atoms in ionized gas and incandescent bodies.
Properties- Reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, polarization, photoelectric effect,
photographic action, sensation of sight.

Uses of visible light:

1. It provides us the information of the world around us.
2. It can cause chemical reactions.
The approximate wavelength ranges for lights of different colours are as follows.

Table: - Visible Spectrum

Color Wavelength range Color Wavelength range
Violet, indigo 4000-4500 Å Yellow 5700-5900 Å
Blue 4500-5000 Å Orange 5900-6200 Å
Green 5000-5700 Å Red 6200-7500 Å

5. Ultraviolet light- This region of the e.m. spectrum has wavelengths just shorter than visible light
and can be detected just beyond the violet end of the solar spectrum.
Wavelength range - 3.5 × 10–7 m to 1.5 × 10–7 m.
Frequency range- 1016 Hz to 1017 Hz.
Source- High voltage gas discharge tubes, arcs of iron and mercury, the sun.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\8. Electromagnetic Waves.docx

Properties- Effect on photographic plate, fluorescence, ionization, highly energetic, tanning of

the human skin.

Uses of ultraviolet light:

1. In food preservation.
2. In the study of invisible writings, forged documents and finger prints.
3. In the study of molecular structure.
The ultraviolet light in large quantities has harmful effects on human beings. But fortunately,
most of the ultraviolet light coming from the sun is absorbed by the ozone layer in the
atmosphere at an altitude of about 40-50 km.

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6. X-ray : These e.m. waves have wavelengths just shorter than ultraviolet light. As X-rays can pass
through many forms of matter, so they have many useful medical and industrial applications.
Wavelength range- 100 Å to 0.1 Å
Frequency range- 1018 Hz to 1020 Hz.
Source- Sudden deceleration of fast moving electrons by a metal target.
Properties- Effect on photographic plate, ionization of gases, photoelectric effect, fluorescence,
more energetic than UV rays.

Uses of X-rays
1. In medical diagnosis because X-rays can pass through flesh but not through bones.
2. In the study of crystals structure because X-rays can be reflected and diffracted by crystals.
3. In engineering for detecting faults, cracks, flaws and holes in the finished metal products.
4. In detective departments to detect explosives, diamond, gold, etc. in the possessions of
smugglers.
5. In radiotherapy to cure untraceable skin diseases and malignant growths.

7. Gamma rays:- These are e.m. radiations of highest frequency range and lowest wavelength
range. These are most penetrating e.m. waves.
Wavelength range:- 10–14 m to 10–10m
Frequency range:- 1018 Hz to 1022 Hz
Source:- Radioactive nuclei and nuclear reactions. Co-60 is a pure -ray source.
Properties:- Effect on photographic plate, fluorescence, ionization, diffraction, high penetrating
power.

Uses of -ray:- node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\8. Electromagnetic Waves.docx

1. In radiotherapy for the treatment of malignant tumors.

2. In the manufacture of polyethylene from ethylene.
3. To initiate some nuclear reactions.
4. To preserve food stuffs for a long time because soft -ray can kill micro organisms.
5. To study the structure of atomic nuclei.

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EXERCISE-1
1. Which wave travels with the speed of light -
(A) Sound wave (B) Heat wave (C) Shock wave (D) Micro wave
2. A television network uses -
(A) Microwaves (B) High Frequency Radio waves
(C) Light waves (D) Sound waves
3. Light waves are -
(A) Longitudinal (B) Transverse
(C) Both Longitudinal and transverse (D) Mechanical
4. Intensity of wave is proportional to .....................
5. Frequency range of audio signal ..................
6. Ultraviolet rays coming from sun are absorbed by ................. part of atmosphere.
7. Match the column :-
Column (A) Column (B)
(a) Gamma rays (i) Treatment of muscular strain
(b) X-ray (ii) Kill bacteria from water
(c) UV (iii) Study of nuclear structure
(d) Infrared (iv) Medical Examination
(e) Radio waves (v) Communication
8. In which situation is there a displacement current but no conduction current ?
Ans. In between the plates of capacitor , during charging and discharging of a capacitor.
9. Why are microwaves considered suitable for radar systems used in aircraft navigation ?
Ans. Microwaves have energy more than radio waves , so these can travel up to greater distance.
10. The charging current for a capacitor is 0.25 A. What is the displacement current across its plates?
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\8. Electromagnetic Waves.docx

Ans. 0.25 A .
11. How are infrared waves produced ? Write their one important use.
Ans. Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies due to molecular vibrations.
These are used to treat muscular strain.
12. The thin Ozone layer on top of the stratosphere is crucial for human survival. Why ?
Ans. Ozone layer absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation .
13. State two properties of electromagnetic waves.
Ans. (i) All em waves travel with same speed c = 3 × 108 m/s in air or vacuum.
(ii) Em waves have energy and momentum and these apply radiation pressure, on the surface on
which these made to fall.

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14. How can we show that em waves carry momentum ?
Ans. When an em wave interacts with an electron [ as in photoelectric effect ] the electron get
disturbed and also get ejected from metal surface , it is because of energy and momentum
imparted by em waves.
15. Which component of the electromagnetic wave is responsible for producing optical effect ?
Ans. Electric vector of em wave is responsible .
16. Light can travel in vacuum whereas sound can not do so. Why ?
Ans. Light is electromagnetic in nature while sound is mechanical wave.
17. Optical and radio telescopes are built on the ground but X-ray astronomy is possible only from
satellites orbiting the earth. Why ?
Ans. Our atmosphere is opaque for X- ray , so for X- ray astronomy we have to use space station.
18. It is said that global nuclear war can cause serve "nuclear winter" which can finish human life
completely. Explain the basis of this prediction.
Ans. The thick layer of pollution caused due to nuclear war will cover the whole earth for centuries ,
which can finish all types of life on earth.
19. Suppose that earth's atmosphere is absent, will the average temperature on earth's surface be
higher or lower than what it is at present ?
Ans. The average temperature will be lower due to absence of green house effect.
20. What is electromagnetic constant ?
Ans. All types of electromagnetic waves move with same speed c = 3 × 108 m/s in air or vacuum , so
'c' is called electromagnetic constant.
21. Which part of electro-magnetic spectrum is used for eye surgery ?
Ans. Ultra-violet rays are used in Lasik Laser, for eye surgery. node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\8. Electromagnetic Waves.docx

22. Which part of electromagnetic spectrum is blocked by protective welding glass ?

Ans. Ultra-violet.
23. For which wavelength our eyes are most sensitive ?
Ans. 555nm i.e. yellow colour.
24. Which of the electro-magnetic wave capable of penetrating layers of dust ?
Ans. Infra-red.
25. Write the wavelength used to check metal surface or to study the crystal structure.
Ans. X- rays.

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ANSWER KEY
1. (D) Micro wave

2. (B) High Frequency Radio waves

3. (B) Transverse

4. Intensity of wave is proportional to square of it's amplitude.

5. Frequency range of audio signal 20 Hz to 20kHz

6. Ultraviolet rays coming from sun are absorbed by ionosphere part of atmosphere.

7. Column (A) Column (B)

(a) Gamma rays (iii) (i) Treatment of muscular strain

(b) X-ray (iv) (ii) Kill bacteria from water

(c) UV (ii) (iii) Study of nuclear structure

(d) Infrared (i) (iv) Medical Examination

(e) Radio waves (v) (v) Communication

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\8. Electromagnetic Waves.docx

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EXERCISE-2

ASSERTION AND REASON

Directions (Q. Nos. 1-10)
In the following questions an Assertion (A) is followed by a corresponding Reason (R). Use the
following keys to choose the appropriate answer.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is correct; (R) is incorrect.
(d) (A) is incorrect; (R) is incorrect

1. Assertion: electromagnetic waves do not require medium for their propagation.

Reason: they cannot travel in a medium.
2. Assertion: A changing electric field produce magnetic field.
Reason: a changing magnetic field produced an electric field.
3. Assertion: X-rays travel with the speed of light.
Reason: X -rays are electromagnetic rays.
4. Assertion: Environmental damages has increased amount of ozone in Atmosphere.
Reason: increase of ozone increases amount of ultraviolet radiation on the earth.
5. Assertion: Electromagnetic Radiation exerts pressure.
Reason: Electromagnetic wave carry both momentum and energy.
6. Assertion: The EM waves of shorter wavelength can travel longer distances than those of longer
wavelengths.
Reason: Shorter the wavelength, the larger is the velocity of propagation.
7. Assertion: EM waves follow Superposition principle.
Reason: Differential expression of EM wave is linear. node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\8. Electromagnetic Waves.docx

8. Assertion: Sound waves cannot travel in vacuum, but light waves can.
Reason: Light is an electromagnetic wave - but sound is a mechanical wave.
9. Assertion: The microwaves are better carriers of signals than radio wave.
Reason: The electromagnetic waves do not require any medium to propagate.
10. Assertion: Transverse waves are not produced in liquids and gases.
Reason: Shorter the wavelength, the larger is the velocity of propagation in air.

ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c)
7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (c)

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EXERCISE-3

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS

GAMMA RAYS IN TREATMENT OF CANCER

1. Gamma rays are used in radiotherapy to treat cancer. They are used to spot tumors. They kill the
living cells and damage malignant tumor.

(i) What is the source of gamma rays?

(1) radioactive decay of nucleus

(2) accelerated motion of charges in conducting wire

(3) hot bodies and molecule

(4) klystron valve

(ii) How is wavelength of gamma rays

(1) low (2) high

(3) infinite (4) zero

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\8. Electromagnetic Waves.docx

(iii) Choose the one with correct penetrating power order of radiation ?

(1) alpha > beta > gamma (2) beta > alpha > gamma

(3) gamma > beta > alpha (4) gamma > alpha > beta

(iv) What is other use of gamma rays?

(1) used to change white topaz to blue topaz (2) used in aircraft navigation

(3) used in kill microbes (4) checking fractures of bone

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12 Physics
2. X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation, similar to visible light. Unlike light, however,
x-rays have higher energy and can pass through most objects, including the body. Medical x-rays
are used to generate images of tissues and structures inside the body

(i) What is the most common method of preparation of X rays ?

(1) magnetron valve
(2) vibration of atoms and molecules
(3) bombardment of metal by high energy electrons
(4) radioactive decay of nucleus
(ii) Which of the following set of instrument /equipment can detect X- rays
(1) Photocells, photographic film (2) Thermopiles, bolometer
(3) Photographic film, Geiger tube (4) Geiger tube, human eye
(iii) Where do X rays fall on the electromagnetic spectrum?
(1) Between UV region and infrared region (2) Between gamma rays and UV region
(3) Between infrared and microwaves (4) Between microwaves and radio waves
(iv) What is the use of rays lying beyond X ray region in electromagnetic spectrum
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\8. Electromagnetic Waves.docx

(1) used to kill microbes

(2) used to detect heat loss in insulated systems
(3) used in standard broadcast radio and television
(4) used In oncology, to kill cancerous cells.

ANSWER KEY

1. (i) (1) (ii) (1) (iii) (3) (iv) (1)

2. (i) (3) (ii) (3) (iii) (2) (iv) (4)

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Very short Answer type Questions (1 Marks each)

1. Name the electromagnetic radiations used for viewing objects through haze and fog.
Ans. Infrared rays
2. Write the frequency limit of visible range of electromagnetic spectrum in kHz.
Ans. 4 × 1011kHz to 7 × 1011kHz
3. Write the following radiations in an ascending order in respect of their frequencies: X-rays,
microwaves, ultraviolet rays and radio waves.
Ans. RW, MW, UV, X-rays
4. Name the electromagnetic radiations used for studying crystal structure of solids.
Ans. X-rays
5. Why are microwaves used in RADAR?
Ans. Because microwave possesses greater energy and least angular speed.
6. Which part of electromagnetic spectrum has largest penetrating power?
Ans. -rays
7. Which part of electromagnetic spectrum has highest frequency?
Ans. -rays
8. What is the ratio of speed of infra-red rays and ultra-violet rays in vacuum?
Ans. 1:1
9. What is the ratio of speed of gamma rays and radio waves in vacuum?
Ans. 1:1
10. Arrange the given electromagnetic radiations in the descending order of their frequencies:
Infra-red, X-rays, Ultraviolet and Gamma rays.
Ans. Gamma rays, X-rays, Ultraviolet, Infra-red
11. When can a charge act as a source of electromagnetic waves ?
Ans. Charge is accelerated or decelerated.
12. A radio can tune in to any station in the 7.5 MHz to 12 MHz band. What is the corresponding
wavelength band?
Ans. Wavelength band: 40 m to 25 m.
13. A charged particle oscillates about its mean equilibrium position with a frequency of 109 Hz.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\8. Electromagnetic Waves.docx

What is the frequency of the electromagnetic waves produced by the oscillator?

Ans. 109 Hz
14. Which part of electromagnetic spectrum does the wavelength 10–10 m corresponds to?
Ans. X-rays
15. What do electromagnetic waves consist of ? Explain on what factor does its velocity in vacuum depend.
Ans. Electric and magnetic field vector. It is independent.
16. What is the phase difference between electric and magnetic field vectors ?
Ans. Zero.
17. Give a reason to show that microwaves are better carrier of signal for long range transmission
than radio waves.
Ans. Because of their small wavelength, these are not bent by normal obstacles, eg. Air molecules.

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Short Answer Type Questions-I (2 Marks each)

18. Find the wavelength of electromagnetic waves of frequency 5 × 1019 Hz in free space. Give its
two applications.
c 3 108 m/sec 12
Ans. Wavelength 6 10 m
5 1019 Hz
19. A plane electromagnetic wave travels in vacuum along z-direction. What can you say about the
directions of its electric and magnetic field vectors ? If the frequency of the wave is 30 MHz,
what is its wavelength?
Ans. E and B in x-y plane and are mutually perpendicular and wavelength is 10 m.
20. What are the direction of electric and magnetic field vectors, in an electromagnetic wave, related
to each other and to the direction of propagation of the wave ?
Ans. Electric and magnetic field vector are mutually perpendicular and also perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation, such that electric field E, magnetic field B and propagation vector
(vector in the direction of propagation of wave) K̂ form a right-handed orthogonal system
21. Optical and radio telescopes are built on the ground but X-ray astronomy is possible only from
satellites orbiting the earth. Why?
Ans. Atmosphere absorbs X-rays, while visible and radio waves can penetrate it.
22. The small ozone layer on top of the stratosphere is crucial for human survival. Why?
Ans. It absorbs ultraviolet radiations from the sun and prevents it from reaching the earth's surface and
causing damage to life.

Short Answer Type Questions-II (3 Marks each)

23. Which constituent radiation of electromagnetic spectrum is used:

1. in radar
2. to photograph internal parts human body
3. For taking photograph of the sky during light and foggy condition? Give one reason for node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\8. Electromagnetic Waves.docx

your answer in each case.

Ans. 1. microwaves because they go straight and not absorbed by atmosphere.
2. X-rays, because these can penetrate light elements like flesh.
3. Infrared radiation because these can penetrate fog and not absorbed by atmosphere.
24. Write the order of frequency ranges and one use of each of the following electromagnetic radiation
(1) Microwaves (2) Ultraviolet rays (3) gamma rays
11 10
Ans. (1) 3 × 10 – 10 Hz Use :- Radio and radar communication.
16 14
(2) 10 – 7.5 × 10 Hz Use :- Sterilizing the surgical instruments.
21 18
(3) 10 – 10 Hz Use :-Treatment of cancer

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UNIT-6: OPTICS
CHAPTER : 9 RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Refraction : The phenomenon of change in the path or speed of light as it goes from one
transparent medium to another transparent medium is called refraction.
Normal

Incident ray Reflected ray

i i

Reflecising
surface
r

Refracted ray
Laws of refraction :-
1. The incident ray, the normal to the refracting surface at the point of incidence and the
refracted ray all lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant
for any two given media. It is called Snell's law.
sin i
Mathematically, n 21
sin r
Here, n21 is called the relative refractive index of medium 2 (in which the refracted ray travels)
w.r.t. medium 1 (in which the incident ray travels).
Absolute refractive index: The absolute refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of
the velocity of light in the vacuum (c) to the velocity of light in that medium (v).
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c
Mathematically: Absolute refractive index, n
v
Principle of reversibility of light: It states that if light after suffering any number of reflections
and refractions has its final path reversed, it travels back along the same path in the opposite
direction.
It leads to result that the refractive index of the medium 2 w.r.t. medium 1 is equal to the
reciprocal of the refractive index of the medium 1 w. r. t. the medium 2.
1
Mathematically : n 21
n12

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REFRACTION THROUGH A PARALLEL SLAB
When a ray of light passes through a parallel-sided transparent slab, the emergent ray is parallel
to the incident ray, although there is a lateral displacement.
Consider a parallel-sided slab KLMN having parallel faces KL and NM as shown in Figure. A
ray of light AO in air (medium '1') is incident on the glass surface KL (medium '2') at point O.
The ray bends towards the normal and follows the path OB. At point B, again refraction takes
place and the ray bends away from the normal, emerging out of glass follow path BC and the
emergent ray BC becomes parallel to the incident ray AO.
A

i1 Air(1)

K L
O
Glass(2)
r1
i2
D
N M
E B
r2
d Original
Emergent path
ray
C

Plane
mirror
At point O,
sin i1
n21 = .…(1)
sin r1
At point B,
sin i2
n12 ….(2)
sin r2
Now place a plane mirror at C perpendicular to the emergent ray CB then refracted ray retrace its
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path exactly then,

For reversed ray, apply Snell's law at point B on surface MN
sin r2
n 21 ….(3)
sin i2
From equation (1) and (3)
sin i1 sin r2
.…(4)
sin r1 sin i 2
KL || NM, r1 = i2
sin r1 = sin i2

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Equation (4) becomes
sin i1 sin r2
…(5)
sin r1 sin r1
sin i1 = sin r2
i1 = r 2
Thus when a ray of light passes through a parallel-sided transparent slab, the emergent ray is
parallel to the incident ray. However, it is laterally displaced.
Expression for lateral displacement
The perpendicular distance between the incident and the emergent rays, when the light is incident
obliquely on a parallel sided slab of a refracting material is called lateral shift / displacement.
Draw a DB on AO.
Let BOD = = Deviation on refraction at surface KL
In BOD ,
BD = OB sin ….(6)
In OEB ,
OE
OB = ….(7)
cos r1
where OE = t = Thickness of glass slab
From equation (6)
t t sin(i1 r1 )
BD sin lateral shift / displacement
cos r1 cos r1
Real and apparent depth :- When an object is placed in an optically denser medium, the
apparent depth of the object is always less than its real depth.
Real depth
Mathematically: 1. n 21
Apparent depth

1
Mathematically: 2. Normal shift, d t 1
n 21
D
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r
A
X Y
r B
I i
i

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Advance sunrise and delayed sunset due to atmospheric refraction :

Apparent position
of the sun

Horizon
Observer

Earth

Atmosphere

Total internal reflection :- The phenomenon of reflection of light that takes place when a ray of
light traveling in a denser medium gets incident at the interface of the two media at an angle
greater than the critical angle for that pair of media.

B
Rarer
medium
(Air) Water-air
O1 r O2 r' O3 D O4 interface
i' N ic i>ic
i
N N Totally
Denser
medium reflected rays
Partially
(water) C reflected rays
A

1
Mathematically : n 21
sin ic

1
n 21 Here, n21 is the refractive index of the denser medium 2 w.r.t. the rarer medium 1 and
sin ic
ic is the critical angle
Critical angle :- For a given pair of media it is the angle of incidence for which the angle of
refraction is 90° when light is traveling from denser medium to rarer medium.
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Mathematically:
sin i
2 n1 , i = ic and r = 90°
sin r
sin ic
2 n1 sin ic
sin 90
1
1 n2
sin i c

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Application of Total internal reflection
Mirage :- A realistic image of an object that is either totally imaginary or that appears to be in a
location other than the true one. In hot areas, the layers of air near the earth surface becomes
hotter as compared to the layers above. As a result the upper layers of air become denser. When
rays from a tree like object passes from denser to rarer medium, it suffers total internal reflection.
An observer notices an mirage of the object being formed as if there is water around.

Optical fibre: it consist of thousands of strands of fine quality of glass or quartz of refractive
index (1.7).The strands are coated with a layer of some material of lower refractive index (1.5).It
works on the principle of total internal reflection.

Prism :- Prisms are designed to bend light by 90º or by 180º making use of total internal
reflection [Fig. (a) and (b)]. Such a prism is also used to invert images without changing their
size [Fig. (c)]. In the first two cases, the critical angle ic for the material of the prism must be less
than 45º
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Spherical refracting surface :- The portion of a refracting medium, whose curved surface forms
the part of a sphere, is called a spherical refracting surface.
When object is situated in the rarer medium, the relation between n1 (refractive index of the rarer
medium), n2 (refractive index of the spherical refracting surface) and R (the radius of curvature)
with the object and image distances ( u and v) is given by
n1 n2 n 2 n1
u v R

N
n1 i n2
r
O C I
M R
u

When object is situated in the denser medium, the relation between n1 (refractive index of the
rarer medium), n2 (refractive index of the spherical refracting surface) and R (the radius of
curvature) with the object and image distances ( u and v) can be obtained by interchanging n1 and
n2. In that case, the relation becomes
n2 n1 n1 n 2
u v R
Lenses :-
A lens is any transparent object having two non-parallel (normally) curved refracting surfaces.
Lenses are nearly always made of glass and are of two types viz.
(i) Convex lens or converging lens
(ii) Concave lens or diverging lens

Principal Principal
Axis Axis
C C
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Concave Lens Concave Lens

Lens maker's formula. The relation connecting the focal length of the lens with the radii of
curvature of its two surfaces and the refractive index of the material of the lens is called lens
maker's formula.
Consider a point object O situated on the principal axis of the lens. A ray of light starting
from O and traveling along the principal axis falls normally on the first surface (XP1Y) and
passes un-deviated.

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Another incident ray OA strikes the first surface at A and is refracted. The ray is again refracted
at the second surface (XP2Y) and meets the principal axis at I. Therefore I is the final image of
the object O formed after refraction by the two surfaces of the lens. We shall consider each lens
surface separately using the image formed by first surface (XP1Y) as an object for the second
surface (XP2Y).
X

A
B

O C2 P1 C P2 C1 I I1

1 2 1

Y
R2 R1
u
1

(i) Refraction at the surface XP1Y: The refracting surface XP1Y forms the real image I1 in the
glass medium of the object O.
n2 n1 n 2 n1
.....(1)
v1 u R1
(ii) Refraction at the surface XP2Y: The image I1 acts as virtual object (placed in denser
medium) for the refracting surface XP2Y which forms the final real image I in air.
n1 n2 n1 n 2
.....(2)
v v1 R2
Adding equation (1) and (2), we get
n 2 n1 n 1 n 2 n 2 n 1 n 2 n 1
v1 u v v1 R1 R2
1 1 1 1
n1 (n 2 n1 ) .....(3)
v u R1 R2
If the object is at infinity, u = then the image I will be formed at focus, (v = f).
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1 1 1 1
From equation (3), n1 = (n2 – n1)
f R1 R2

1 n 2 n1 1 1
f n1 R1 R2

1 n2 1 1
1
f n1 R1 R2

1 1
(n 21 1) .....(4)
f R1 R2

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1 1 1
In general (n 1)
f R1 R2
This equation is called lens maker's formula.
The focal length of a convex lens is taken as positive, while that of concave lens is taken as
negative.
Lens Formula: The relation between the focal length, the object and image distances is called
lens equation.
A D

F B
B C

u f A

ABC and A'B'C are similar

A 'B' CB'
.....(1)
AB CB
CDF and A'B'F are similar
A 'B ' FB'
.....(2)
CD CF
But CD = AB
From equation (1) and (2)
CB' FB ' CB' CF
.....(3)
CB CF CF
CB = –u ,CB' = +v, CF = f
v v f
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u f
v f = –u v + uf
Divide both sides by u v f
1 1 1
f v u
Linear Magnification : The ratio of the size of the image (formed by the lens) to the size of the
object is called linear magnification produced by the lens.
I v f f v
Mathematically, m
O u f u f

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Power of a lens : It is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens in metre.
1
Mathematically, 1. P
f
1 1
2. P (n 1)
R1 R2
In the above two formulae; f, R1 and R2 are measured in metre.
Two thin lenses placed in contact : When two lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 are placed in
contact, the focal length of the combination is given by
1 1 1
f f1 f2
A B

O P I I1
v

u v

Power of equivalent lens : P = P1 + P2

Magnification produced by equivalent lens: m = m1 × m2

Refraction through a prism : A prism is the portion of a transparent refracting medium bound
by two plane surfaces meeting each other along a straight edge. A ray of light incident on one
face of the prism suffers refraction successively at the two surfaces and then emerges out of it.
From diagram A+ = i + e And A = r1 + r2
When the prism is placed in the minimum deviation position ( = ) angle of incidence i is equal
m

to the angle of emergence e, i.e., i = e and r1 = r2 = r.

1 1
Then A+ m
= 2i i= (A m ) and A = 2r r= A
2 2
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M
i r1 r2 e
Q R
N
P S
B C

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sin i
According to Snell's law for refracting surface AB or AC, we have = , where is
sin r
A m
sin
2
refractive index of glass of prism. Putting the values of i and r, we get
A
sin
2
The variation between angle of incidence and angle of deviation is shown below

60°
Angle of deviation [ ]

50°

40°
i = e°

30°
0° 20° 40° 60° e° 80°
Angle of incidence [i]

Dispersion: The phenomenon of splitting up of white light into its constituent colors is called
dispersion.

White light
White light
spectrum
beam
Glass Prism

Rayleigh's law of scattering : It states that the intensity of the light of wavelength in the
1
scattered light varies inversely as the fourth power of its wavelength. i.e. Is 4
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Sky is Blue As sunlight travels through the earth's atmosphere, it gets scattered (changes its
direction) by the atmospheric particles. Light of shorter wavelengths is scattered much more than
light of longer wavelengths.(The amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth
power of the wavelength. This is known as Rayleigh scattering). Hence, the bluish color
predominates in a clear sky, since blue has a shorter wavelength than red and is scattered much
more strongly. In fact, violet gets scattered even more than blue, having a shorter wavelength.
But since our eyes are more sensitive to gets scattered even more than blue, having a shorter
wavelength. But since our eyes are more sensitive to blue than violet, we see the sky blue.
Note : Not in syllabus for session 2021–22.

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Sun appears reddish during sunset and sunrise

At sunset or sunrise, the sun's rays have to pass through a larger distance in the atmosphere
(Fig.).Most of the blue and other shorter wavelengths are removed by scattering. The least
scattered light reaching our eyes, therefore, the sun looks reddish.
This explains the reddish appearance of the sun and full moon near the horizon.
Sun nearly
overhead

Distance of atmosphere
x through which sunlight
Sun near travels in atmosphere
y
horizon (x > y)
Observer

Note : Not in syllabus for session 2021–22.

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Simple microscope : A convex lens of small focal length is called a simple microscope or a
magnifying glass.
The magnifying power of a microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the
image at the eye to the angle subtended by the object seen directly when both lie at the least
distance of distinct vision.

Eye focused
on near point
M
I
O F u F
D

A simple microscope
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A Simple microscope
D
Mathematically: M 1
f
Here, D is the least distance of distinct vision.
Compound microscope: A compound microscope is a two-lens system (object lens and eye lens
of focal lengths fo and fe). Its magnifying power is very large, as compared to the simple
microscope.
v0 D L D
Mathematically : M 1 1
u0 fe f0 fe

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Here, u0 is distance of the object from the object lens and v0 (» L, is the length of the tube of the
microscope) is the distance at which the object lens forms the image of the object.
Objective Eyepiece

o
A A'''
Fo Fo
B fo B'' Fe B'
uo

A'

A''
D
Astronomical telescope: It is a two-lens system and is used to observe distant heavenly objects.
It is called refracting type astronomical telescope.
Normal adjustment : When the final image is formed at infinity, the telescope is said to be in
normal adjustment.
Objective fo
Eyepiece
fe

O B' E
h
A'

The magnifying power of a telescope in normal adjustment is defined as the ratio of the angle
subtended by the image at the eye as seen through the telescope to the angle subtended by the
object seen directly, when both the object and the image lie at infinity.
f0
Magnifying power in normal adjustment, M
fe
When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision,
fo ue
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Fe Fo

h I

Objective I
D
Eyepiece
f0 f
Magnifying power of the telescope, M 1 e
fe D

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Reflecting type telescope: In a reflecting type telescope, the objective is a concave spherical
mirror of large aperture in place of a convex lens.
The expression for magnifying power of a reflecting type telescope is same as that for refracting
type astronomical telescope.
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EXERCISE-1

1. A ray of light goes from glass (refractive index = 5/3) to water (4/3). The critical angle will be-
(A) sin–1(1/2) (B) sin–1(4/5) (C) sin–1(5/6) (D) None of these
2. A thin prism (refractive index=3/2) in air is immersed in a liquid of refractive index 5/4. The
ratio of angle of deviations in the two cases will be-
(A) 15/8 (B) 8/15 (C) 5/2 (D) 2/5
3. The length of an astronomical telescope is 16cm and its magnifying power is 3. The focal length
of the lenses will be-
(A) 4cm, 12cm (B) 4cm,8cm (C) 4cm,2cm (D) 8cm,4cm
4. Two lenses of power –1.5D and +2.5D are placed in contact. The focal length of combination
will be-
(A) 1m (B) 5m (C) 10m (D) 20m
5. Match the column :-
Column (A) Column (B)
(a) Mirage & Looming (i) Used to make periscope
(b) Porro prism (ii) Atmospheric refraction
(c) Twinkling of stars (iii) Scattering
(d) Blue colour of the sky (iv) TIR
(e) Reddish appearance of Sun (v) Reflection
6. To a fish under water looking obliquely at a man standing on the bank of a lake, does he look
taller or shorter than the actual height ?
Ans. Taller
7. Does the apparent depth of a tank of water change if viewed obliquely ? If so, does the apparent
depth increase or decrease with obliquity of sight ?
Ans. Decreases with increase in obliquity.
8. Why do stars twinkle ?
Ans. Due to refraction through layers of atmosphere.
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9. Virtual image cannot be taken on screen but can be seen by our eye. Explain why ?
Ans. Our eye lens [ convex] converges the rays to form image on retina.
10. What is the significance of the power of a lens ?
Ans. It represents the converging ability of a lens, so diverging lens has a negative power.
11. A lens is made up of two different transparent materials. [upper half & lower half]
A point object is placed on its axis. How many images of the object will be formed ?
Ans. two
12. The surface of the sun glasses (goggles) are curved, yet their power is zero why ?
Ans. As both the surfaces have same radius of curvature and the curvature is on same side.

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13. A concave mirror and convex lens are held in water. What change, if any, do you expect to find
in the focal length of the either ?
Ans. No change in focal length of mirror, but focal length of convex lens will increase.
14. A bi-convex lens with both faces of same radius of curvature, is to be manufactured from a glass
of refractive index 1.55. What should be the radius of curvature for the focal length of the lens to
be 20cm ?
Ans. using lens makers formula, it is 22 cm.
15. The refractive index of a prism of angle 60° is 1.62 for sodium light. What is the angle of
minimum deviation ?
Ans. Using prism formula, we get m
= 46°.
16. Calculate the refractive index of the material of an equilateral prism for which the angle of min.
deviation is 60°.
Ans. 3 = 1.732
17. The angle subtended at the eye by an object is equal to the angle subtended by the virtual image
produced by a magnifying glass. In what sense does it provide angular magnification ?
Ans. Actually , lens facilitate us to place the object nearby , so that it subtends large angle at our eye .
If we do not use a lens , then we have to keep the object at least distance of distinct vision, in that
case the angle subtended by the object at our eye will be smaller.
18. Why does sun appear red at sunrise and sunset ?
Ans. It is due to scattering. As at the time of sunrise and sunset , light has to travel greater distance
through atmosphere , so it get scattered so much that the shorter wavelength got removed , so
what we see is sunlight minus scattered light , which is reddish in color.
19. Why can't we see clearly through fog ? Name the phenomenon responsible for it.
Ans. The fog is made from particles of large size , which scatter all wavelengths equally , and we cant
see clearly. Scattering is responsible for it.
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ANSWER KEY
1. (B) 2. (C) 3. (A) 4. (A)
5. Column (A) Column (B)
(a) Mirage & Looming (iv) (i) Used to make periscope
(b) Porro prism (i) OR (iv) (ii) Atmospheric refraction
(c) Twinkling of stars (ii) (iii) Scattering
(d) Blue color of the sky (iii) (iv) TIR
(e) Reddish appearance of Sun (iii) (v) Reflection
Note : Not in syllabus for session 2021–22.

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EXERCISE-2

ASSERTION AND REASON

Directions (Q. Nos. 1-15)
In the following questions an Assertion (A) is followed by a corresponding Reason (R). Use the
following keys to choose the appropriate answer.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is correct; (R) is incorrect.
(d) (A) is incorrect; (R) is incorrect

1. Assertion : The stars twinkle while the planets do not.

Reason : The stars are much bigger in size than the planets.
2. Assertion : The air bubble shines in water.
Reason : Air bubble in water shines due to refraction of light
3. Assertion : A double convex lens ( m
= 1.5) has focal length 10 cm. When the lens is immersed
in water ( l = 4/3) its focal length becomes 40 cm.
Reason: 1/f = [( l – m
)/ m](1/R1 – 1/R2)
4. Assertion : The colour of the green flower seen through red glass appears to be dark.
Reason : Red glass transmits only red light.
5. Assertion : Magnifying glass is formed of shorter focal length.
Reason : It is easier to form lenses of small focal length
6. Assertion : In compound microscope, the objective lens is taken of small focal length.
Reason : This increases the magnifying power of microscope.
7. Assertion : Within a glass slab, a double convex air bubble is formed. This air bubble behaves
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\ 9. Optics.docx

like a converging lens.

Reason : Refractive index of air is more than the refractive index of glass.
8. Assertion : The focal length of lens does not change when red light is replaced by blue light.
Reason : The focal length of lens does not depends on colour of light used.
9. Assertion : There is no dispersion of light refracted through a rectangular glass slab.
Reason : Dispersion of light is the phenomenon of splitting of a beam of white light into its
constituent colours.
10. Assertion : A beam of white light gives a spectrum on passing through a hollow prism.
Reason : Speed of light outside the prism is different from the speed of light inside the prism.

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11. Assertion : If objective and eye lenses of a microscope are interchanged then it can work as
telescope.
Reason : The objective of telescope has small focal length.
12. Assertion : Although the surfaces of a goggle lens are curved, it does not have any power.
Reason : In case of goggles, both the curved surfaces have equal radii of curvature.
13. Assertion : If the angles of the base of the prism are equal, then in the position of minimum
deviation, the refracted ray will pass parallel to the base of prism.
Reason : In the case of minimum deviation, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
emergence.
14. Assertion: An empty test tube dipped into water in a beaker appears silver, when viewed from a
suitable direction.
Reason : Due to refraction of light, the substance in water appears silvery.
15. Assertion: Spherical aberration occur in lenses of larger aperture.
Reason: The two rays, paraxial and marginal rays focus at different points.
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ANSWER KEY

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (a)

7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (a)

13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (a)

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EXERCISE-3

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS

1. Optical fibres :- Now-a-days optical fibres are extensively used for transmitting audio and video
signals through long distances. Optical fibres too make use of the phenomenon of total internal
reflection. Optical fibres are fabricated with high quality composite glass/quartz fibres. Each
fibre consists of a core and cladding. The refractive index of the material of the core is higher
than that of the cladding. When a signal in the form of light is directed at one end of the fibre at a
suitable angle, it undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the length of the fibre and
finally comes out at the other end. Since light undergoes total internal reflection at each stage,
there is no appreciable loss in the intensity of the light signal. Optical fibres are fabricated such
that light reflected at one side of inner surface strikes the other at an angle larger than the critical
angle. Even if the fibre is bent, light can easily travel along its length. Thus, an optical fibre can
be used to act as an optical pipe.
Refractive 2< 1 Buffer coating
index, 2
Core Cladding

Refractive
index, 1 Buffer coating

(i) Which of the following statement is not true.

(1) Optical fibres is based on the principle of total internal reflection.
(2) The refractive index of the material of the core is less than that of the cladding.
(3) an optical fibre can be used to act as an optical pipe.
(4) there is no appreciable loss in the intensity of the light signal while propagating through an
optical fibre
(ii) What is the condition for total internal reflection to occur?
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(1) angle of incidence must be equal to the critical angle.

(2) angle of incidence must be less than the critical angle.
(3) angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
(4) None of the above.
(iii) Which of the following is not an application of total internal reflection?
(1) Mirage (2) Sparkling of diamond
(3) Splitting of white light through a prism. (4) Totally reflecting prism.
(iv) Optical fibers are used extensively to transmit :-
(1) Optical Signal (2) current (3) Sound waves (4) None of the above

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2. The total internal reflection of the light is used in polishing diamonds to create a sparking
brilliance. By polishing the diamond with specific cuts, it is adjusted the most of the light rays
approaching the surface are incident with an angle of incidence more than critical angle. Hence,
they suffer multiple reflections and ultimately come out of diamond from the top. This gives the
diamond a sparking brilliance.

Critical angle

Diamond
Total Air
reflection

(i) The refractive index for a diamond is

(1) 1.41 (2) Same as glass (3) 2.42 (4) 1
(ii) The basic reason for the extraordinary sparkle of suitably cut diamond is that
(1) It has low refractive index (2) It has high transparency
(3) It has high refractive index (4) It is very hard
(iii) The extraordinary sparkling of diamond
(1) Does not depend on its shape (2) Depends on its shape
(3) Has no fixed reason (4) None
(iv) A diamond is immersed in a liquid with a refractive index greater than water. Then the critical
angle for total internal reflection will
(1) Increase (2) Decrease
(3) Depend on the nature of the liquid (4) Remains the same
(v) Optical Fibre Cables work on the principle of
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(1) Dispersion of light (2) Refraction of light

(3) Total internal reflection (4) Interference of light

ANSWER KEY
1. (i) (2) (ii) (3) (iii) (3) (iv) (1)
2. (i) (3) (ii) (3) (iii) (2) (iv) (1) (v) (3)

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Very short Answer type Questions (1 Marks each)
1. Give the ratio of velocities of two light waves traveling in vacuum and having wavelengths
4000 A° and 8000 A°.
Ans. In vacuum, light of all the wavelengths travel with the same velocity i.e. 3 × 108 ms–1 therefore;
the ratio of the velocities of the two light waves is 1.
2. Is the ratio of frequencies of ultraviolet rays in vacuum and in glass more than, less than or equal
to one?
Ans. It is one.
3. For what angle of incidence, the lateral shift produced by parallel sided glass plate is zero?
Ans. For i = 0
4. For what angle of incidence, the lateral shift produced by a parallel sided glass plate is
maximum?
Ans. For i = 90°, the lateral shift is maximum and is equal to thickness of the glass plate.
For i = 90°, we have
t t
d sin(90 r) cos r t
cos r cos r
5. Which of the two main parts of an optical fibre has a higher value of refractive index?
Ans. The value of refractive index of the fibre material is higher than that of the coating material.
6. What happens to the focal length of convex lens, when it is immersed in water?
Ans. The focal length of convex lens increases, when it is immersed in water.
7. Out of red and blue lights, for which colour is the refractive index of glass greater?
Ans. The refractive index of glass for blue light is greater than that for red light i.e. b
> r

8. Write the relation for the refractive index of the prism in terms of the angle of minimum
deviation and the angle of prism.
A m
sin
2
Ans. n
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A
sin
2
9. A glass prism is immersed in water. What happens to the value of angle of minimum deviation ?
Ans. When a prism is immersed in water,
The value of wµg is less than aµg, the value of the angle of minimum deviation decreases on
immersing the prism in water.
10. What is the length of telescope in normal adjustment?
Ans. The length of the telescope in normal adjustment = f0 + fe.

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11. How does magnifying power of a telescope change on decreasing the aperture of its objective
lens?
Ans. The magnifying power of a telescope is independent of the aperture of the objective lens.
12. What should be the position of an object relative to a biconvex lens so that it behaves like a
magnifying lens?
Ans. The object should be placed between the optical centre and focus of the lens at such a point that
its image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision.
13. How does the focal length of a convex lens change if monochromatic red light is used instead of
monochromatic blue light?
1 1 1
Ans. we know that from the lens maker's formula (n 1)
f R1 R2

R
> B
, nR < nB fB > fR

14. When light undergoes refraction, what happens to its frequency?

Ans. remains same
15. How does the frequency of a beam of ultraviolet light change when it goes from air into glass?
Ans. remains same
16. In the given figure, path of a parallel beam of light passing through a convex lens of refractive
index ng kept in a medium of refractive index nm is shown. Is (i) ng > nm or (ii) ng < nm or (iii) ng = nm

nm
ng

Ans. ng = nm
17. In the figure given below, path of a parallel beam of light passing through a convex lens of
refractive index ng kept in a medium of refractive index nm is shown. Is (i) ng=nm, or (ii) ng > nm
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(iii) ng < nm?

nm ng
nm

Ans. ng > nm
18. Vehicles moving in foggy weather use yellow colour headlights. Why?
Ans. Yellow light is not absorbed by fog. It produces maximum sensation of light.

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Short Answer Type Questions-I (2 Marks each)
19. A ray is to be deviated through 90° by a right- angled isosceles prism. What should be the
minimum refractive index of the material of the prism?
Ans. Fig. shows the arrangement. A ray of light is incident normally on the face AB of the right-
angled isosceles prism. It travels straight on into the glass without deviation to strike the face BC
at D. From geometry, the angle of incidence at face BC is 45°. In order to deviate the ray through
90°, it should be totally reflected from the surface BC. For this to happen, critical angle for the
prism material/air interface should not be more than 45°.
1 1
2 1.414
sin ic sin 45

45°
N

45° D
45°

90°
A C

20. Two thin lenses of power +7D and -3D are in contact. What is the focal length of the
combination?
Ans. P = P1 + P2 =7–3 P = 4D f = 25cm.
21. A prism of 60° angle gives a minimum deviation of 30° .What is the refractive index of the
material of prism?
A m
sin
2
Ans. A = 60°, m
= 30° n= = sin 45°/sin30° = 1.414
sin (A / 2)
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22. Explain how the focal length of a convex lens changes with increase in wavelength of incident
light.
Ans. The refractive index of the material of a lens decreases with increase in wavelength of incident
light. Since focal length of a lens is given by

1 1 1
(n 1)
f R1 R2

It follows that focal length of the lens will increase with increase in wavelength of incident light.

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23. A thin converging lens has a focal length f in air. If it is completely immersed in a liquid, briefly
explain how the focal length of the lens will vary?
Ans. The focal length of the lens in air is given by
1 1 1
(n 1) ….. (i)
f R1 R2
If n' is refractive index of the material of the lens w.r.t. liquid, then focal length of the lens, when
placed in liquid is given by
1 1 1
(n ' 1) ….(ii)
f' R1 R2
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
f' (n 1)
f (n ' 1)
Since n' < n, f' > f i.e. focal length of the lens will increase on immersing it in liquid.
24. Draw a ray diagram showing the formation of image by a concave lens. Discuss the nature of the
image.
Ans.

Object

2F F Image F 2F

The image is always virtual, erect and diminished.

25. On what factors does magnifying power of a compound microscope depend ?
L D
Ans. Magnifying power, M = 1
f0 fe
Therefore, magnifying power of a compound microscope depends upon the focal lengths of the
objective and the eyepiece of the microscope.
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26. How will the magnifying power of a refracting type astronomical telescope be affected on
increasing for its eyepiece (i) the focal length and (ii) the aperture? Justify your answer.
f0
Ans. (i) Magnifying power of a telescope is given by M =
fe
1
Since M , therefore, magnifying power of the telescope will decrease on increasing the
fe
focal length of the eye-piece.
(ii) The resolving power of the telescope depends upon the aperture of its objective. Magnifying
power does not depend upon the aperture of the eyepiece.

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Short Answer Type Questions-II (3 Marks each)
27. What do you understand by the phenomenon of total internal reflection? Give two conditions for
it to take place. Write the relation connecting refractive index and critical angle for a given pair
of media.
Ans. When a ray of light travels from denser medium to rarer medium, at a particular angle of
incidence, the incident ray gets reflected back internally into the same medium.
Conditions:
(a) Ray should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
(b) Angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle for the pair of media.
1
d nr
sin ic
28. What changes in the focal length of a (i) concave mirror and (ii) convex lens occur, when the
incident violet light is replaced with red light?
Ans. When violet light is replaced with red light
(i) focal length of a concave mirror remains same
(ii) focal length of a convex lens increases as
1

as r
> v
µr < µv

1 1 1
( 1)
f R1 R2

1
i.e.,
1
29. You are given three lenses having powers P and Apertures A as follow :
P1 = 6D, A1 = 3cm
P2 = 3D, A2 = 15cm
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P3 = 12D, A3 = 1.5cm
Which two of these will you select to construct
(i) a telescope and (ii) a microscope ?State the basis for your answer in each case.
Ans. (i) For constructing a telescope the objective lens should have large aperture. Hence lens 2 will
be preferred as objective. The eye piece should have small focal length. So lens 3 will be
preferred as the eye piece
(ii) For constructing a microscope both the objective and eye piece should have short focal
lengths and the focal length of the objective should be shorter than the focal length of eye
piece. Therefore lens 3 will be used as objective and lens 1 should be used as an eye piece .

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30. Explain mirage effect produced in very hot desert with the help of diagram.

Ans. Mirage: A realistic image of an object that is either totally imaginary or that appears to be in a
location other than the true one. In hot areas, the layers of air near the earth surface becomes
hotter as compared to the layers above. As a result the upper layers of air become denser. When
rays from a tree like object passes from denser to rarer medium, it suffers total internal reflection.
An observer notices an mirage of the object being formed as if there is water around.

31. A right angled crown glass prism with critical angle 41° is placed before an object, PQ, in two
positions as shown in the figure (i) and (ii). Trace the paths of the rays from P and Q passing
through the prisms in the two cases.

A A
45°
P P
90° B
Q Q
90° 45°
C C
(i) B
(ii)

Ans. A
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A
45°
Q P
P
90° B
Q Q
90° 45°
P C
B
C (i) (ii) P Q

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32. What is dispersion of light? Explain why white light is dispersed when passing through a prism.
Ans. A Splitting of white light into its constituent colours on passing through a medium is called
dispersion of light and the medium causing dispersion is called the dispersive medium.
Dispersion of light is due to the fact that velocity of light of different wave lengths is different in
a material medium.
Light get dispersed because different wavelength get deviated by different amount.
According to Cauchy's formula:
B C
A 2 4
where A, B and C are constants.

33. Draw the ray diagram of a compound microscope, when the final image is formed at the least
distance of distinct vision. Write the formula for magnifying power in the above noted case.

v0 D L D
Ans. Magnifying power, M = 1 1
u0 fe fo fe

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34. The refractive index of the material of a concave lens is n1. It is immersed in a medium of
refractive index n2. A parallel beam of light is incident on the lens. Trace the path of emergent
rays when (a) n2 = n1 (b) n2 > n1 (c) n2 < n1

Ans.

(a) n2 = n1 (b) n2 > n1 (c) n2 < n1

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35. A compound microscope with a objective of 1.0 cm focal length and an eye-piece of 2.0 cm focal
length has a tube of length of 20 cm. Calculate the magnifying power of the microscope, if the
final image is formed at the near point of the eye.

Ans. Here, L = 20 cm; f0 = –1.0 cm; fe = 2.0 cm

When the image is formed at the near point of the eye, the magnifying power of a microscope is
given by

L D 20 25
M 1 1 = 20 × 13.5 = 270
f0 fe 1.0 2.0

36. The following data was recorded for values of object distance and the corresponding values of
image distance in the experiment on study of real image formation by a convex lens of power
+5D. One of these observations is incorrect. Identify this observation and give reason for your
choice:
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Object distance (cm) 25 30 35 45 50 55
Image distance (cm) 97 61 37 35 32 30

Ans. Here, power of the lens, P = +5D

Therefore, focal length of the lens, f 0.2m 20cm

P
When an object is placed between f and 2f i.e. between 20 cm and 40 cm, its image should be
formed beyond 2f i.e. beyond 40 cm. The observation 1 and 2 satisfy this condition but the
observation 3 is not in agreement with it.
On the other hand, when an object is placed beyond 2f i.e. beyond 40 cm, its image should be
formed between 20 cm and 40 cm. The observations 4, 5 and 6 satisfy this condition. The
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observation 3 is incorrect.

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IMPORTANT NOTES

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UNIT-6 : OPTICS
CHAPTER – 10 : WAVE OPTICS

HUYGEN'S PRINCIPLE
Wavefront : The locus of the points in the medium, which at any instant are vibrating in the
same phase, is called wavefront. Ray of light is the line drawn perpendicular to the wavefront.

Huygen's Principle.
1. Each point on a given wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets, sending out disturbance
in all directions in a similar manner as the original source of light does.
2. The new position of the wavefront at any instant is the envelope of the secondary wavelets at that
instant. It is also called Huygen’s construction and it is used to find the new position of the
wavefront at a later time.
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REFRACTION AND REFLECTION OF PLANE WAVES USING HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE

Refraction of a plane wave
Let PP' represent the surface separating medium 1 and medium 2, as shown in Fig. Let v1 and v2
represent the speed of light in medium 1 and medium 2, respectively. We assume a plane wave
front AB propagating in the direction A’A incident on the interface at an angle i as shown in the
figure. Let the time taken by the wave front to travel the distance BC. Thus, BC = v, In order
to determine the shape of the refracted wavefront, we draw a sphere of radius v2 from the point A
in the second medium (the speed of the wave in the second medium is v2). Let CE represent a
tangent plane drawn from the point C on to the sphere. Then, AE = v, and CE would represent
the refracted wavefront. If we now consider the triangles ABC and AEC, we readily obtain

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BC v1 AE v2
sin i = and sin r =
AC AC AC AC
sin i v1
Thus we obtain n 21 . This is Snell's Law of refraction.
sin r v2

Reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface

Consider a plane wavefront AB incident at an angle i on a reflecting surface MN.

If v represents the speed of the wave in the medium and if represents the time taken by the
wave front to advance from the point B to C then the distance BC = v
In order the construct the reflected wave front we draw a sphere of radius v from the point A as
shown in Fig. Let CE represent the tangent plane drawn from the point C to this sphere.
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Obviously AE = BC = v now consider the triangles EAC and BAC we will find that they are
congruent and therefore, the angles i and r (as shown in Fig.) would be equal. This is the law of
reflection.

SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
When two or more than two waves traveling through a medium and superimpose then they loose
their individual identity and a resultant wave is formed, whose displacement is equal to the
vector sum of the displacement of individual waves.

Y Y1 Y 2 ..............Y n

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INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
It is the phenomena of redistribution of light energy on account of superposition of light waves
coming from the two coherent source of light.
The point, at which intensity of light is maximum, is called constructive interference.
The point, at which intensity of light is minimum, is called destructive interference.
Coherent sources : Two sources of light waves which emit the light waves of same frequency,
same wavelength and zero phase difference or constant phase difference are called coherent
sources of light.

Condition for sustained Interference

1. Two sources of light should emit light continuously.
2. The light wave should be of same wavelength.
3. The waves should be of same amplitude.
4. The two waves must be in same phase or bear a constant phase difference.

Young's double slit experiment : Consider that two coherent sources are separated by a
distance d so as to produce interference fringes on a screen held at a distance D from the plane of
the slits. When the slits are illuminated with a monochromatic light of wavelength , then
alternate dark and bright fringes are formed on the two sides of the central bright fringe. Let be
the phase difference and x, the path difference between the two light waves reaching a point P on
the screen.

S1
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Young's arrangement to produce interference

1. Condition for maximum intensity at point P :
Phase difference, = 2n or path difference x = n , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…….
2. Condition for minimum intensity at point P :

Phase difference = (2n + 1) or path difference x = (2n + 1) , where n = 0, 1, 2,3…….

2

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Im ax (a1 a 2 ) 2
3. Ratio of the maximum and minimum intensity :
I min (a1 a 2 )2
Here, a1 and a2 are amplitudes of the two light waves.
Also, ratio of intensity of light due to the two slits of widths w1 and w2 is given by :
I1 w1 a12
I2 w2 a 22
nD
4. (a) Distance of nth bright fringe from the centre of the screen : y n
d
yn n
(b) Angular position of the nth bright fringe : n
D d
(2n 1)D
5. (a) Distance of nth dark fringe from the centre of the screen : y n
2d
yn (2n 1)
(b) Angular position of the nth dark fringe : n
D 2d
D
6. Fringe width :
d
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
Diffraction : The phenomenon of bending of light around the sharp corners and spreading into
the regions of the geometrical shadow is called diffraction.
Diffraction due to a single slit : A narrow slit of width a is placed at a distance D from the
screen.
When the slit is illuminated with a monochromatic light of wavelength , then alternate bright
and dark bands of light are formed on both the sides of the central maximum.

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Screen

D
Figure1
Path difference between the secondary waves reaching at point P
BN = AB sin = a sin
If BN = and = 1

= a sin 1

sin 1
= , 1
is the angle up to which the central maxima can extend.
a

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Such angular position on the screen will represent the first secondary minimum. We assume the
silt to be divided into two equal halves, the wavelets from the corresponding points of the two

halves of the silt will have a path difference of , i.e. they reach point P in opposite phase.
2
Hence for second secondary minimum,
2 = a sin 2

2 n
sin 2
=
and sin n = for nth secondary minima
a a
th
If yn is the distance of n secondary minimum from the screen, then
OP yn
tan n
=
CO D
For small n
,
sin n
= tan n

yn n
D a
n D
yn
a
D
therefore = yn – yn–1 =
a
For first secondary maxima
3
sin 1
= {Since the wavelets from each half will reach point P such that out of three equal
2a
parts two will cancel out leaving one parts of wavelet to produce the bright fringes.
5
Similarly , sin 2
'=
2a
(2n 1)
sin n ' force nth secondary maxima
2a
D
Therefore ' = y'n – y'n–1 = . Both secondary maxima and minima are of same width.
a
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Intensity Distribution of Diffracted Light

Higher
Maximum
Diffracted
intensity
Orders

Figure 2 Screen

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n
1. (a) Angular position of the nth secondary minimum : n
a
nD
(b) Distance of the nth secondary minimum from the centre of the screen : y n
a
(2n 1)
2. (a) Angular position of the nth secondary maximum : '
n
2a
(2n 1)D
(b) Distance of the nth secondary maximum from the centre of the screen : y 'n
2a
D
3. (a) Width of a secondary maximum or minimum :
a
2D
(b) Width of a central maximum : 0
a
4. Half angular width of central maximum : The angular position of first secondary minimum is
known as half angular width of the central maximum. Thus, half angular width of the central

maximum, 1
a

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 CBSE 49

EXERCISE-1

1. The phenomenon which exhibits spectrum in a CD or DVD is-

(A) Dispersion (B) Diffraction (C) Interference (D) Polarization
Ans. (B)
2. Phenomenon of bending of light from sharp edge is called-
(A) Interference (B) Polarization (C) Diffraction (D) Dispersion
Ans. (C)
3. Maximum Intensity is young's double slit experiment is 'I0'. If one of the slit is closed, then
intensity will be-
(A) I0 (B) I0/4 (C) I0/3 (D) I0/2
Ans. (B)
4. The ratio of width of slits in Young's double slit experiment is 1 : 2 the ratio of amplitudes of
waves coming from them will be .................
Ans. 1 : 2
5. Phase difference between two waves is then ................. is the path difference between them.

Ans.
2
6. The wave front at a finite distance from a point source of light is .........
Ans. Spherical
7. Match the column :-
Column (A) Column (B)
(a) Point source (i) secondary wavelet
(b) Line source (ii) 3-D film
(c) Distant Point source (iii) Spherical wavefront
(d) Huygen's Principle (iv) Plane wavefront
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(e) Polaroid (v) Cylindrical wavefront

Ans. (a) - (iii), (b) - (v), (c) - (iv), (d) - (i), (e) - (ii)
8. What is the geometrical shape of the wave front in each of the following cases :
(a) emerging from a distant star (as seen from the earth)
(b) a point source
(c) a wave front emerging from a convex lens at the focus of which a point source of light is placed
Ans. (a) Plane, (b) Spherical, (c) Plane
9. Why does the light appear to travel in a straight line in spite of its wave nature ?
Ans. It is due to high frequency and small wavelength of light.

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10. Can two independent sources be coherent?
Ans. No, [except LASER ] as ordinary sources of light emit light because of spontaneous emission.
11. Can two 200 W- 220 V lamps produce interference ?
Ans. No, due to lack of coherency.
12. Can we observe interference maxima or minima on a screen if the slits are separated by a
distance less than a wavelength of light is used ?
Ans. No, single fringe will cover the whole screen.
13. In Young's double slit experiment, the monochromatic source of light is replaced by white light
source. The central fringe would be white or dark ?
Ans. White, as for all the colors path difference is zero, so they interfere constructively.
14. Consider interference between waves from two sources of intensities I and 4I. Find intensities at
points where the phase difference is (i) /2 (ii)
Ans. (i) 5I , (ii) I
15. What do you mean by glancing incidence ?
Ans. When light is incident tangentially i.e. angle of incidence becomes 90°.
16. What is the difference between monochromatic light & polychromatic light ?
Ans. Monochromatic light consists of single wavelength while polychromatic light consists of more
than one wavelength or frequency.
17. Why we cannot get diffraction from a wide slit illuminated by a monochromatic light ?
Ans. The size of the slit should be of order of wavelength of light to observe it's diffraction.
18. State with reason whether diffraction of light takes place at the two slits in the Young's
interference experiment.
Ans. Yes, in YDSE , the fringe pattern is the result of superposition between two individual diffraction
patterns from the two slits , so diffraction is in background.
19. Define the term 'wave-front' .
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Ans. It is surface of constant phase.

20. Define the term 'coherent sources' which are required to produce interference pattern in Young's
double slit experiment.
Ans. Two source are said to be coherent, only if they emit light of same frequency with zero or
constant phase difference.

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EXERCISE-2

Directions (Q. No. 1-10)

In the following questions an Assertion (A) is followed by a corresponding Reason (R). Use the
following keys to choose the appropriate answer.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is correct; (R) is incorrect.
(d) (A) is incorrect; (R) is incorrect
1. Assertion : According to Huygen's; principle, no backward wave-front is possible.
Reason : Amplitude of secondary wavelet is proportional to (1 + cos ) where is the angle
between the ray at the point of consideration and the direction of secondary wavelet.
2. Assertion : No interference pattern is detected when two coherent sources are infinitely close to
each other.
Reason : The fringe width is inversely proportional to the distance between the two sources.
3. Assertion : It is necessary to have two waves of equal intensity to study interference pattern.
Reason : There will be an effect on clarity if the waves are of unequal intensity.
4. Assertion : White light falls on a double slit with one slit is covered by a green filter. The bright
fringes observed are of green colour.
Reason : The fringes observed are coloured.
5. Assertion : In YDSE, if a thin film is introduced in front of the upper slit, then the fringe pattern
shifts in the downward direction.
Reason : In YDSE if the slit widths are unequal, the minima will be completely dark.
6. Assertion : In Young's double slit experiment if wavelength of incident monochromatic light is
just doubled, number of bright fringe on the screen will increase.
Reason : Maximum number of bright fringe on the screen is inversely proportional to the
wavelength of light used
7. Assertion : In YDSE number of bright fringe or dark fringe cannot be unlimited
Reason : In YDSE path difference between the superposing waves cannot be more than the
distance between the slits.
8. Assertion : Interference pattern is made by using yellow light instead of red light, the fringes
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become narrower.
Reason : In YDSE, fringe width is given by = D/d
9. Assertion : Coloured spectrum is seen when we look through a muslin cloth.
Reason : It is due the diffraction of white light on passing through fine slits.
10. Assertion : Diffraction takes place for all types of waves mechanical or non-mechanical,
transverse or longitudinal.
Reason : Diffraction's effect are perceptible only if wavelength of wave is comparable to
dimensions of diffracting device.
ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (a)
7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (b)

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EXERCISE-3

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS

(4 MARKS)
Wavefront is a locus of points which vibrates in same phase. A ray of light is perpendicular to the
wavefront. According to Huygens principle, each point of the wavefront is the source of a
secondary disturbance and the wavelets connecting from these points spread out in all directions
with the speed of wave. The figure shows a surface XY separating two transparent media,
medium- 1 and medium-2. The lines ab and cd represent wavefronts of a light wave travelling in
medium- 1 and incident on XY. The lines ef and gh represent wavefronts of the light wave in
medium -2 after refraction.
b d
medium-1
X a c Y
f h
medium-2
e g

(i) Light travels as a

(1) parallel beam in each medium
(2) convergent beam in each medium
(3) divergent beam in each medium
(4) divergent beam in one medium and convergent beam in the other medium
(ii) The phases of the light wave at c, d, e and f are c, d, e, and f respectively. It is given that c f

(1) c
can not be equal to d
(2) d
can be equal to e

(3) ( d – f ) is equal to ( c – e) (4) ( d – c) is not equal to ( f – e)

(iii) Wavefront is the locus of all points, where the particles of the medium vibrate with the same
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(1) phase (2) amplitude (3) frequency (4) period

(iv) A point source that emits waves uniformly in all directions, produces wavefronts that are
(1) spherical (2) elliptical (3) cylindrical (4) planar
(v) What are the types of wavefronts?
(1) Spherical (2) Cylindrical (3) Plane (4) All of these

ANSWER KEY
(i) (1) (ii) (3) (iii) (3) (iv) (1) (v) (4)

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Very short Answer type Questions (1 Marks each)

1. How is a wavefront to the direction of corresponding rays?
Ans. The wavefront is perpendicular to the direction of rays.
2. What is the phase difference between any two points on a wavefront?
Ans. Zero.
3. If a wavefront undergoes refraction, what happens to its phase?
Ans. There is no change in its phase.
4. Name the shape of a wavefront originating from (i) point source (ii) a line source.
Ans. (i) Spherical wavefront (ii) Cylindrical wavefront.
5. What is the geometrical shape of the wavefront in each of the following cases?
(a) Light diverging from a point source.
(b) Light emerging out of a convex lens, when a point source is placed at its focus.
(c) The portion of the wavefront of light from a distant star intercepted by the earth.
Ans. (a) Spherical in shape (b) Plane wavefront (c) Plane wavefront
6. State two conditions which must be satisfied for two light sources to be coherent.
Ans. 1. The two light waves should be of same wavelength.
2. The two light waves should either be in phase or should have a constant phase difference.
7. What happens to the interference pattern, if the phase difference between the two sources
continuously varies?
Ans. If the phase difference between the two sources continuously varies, the position of minima and
maxima will also vary. Such an interference pattern will not be a sustained one and it will not be
observed.
8. State the condition for constructive interference.
Ans. Path difference, x = n , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3………….
9. State the condition for destructive interference.

Ans. Path difference, x = (2n + 1) , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3………….

2
10. The phase difference between two light waves from two slits of Young's experiment is radian.
What will be the nature of the central fringe in the fringe pattern?
Ans. It will be dark.
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11. State the condition for diffraction of light to occur.

Ans. The size of the obstacle should be of the order of the wavelength of light used.
12. What is the condition for first minimum in case of diffraction due to a single slit?
Ans. a sin =
13. What is the basic difference between interference and diffraction of light?
Ans. Interference is the result of superposition of light waves from two sources, whereas diffraction
takes place due to interference of light waves from the different parts of the same source of light.
14. Coloured spectrum is observed, when we see through muslin cloth. But no such spectrum is
observed, when we see through coarse cloth. Why?
Ans. The coloured spectrum is observed due to diffraction of light. In a coarse cloth, the slits formed
due to threads are very wide and hence no such spectrum is seen.

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Short Answer Type Questions-I (2 Marks each)

15. What is meant by a wavefront? What is the shape of of the wavefront of a beam of parallel rays?
Ans. A wavefront is defined as a surface of constant phase. Corresponding to a beam of parallel rays
of light, the wavefront is plane in shape.
16. Is the speed of light in glass independent of the colour of light? If not, which of the two colours
(red and violet) travels slower in a glass prism?
Ans. No, the speed of light is not independent of the colour (wavelength) of the light. The violet
colour travels slower than the red light in a glass prism.
17. Why no interference is observed, when two coherent sources are (i) infinitely close to each other
(ii) far apart from each other?
D
Ans. We know,
d
(i) When the two sources are close to each other (d quite small), sufficiently wide fringes are
formed. In case the two sources are infinitely close to each other, general illumination will
take place.
(ii) When the two sources are moved far apart (d very large), the fringe width will be very small
and they will not be separately visible.
18. What is the effect on the interference fringes in a Young's double slit experiment due to each of
the following operations?
(a) The screen is moved away from the plane of the slits.
(b) The source is replaced by another source of shorter wavelength.
D
Ans. We know that
d
(a) When the screen is moved away from the plane of the slits, D increases. Hence, fringe
width will increase.
(b) The decrease in will decrease fringe width.
19. What will be the effect on the interference fringes in a Young's double slit if
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(a) the apparatus is immersed in water,

(b) white light is used instead of monochromatic light.
D
Ans. (a) When the apparatus in air, air
d

When the apparatus is immersed in water, the wavelength of light decreases to

D
Therefore, water
d
water D d 1
Hence,
air d D
Hence, the fringe width decreases.

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 CBSE 55
(b) The different colours of white light will produce different interference patterns but the
central bright fringes due to all colours are at the same position. Therefore, the central
bright fringe is white in colour. Since the wavelength of the blue light is smallest, the fringe
closest on the either side of the central white fringe is blue and the farthest is red. Beyond a
few fringes, no clear fringe pattern is visible.
20. Draw the intensity pattern obtained in Young's double slit experiment.
Ans. I

Imax

3 2 1 O 1 2 3
Path difference
21. Give two differences fringes formed in single slit diffraction and Young's double slit experiment.
Ans. 1. In Young's experiment, all the bright fringes formed are of same intensity, whereas in single
slit diffraction experiment, the bright fringes are of varying intensity.
2. In Young's experiment, fringes of minimum intensity are perfectly dark, whereas in single slit
diffraction experiment, fringes of minimum intensity are not perfectly dark.
Short Answer Type Questions-II (3 Marks each)
22. State Huygen's principle. Prove the laws of reflection on the basis of wave theory.
Ans. Each point of the wavefront is the source of a secondary disturbance and the wavelets emanating
from these points spread out in all directions with the speed of the wave. These wavelets
emanating from the wavefront are usually referred to as secondary wavelets and if we draw a
common tangent to all these spheres, we obtain the new position of the wavefront at a later time.

For proof of the laws of reflection on the basis of wave theory refer to theory.
23. Verify Snell's law of refraction on the basis of wave theory.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\10. Wave Optics.docx

Ans.

For proof of the laws of refraction on the basis of wave theory refer to theory

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56 Physics
24. In a single slit diffraction pattern, how is the width of central bright maximum changed, when
(i) the slit width is decreased,
(ii) the distance between the slit and the screen is increased and
(iii) light of smaller wavelength is used. Justify your answer.
2D
Ans. The width of central maximum is given by 0
a
1
(i) Since 0 . Therefore, as the slit width is decreased, the width of the central maximum
a
will increase.
(ii) Since 0 D. Therefore, as the distance between the slit and the screen is increased, the
width of the central maximum will also increase.
(iii) Since 0 . Therefore, as the light of smaller wavelength is used, the width of the central
maximum will decrease.
25. In a Young's double experiment, red light of wavelength 6000 Å is used and the nth bright fringe
is obtained at a point P on the screen. Keeping the same setting, the source is replaced by green
light of 5000Å and now (n + 1)th bright fringe is obtained at the point P. Calculate the value of n.
Ans. When red light ( ) is used:
10
nD nD 6000 10
y .…(i)
d d
When blue light ( ) is used:
' 10
(n 1)D (n 1)D 5000 10
y .…(ii)
d d
Solving (i) and (ii), we get n = 5
26. In a single slit diffraction experiment, first minimum for red light (660 nm) coincides with first
maximum of some other wavelength . Find the value of .
Ans. The angular position of first minimum for red light of wavelength r
is given by
r
sin 1 .…(i)
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\10. Wave Optics.docx

a
The angular position of first maximum for light of wavelength ' is given by
3 '
sin 1' .…(ii)
2a
As the first minimum for red light coincides with the first maximum for wavelength ,
'
sin 1
= sin 1

Therefore, from (i) and (ii), we have

3 ' r 2 r
'
2a a 3
2 660
= = 440 nm
3

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 CBSE 57
27. Two slits are made one millimetre apart and the screen is placed one metre away. What is the
fringe separation when blue green light of wavelength 500 nm is used?
D 1 500 10 9
Ans. Fringe spacing = 3
m = 5 ×10–4 m = 0.5mm
d 1 10
28. In Young's double slit experiment, two slits are separated by 3 mm distance and illuminated by
light of wavelength 480 nm. The screen is at 2 m from the plane of the slits. Calculate the
separation between the 8th bright fringe and the 3rd dark fringe observed with respect to the central
bright fringe.
8D 5D 11D
Ans. y8 y '3
d 2d 2d
9
11 2 480 10
= = 1.76 × 10–3 m = 1.76 mm
2 3 10 3
29. When monochromatic light is incident on a surface separating two media, the reflected and
refracted light both have the same frequency as the incident frequency. Explain why?
Ans. Reflection and refraction arise through interaction of incident light with the atomic constituents
of matter. Atoms may be viewed as oscillators, which take up the frequency of the external
agency (light) causing forced oscillations. The frequency of light emitted by a charged oscillator
equals its frequency of oscillation. Thus, the frequency of scattered light equals the frequency of
incident light.
30. When light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, the speed decreases. Does the reduction in
speed imply a reduction in the energy carried by the light wave?
Ans. No, energy carried by a wave depends on the amplitude of the wave, not on the speed of wave
propagation.
31. What is the effect on the interference fringes in a Young's double-slit experiment when
(a) the source slit is moved closer to the double-slit plane;
(b) the width of the source slit is increased?
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Ans. (a) Let s be the size of the source and S its distance from the plane of the two slits. For
interference fringes to be seen, the condition s/S < /d should be satisfied; otherwise,
interference patterns produced by different parts of the source overlap and no fringes are
seen. Thus, as S decreases (i.e. the source slit is brought closer), the interference pattern gets
less and less sharp, and when the source is brought too close for this condition to be valid,
the fringes disappear. Till this happens, the fringe separation remains fixed.
(b) Same as in (a). As the source slit width increases, fringe pattern gets less and less sharp.
When the source slit is so wide that the condition s/S > /d is not satisfied, the interference
pattern disappears.

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32. In a two slit experiment with monochromatic light, fringes are obtained on a screen placed at
some distance from the slits. If the screen is moved by 5 × 10–2m towards the slits, the change in
fringe width is 3 × 10–5m. If the distance between the slits is 10–3 m, calculate the wavelength of
the light used.
Ans. d = 10–3 m; D = 5 × 10–2m; B = 3 × 10–5m.
If D is decreased by D, the fringe width will also decrease by , such that
D
d
d 3 10 –5 10 –3
or 6 10 7 m
D 5 10 –2
33. In a Young's double slit experiment, 12 fringes are observed to be formed in a certain segment of
the screen, when light of wavelength 600 nm is used. If the wavelength is changed to 400 nm,
then what is the number of fringes observed in the same segment of the screen?
D
Ans. .…(i)
d
D '
' .…(ii)
d
' ' 400 2
600 3
3
Therefore, the fringe width decreases. Now, in the same segment of screen × 12 = 18 fringes
2
will be observed.

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UNIT-VII : DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

CHAPTER – 11 : DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

Photon : It is a packet of energy. The rest mass of a photon is zero. They travel in a straight line.
hc
The energy of a photon, E h . The photons emitted from a source, travel through space

with the same speed. The frequency of a photon does not change when it travels through different
medium but its wavelength changes in different medium, as the velocity of a photon in different
media is different.
Work function of a metal : The minimum energy, which must be supplied to the electron so
that it can just come out of a metal surface, is called the work function of the metal. It is denoted
by 0
. It depends on the properties of the metal, nature of the surface and impurities. Its unit is
Joule (J) or eV .
Photoelectric effect : When light of suitable frequency incident on a metal surface, electrons are
emitted from the metal surface. This photo (light)-generated electrons are called photo electrons
and this phenomenon is called photo electric effect.
Hallwach’s and Lenard’s observations : Lenard (1862-1947) observed that when ultraviolet
radiations were allowed to fall on the emitter plate of an evacuated glass/quartz tube enclosing
two electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the circuit (Fig.1). As soon as the ultraviolet
radiations were stopped, the current flow also stopped. These observations indicate that when
ultraviolet radiations fall on the emitter plate C, electrons are ejected from it which are attracted
towards the positive, collector plate A by the electric field. The electrons flow through the
evacuated glass tube, resulting in the current flow.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

Ultra violet
Light
Quartz tube
– +
C A

– +

Figure 1

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60 Physics
Experimental study of photo electric effect
It consists of an evacuated glass/quartz tube having a photosensitive plate C and another metal
plate A. Monochromatic light from the source S of sufficiently short wavelength passes through
the window W and falls on the photosensitive plate C (emitter). A transparent quartz window is
sealed on to the glass tube, which permits ultraviolet radiation to pass through it and irradiate the
photosensitive plate C.
The electrons are emitted by the plate C and are collected by the plate A (collector), by the
electric field created by the battery. The battery maintains the potential difference between the
plates C and A, that can be varied. The polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed by a
commutator. Thus, the plate A can be maintained at a desired positive or negative potential with
respect to emitter C. When the collector plate A is positive with respect to the emitter plate C, the
electrons are attracted to it. The emission of electrons causes flow of electric current in the
circuit. The potential difference between the emitter and collector plates is measured by a
voltmeter (V) where as the resulting photo current flowing in the circuit is measured by a micro
ammeter (µA). The photoelectric current can be increased or decreased by varying the potential
of collector plate A with respect to the emitter plate C. The intensity and frequency of the
incident light can be varied, as can the potential difference V between the emitter C and the
collector A
Quartz
window S Evacuated
glass tube
Photosensitive
plate Electrons
C A

Commutator node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

V A

+ –
Fig. 2

Photoelectric effect depends on

1. Intensity of incident light.
2. The potential difference applied between the two electrodes.
3. The nature of the cathode material.

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Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent
The collector A is maintained at a positive potential with respect to emitter C so that electrons
ejected from C are attracted towards collector A. Keeping the frequency of the incident radiation
and the accelerating potential fixed, the intensity of light is varied and the resulting photoelectric
current is measured each time. It is found that the photocurrent increases linearly with intensity
of incident light as shown graphically in Fig.3.

Photoelectric current

Intensity of light
Fig.3 Variation of photoelectric current and intensity of light
From the graph we conclude that, the photocurrent is directly proportional to the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second. This implies that the number of photoelectrons emitted per
second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.

Effect of potential on photoelectric current

Keep the plate A at some positive accelerating potential with respect to the plate C and illuminate
the plate C with light of fixed frequency and fixed intensity I1 and then vary the positive potential
of plate A gradually and measure the resulting photocurrent each time. It is found that the
photoelectric current increases with increase in accelerating (positive) potential.
Now repeat this experiment with incident radiation of the same frequency but of higher intensity
I2 and I3 (I3 > I2 > I1).
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

Photocurrent

I3 > I2 > I1
I3
I2
I1

Stopping potential

–V0 O Collector plate

Retarding potential
potential

Fig. 4 Variation of photoelectric current with collector plate potential for different
intensities of incident radiation

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The following conclusions can be drawn from above observations.
(i) All the photoelectrons emitted from the metal do not have the same energy.
(ii) Photoelectric current is zero when the stopping potential is sufficient to repel even the most
energetic photoelectrons, with the maximum kinetic energy (Kmax), so that Kmax = e V0
(iii) The saturation currents are now found to be at higher values. This shows that more electrons
are being emitted per second, proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
(iv) The stopping potential remains the same as that for the incident radiation of intensity I1, as
shown graphically in Fig.4. Thus, for a given frequency of the incident radiation, the
stopping potential is independent of its intensity.
(v) The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends on the light source and the emitter
plate material, but is independent of intensity of incident radiation.
Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential
Adjust the same intensity of light radiation at various frequencies and study the variation of
photocurrent with collector plate potential. The resulting variation is shown in Fig.5.

Photoelectric
current
3 > 2 > 1
Saturation current
3 2 1

–V03 –V02 –V01 O Collector plate potential

Retarding potential
Fig.(5)

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The following conclusions can be drawn from above observations
(i) We obtain different values of stopping potential but the same value of the saturation current
for incident radiation of different frequencies.
(ii) The energy of the emitted electrons depends on the frequency of the incident radiations. The
stopping potential is more negative for higher frequencies of incident radiation.

(iii) The stopping potentials are in the order V03 V02 V01 if the frequencies are in the order

3
> 2
> 1
. This implies that greater the frequency of incident light, greater is the maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons. Consequently, we need greater retarding potential to
stop them completely.

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If we plot a graph between the frequency of incident radiation and the corresponding stopping
potential for different metals we get a straight line, as shown in Fig.

Stopping
potential Metal A
(V0)
> 0 Metal B
> 0

0 0

0 Frequency of incident radiation ( )

Fig.6
The graph shows that
(i) The stopping potential V0 varies linearly with the frequency of incident radiation for a given
photosensitive material.
(ii) There exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency 0
for which the stopping potential is zero.
These observations have two implications:
(i) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies linearly with the frequency of
incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
(ii) For a frequency of incident radiation, lower than the cut-off frequency 0
, no photoelectric
emission is possible even if the intensity is large.
Threshold frequency : The minimum frequency ( 0), which the incident light must possess so as
to eject photoelectrons from a metal surface, is called threshold frequency of the metal.
Work function : The minimum energy required to eject an electron from a surface is called
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

work function of the surface.

0
=h 0

Laws of photoelectric effect:

1. The photoelectric emission takes place from a metal surface, when the frequency of incident
light is above its threshold frequency.
2. The photoelectric emission starts as soon as the light is incident on the metal surface.
3. The maximum kinetic energy with which an electron is emitted from a metal surface is
independent of the intensity of light and depends upon its frequency.
4. The number of photoelectrons emitted is independent of the frequency of the incident light
and depends only upon its intensity.

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Stopping potential : It is that minimum value of the negative potential (V0), which should be
applied to the anode in a photo cell so that the photoelectric current becomes zero.
1 2
eV0 mv max where vmax is the max velocity with which the photoelectrons are emitted. It
2
depends on :-
(i) The frequency of incident light and
(ii) The nature of the cathode material.
For a given frequency of incident radiation, it is independent of its intensity. The stopping
potential is directly related to the maximum K.E of emitted electrons.
1 2
i.e. eV0 mvmax K.E max
2
Einstein’s photoelectric equation
The electrons are ejected only when light is incident on a metal. This is due to the existence of
potential barrier all around the surface of metal. The minimum energy needed for the electron to
escape from the metal surface is called work function ( 0).

vmax
h m
Metal
surface

An incident photon supplies whole its energy h to the electron, which consumes some energy
against work function and comes out by the rest of energy as its kinetic energy
1 1
mv 2max h Or mv 2max = h – =h –h
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx
0 0 0
2 2
Kmax = h – 0
Or K.E.Max = h – h 0
….(1)
Equation (1) is known as Einstein’s photo electric equation.

Determination of Planck’s constant and Work function :

According to the Einstein’s photoelectric equation Kmax = h – 0

If V0 is the stopping potential, then Kmax = e V0

eV0 = h – 0

h 0
V0 …(1)
e e
Compare this equation with the straight line equation
y = mx + c

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 CBSE 65

It follows from equation (1) that V0 versus graph is a straight line as shown in following figure.

Stopping A
potential
(V0)
> 0
C
B
0
0 Frequency of incident radiation ( )

h
Clearly from the graph of V0 versus slope =
e
To determine the slope, take two points A and B on the straight line graph, then
AC h
m = tan =
BC e
AC
h=e×
BC
h = e × slope of V0 – graph

0
Moreover the intercept on vertical axis = –
e
0
= e × magnitude of the intercept on vertical axis

WAVE NATURE OF MATTER

de-Broglie Hypothesis
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According to de Broglie, every moving particle is associated with a wave which controls the
particle in every respect. The wave associated with a moving particle is called matter wave or de
Broglie wave. De Broglie proposed that the wavelength of a material particle would be related to
h
its momentum in the same way as for a photon (i.e. p = ). That is for a particle of mass m

moving with speed v, de Broglie wavelength is given by;

h
mv
where h = Planck’s constant

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Derivation of de Broglie wavelength: According to Planck’s quantum theory, the energy of a
photon of radiation of frequency and wavelength is given by;
E=h ....(i)
where h = Planck’s constant
If photon is considered as a particle of mass m then according to Einstein's energy-mass relation,
the energy E of the photon is
E = m c2 ....(ii)
where c = velocity of light
Since the energy of the photon in the two cases is the same,
h = mc2
h
mc =
c
h c
mc =

The quantity mc is the momentum p of the photon having mass m and travelling with velocity c,
h
p=mc=

h
….(iii)
p
de-Broglie proposed that eq. (iii) is completely a general formula and is applicable to photon as
well as other moving particles. Thus if a particle has mass m and moves with a velocity v, its
momentum is mv. The wavelength of the wave associated with this moving particle is given by;

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

h h
p mv
This is de-Broglie wave equation for a material particle.
Some facts: The following points may be noted about matter waves or *pilot waves:
h
(i) =
mv

If v = 0, and if v , 0.
This implies that matter waves are associated with material particles only if they are in motion.
(ii) The greater the momentum of the particle, the shorter is the wavelength and vice-versa.
(iii) de-Broglie wavelength of a particle is independent of the charge or nature of the particle.

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 CBSE 67
MATTER WAVES ARE NOT ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
The matter waves are not electromagnetic waves as is clear from the following discussion:
(i) The matter waves are associated with particles in motion whether the particles are charged or
not. This means that matter waves cannot be electromagnetic waves because electromagnetic
waves are produced only by the accelerated charged particles.
(ii) The velocity of the matter wave is not constant since it depends upon the velocity of the
material particle. However, the velocity of electromagnetic waves is constant in a medium.
(iii) These waves do not travel in air or vacuum with speed of light.

DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH OF AN ELECTRON

Suppose an electron at rest has been accelerated through a potential difference of V volts and
gains a velocity v. If m and e are the mass and charge of electron respectively, then, Work done
on electron = e V
1
K.E. gained by electron = mv2
2
K.E. gained by electron = Work done on electron
1
mv 2 eV
2

2eV
Velocity of electron v
m

If is de Broglie wavelength associated with electron, then

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

h h
mv m 2eV / m

h
2emV
34
6.62 10
19 31
2 1.6 10 9 10 V
10
12.27 10
metre
V

2.27
Å
V

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68 Physics
DAVISSON AND GERMER EXPERIMENT
The wave nature of electrons was first experimentally verified by C.J. Davisson and L.H. Germer
in 1927, the experimental arrangement used by Davisson and Germer is schematically shown in
Fig.

Davison-Germer experiment confirms the wave nature of electrons and the de Broglie relation.

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 CBSE 69

EXERCISE-1

1. If frequency of incident photon on a metal surface be doubled then maximum kinetic energy of
emitted electron now will be-
(A) Double (B) More than double (C) Unchanged (D) None of these
Ans. (D), it will be less than double.
2. A photon of frequency has a momentum associated with it. If c is the velocity of light, the
momentum is-
(A) h /c2 (B) h /c (C) /c (D) h c
Ans. (B) h /c
3. The work function of substance is 4 eV. Threshold wavelength will be-
(A) 540 nm (B) 400 nm (C) 310 nm (D) 220 nm
Ans. (C) 310 nm
4. To increase the photoelectric current [ > 0
] , we should increase –
(A) Frequency of incident radiation
(B) Intensity of incident radiation
(C) Replace the cathode with another cathode having metal with higher work function
(D) Provide lower voltage from external source.
Ans. (B) Intensity of incident radiation
5. Red light [irrespective of it’s intensity] can’t initiate PEE from a metal surface, but green light
even with low intensity can successfully eject photoelectrons from that metal surface.
True/False ?
Ans. True.
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6. If frequency of incident radiation increases then , stopping potential will –

Increase / Decrease / Remain same ?
Ans. Increase.
7. Match the column : -
Column (A) Column (B)
(a) Work function (i) Joule
(b) Stopping potential (ii) eV
(c) Threshold frequency (iii) W/m2
(d) Intensity (iv) volt
(e) Energy (v) Hz
Ans. (a) – (ii), (b) – (iv), (c) – (v), (d) – (iii), (e) – (i)

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70 Physics
8. What is the difference b/w thermionic emission and P.E. emission ?
Ans. In thermionic emission, electron get ejected due to heating of cathode, while in photo electric
emission light of suitable frequency is made to fall on suitable metal surface.
9. Electrons are being emitted from a metal surface by light of constant wavelength. What will be
the effect on the No. of electrons emitted and max. K.E. of them on increasing the intensity of
light ?
Ans. No. of electrons emitted will increase but max. K.E. will remain same.
10. Which of the following radiations will be most effective for electron emission from the surface of
Zn ? Microwave, infrared, ultraviolet ?
Ans. ultra violet.
11. The work function of Al is 4.2 eV. If two photons each of energy 2.5 eV strike an electron of Al,
will the emission of electron be possible ?
Ans. No, as it is one to one interaction in general.
12. The work function of Li and Cu are 2.3 eV & 4 eV respectively. Which of these metals will be
useful for the P.E. cell working with visible light ?
Ans. Energy of visible light lies in between 1.8 eV to 3.1 eV, so Li with work function 2.3 eV will be
useful.
13. The threshold wavelength for Li is 8000 Å. Explain it’s meaning. What will happen if the
incident light having wavelength longer than the above wavelength is made to fall on Li ?
Ans. It mean if radiation of wavelength 8000 Å or less than 8000 Å , is made to fall on Li , then photo
electric emission will take place. If the incident light longer than the above wavelength is made to
fall on Li, then, no photoelectric emission occur.

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14. On which of these does the stopping potential depends ? [a] Intensity, [b] Frequency ?
Ans. [b] Frequency

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 CBSE 71

EXERCISE-2

Directions (Q. Nos. 1-12)

In the following questions an Assertion (A) is followed by a corresponding Reason (R). Use the
following keys to choose the appropriate answer.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is correct; (R) is incorrect.
(d) (A) is incorrect; (R) is incorrect
1. Assertion : A photon has no rest mass , yet it carries definite momentum.
Reason : Momentum of photon is due to its energy and hence its equivalent mass.
2. Assertion : Mass of moving photon varies inversely as the wavelength.
Reason : Energy of the particle = mass × (speed of light)2
3. Assertion : In photoelectron emission, the velocity of electron ejected from near the surface is
larger than that coming from interior of metal.
Reason : The velocity of ejected electron will be zero.
4. Assertion : A photocell is called an electric eye.
Reason : When light is incident on some semiconductor, its electrical resistance is reduced .
5. Assertion : The de-Broglie equation has significance for any microscopic or sub microscopic
particle.
Reason : The de-Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to the mass of the object if
velocity is constant.
6. Assertion : A particle of mass M at rest decay into particles of masses m1 and m2, having
non- zero velocities will have ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths unity.
Reason: Here we cannot apply conservation of linear momentum.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

7. Assertion: Photoelectric effect demonstrates the wave nature of light.

Reason: The number of photoelectrons is proportional to the frequency of light.
8. Assertion : When a certain wavelength of light falls on a metal surface it ejects electron.
Reason: Light has wave nature.
9. Assertion : As work function of a material increases by some mechanism, it requires greater
energy to excite the electrons from its surface.
Reason : A plot of stopping potential (V0) versus frequency ( ) for different materials, has
greater slope for metals with greater work functions.
10. Assertion : Light of frequency 1.5 times the threshold frequency is incident on photo sensitive
material. If the frequency is halved and intensity is doubled the photo current remains unchanged.
Reason : The photo electric current varies directly with the intensity of light and frequency of light.

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72 Physics
11. Assertion : The de-Broglie wavelength of a neutron when its kinetic energy is k is . Its
wavelength is 2 when its kinetic energy is 4k.
Reason : The de-Broglie wavelength is proportional to square root of the kinetic energy.
12. Assertion : The de-Broglie wavelength of a molecule varies inversely as the square root of
temperature.
Reason : The root mean square velocity of the molecule depends on the temperature.

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ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (b)
9. (c) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (a)

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 CBSE 73

EXERCISE-3

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS

PASSAGE
1. The photoelectric emission is possible only if the incident light is in the form of packets of
energy, each having a definite value, more than the work function of the metal. This shows that
light is not of wave nature but of particle nature. It is due to this reason that photoelectric
emission was accounted by quantum theory of light.
(i) Packet of energy are called
(1) electron (2) quanta (3) frequency (4) neutron
(ii) One quantum of radiation is called
(1) meter (2) meson (3) photon (4) quark(
(iii) Energy associated with each photon

(1) hc (2) mc (3) h (4) hk

(iv) Which of the following waves can produce photoelectric effect

(1) UV radiation (2) Infrared radiation (3) Radio waves (4) Microwaves
(v) Work function of alkali metals is
(1) less than zero (2) just equal to other metals
(3) greater than other metals (4) quite less than other metals

2. According to de-Broglie a moving material particle sometimes acts as a wave and sometimes as a
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

particle or a wave is associated with moving material particle which controls the particle in every
respect. The wave associated with moving material particle is called matter wave or de-Broglie
wave whose wavelength called de-Broglie wavelength, is given by = h/mv
(i) The dual nature of light is exhibited by
(1) diffraction and photo electric effect (2) photoelectric effect
(3) refraction and interference (4) diffraction and reflection.
(ii) If the momentum of a particle is doubled, then its de-Broglie wavelength will
(1) remain unchanged (2) become four times
(3) become two times (4) become half

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74 Physics
(iii) If an electron and proton are propagating in the form of waves having the same , it implies that
they have the same
(1) energy (2) momentum (3) velocity (4) angular momentum

(iv) Velocity of a body of mass m, having de-Broglie wavelength , is given by relation

(1) v = h/m (2) v = m/h (3) v = /hm (4) v = h/ m

(v) Moving with the same velocity, which of the following has the longest de-Broglie wavelength?

(1) -particle (2) -particle (3) proton (4) neutron

ANSWER KEY
1. (i) (2) (ii) (3) (iii) (3) (iv) (1) (v) (4)
2. (i) (1) (ii) (4) (iii) (2) (iv) (4) (v) (1)

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 CBSE 75

Very short Answer type Questions (1 Marks each)

1. What is the effect on the velocity of the emitted photoelectrons if the wavelength of the incident
light is decreased?
Ans. The velocity of the emitted photoelectrons will increase.
2. How does the maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted vary with the work function of the
metal?
Ans. The maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons decreases, as the work function of the metal
increases.
3. What is the rest mass of a photon?
Ans. Rest mass of a photon is zero.
4. The frequency of the incident light is doubled. What will be the K.E of the electrons emitted?
E k2 2h W0
Ans. 2
E k1 h W0
Therefore, the K.E of the emitted photoelectrons will be slightly less than double.
5. De-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron accelerated through a potential difference V
is . What will be its wavelength when the accelerating potential is increased to 4V?
1
Ans. , On increasing the accelerating potential to 4V de-Broglie wavelength will reduce to
V
half.
6. The work function of copper is 4.0 eV. If two photons, each of energy 2.1 eV strike with some
electrons of copper, will the emission be possible?
Ans. No, because the photoelectric emission takes place only if the energy of each photon is greater
than the work function of the metal surface.
7. How will the photoelectric current change on decreasing the wavelength of incident radiation for
a given photosensitive material?
Ans. The photoelectric current does not depend on the wavelength of incident radiation.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

8. Ultraviolet light is incident on two photosensitive materials having work function W1 and
W2 (W1 > W2). In which case will the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons be greater? Why?
Ans. Einstein’s photoelectric equation KE = h W, since W1 > W2, therefore KE of electrons emitted
from second material will be greater.
9. If the intensity of the incident radiation on a photosensitive surface is doubled, how does the
kinetic energy of the emitted electrons get affected?
Ans. No change in KE because the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons does not depend upon the
intensity of the incident radiation.
10. Two metals M1 and M2 have work function 2 eV and 4 eV respectively. Which of the two has a
higher threshold wavelength for photoelectric emission?
hc 1
Ans. W0 = h 0 = 0
. So metal M1 with lower work function has a higher threshold
0 W0
wavelength.

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76 Physics
11. Are matter waves electromagnetic? What is the momentum of a photon of frequency ?
Ans. No, the matter waves are not electromagnetic waves.
h h
Momentum of a photon =
c
12. How does the maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted vary with the work function of the
metal?
Ans. KE = h W0, the maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons decrease on increasing the work
function of the metal.
13. An electron, an alpha-particle and a proton have the same kinetic energy. Which one of these
particles has the largest de-Broglie wavelength?
h 1
Ans. = as E is same. Since me < mp < m so e
> p
>
2mE m
14. Show graphically how the stopping potential for a given photosensitive surface varies with the
frequency of incident radiations.

V0
Ans. Stopping
potential

0
Frequency

15. The given graphs show the variation of photo electric current (I) with the applied voltage (V) for
two different materials and for two different intensities of the incident radiations. Identify the
pairs of curves that correspond to different materials but same intensity of incident radiations.
I

1
3

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

2
4

Ans. (i) Curves 1 and 3 (ii) curves 2 and 4

16. The de Broglie wavelengths, associated with a proton and a neutron, are found to be equal.
Which of the two has a higher value for kinetic energy?
h 1
Ans. = E as is same. Since mp < mn so Ep > En.
2mE m
17. Red light, however bright it is, Cannot produce the emission of electrons from a clean zinc
surface. But even weak ultraviolet radiation can do so. Why?
Ans. The frequency of ultraviolet radiation is greater and the frequency of red light is less than the
threshold frequency for zinc surface.

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 CBSE 77
18. Electrons are emitted from a photosensitive surface when it is illuminated by green light but
electron emission does not take place by yellow light. Will the electrons be emitted when surface
is illuminated by (i) red light and (ii) blue light?
Ans. (i) As R
< y
, the electron emission does not take place by red light.
(ii) As B
> , the electron emission takes place by blue light.
G

19. Does the stopping potential in photoelectric emission depend upon (i) the intensity of the incident
radiation in a photocell? (ii) the frequency of the incident radiation?
Ans. (i) The stopping potential does not depend upon the intensity.
(ii) The stopping potential increases linearly with frequency.

Short Answer Type Questions-I (2 Marks each)

20. If the intensity of light falling on the emitting substance of a photoelectric cell be increased then
what will be the effect on (i) Current flowing from the cell (ii) potential difference required to
stop the current completely?
Ans. (i) As the intensity of incident light increases, the number of photoelectrons emitted per
second and therefore the photoelectric current will increase.
(ii) As the stopping potential is independent of the intensity of incident light therefore it
remains unchanged.
21. Light of the two different frequencies, whose photons have energies 1 eV and 2.5 eV respectively,
successively illuminated a metal whose work function is 0.5 eV. What will be the ratio of the
maximum speeds of the emitted electrons?
1 2
mv1 h
E w0 (1 0.5) 1.6 10 19
Ans. k1 2 1

E k 2 1 mv 2 h 2 w0 (2.5 0.5) 1.6 10 19

2 2
v12 1 v1 1
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

v 22 4 v2 2
22. What is meant by work function of a metal? How does the value of work function influence the
K.E of electron emitted during photoelectric emission?
Ans. Work function of a metal is the minimum amount of energy required to draw an electron from
the metal surface without giving any velocity to it.
According to Einstein photoelectric equation,
Ek max = h – w0
For a given frequency of incident radiation, the metal having lower work function has more
K.E of emitted photoelectrons.
23. Define the term threshold frequency and stopping potential for photoelectric effect. Show
graphically, how the stopping potential for a given metal, varies with frequency of incident
radiation. Mark threshold frequency on the graph.
Ans. Threshold Frequency :- It is the minimum frequency, required by the photons so that they can
just emit the photoelectrons from the metal surface.

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78 Physics
Stopping Potential :- It is the minimum value of negative potential applied between emitter and
collector for which no photoelectron reaches to collector is called stopping potential.

Stopping
potential
VS

0 Frequency ( )
24. A particle is moving three times as fast as an electron. The ratio of the de-Broglie wavelength of
the particle to that of the electron is 1.813 × 10 4. Calculate the particle mass and identify the
particle.
h p me ve
Ans.
mv e m p vp
me ve
1.813 × 10–4 = mp = 1.663 × 10–27 kg
m p (3v e )
The given particle is either a neutron or a proton.
25. When light of wavelength 400 nm is incident on the cathode of a photocell, stopping potential is 1.5
V. If wavelength of the incident light increases to 600 nm, calculate the new stopping potential.
Ans. If stopping potential is 1.5 V, then maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons will be 1.5 eV.
By using Einstein’s equation
hc 1240 eV nm
k max1 w0 1.5 w0
1 400 nm
Here (hc = 1240 eV–nm)
1.5 = 3.1 – w0 w0 = 1.6 eV

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

hc
New stopping potential k max2 w0
2

1240 eV nm
k max2 w0 k max2 = 2.1 – 1.6 = 0.5 eV
600 nm
So, stopping potential will be 0.5 V.
26. Two metals X and Y when illuminated with appropriate radiation emit photoelectrons. The work
function of X is higher than that of Y. Which metal will have higher value of threshold frequency
and why?
Ans. The work function of a metal is given by 0
=h 0

where 0
is threshold frequency. Since work function of metal X is higher, it will also have
higher value of the threshold frequency.

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 CBSE 79
27. An electron and a proton are moving in the same direction and possess some Kinetic energy.
Find the ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths associated with these particles.
h e
mp
Ans. 41.93
2mE p me
28. Draw the variation of maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons with the frequency of
incident radiation on a photosensitive surface. On the graph drawn what do the following
indicate- (i) Slope of the graph (ii) Intercept on energy axis.

KEmax

A
O
0
W0 B

OB W0 h 0
Ans. (i) Slope of graph = tan = h (Planck’s constant).
OA 0 0

(ii) Intercept on energy axis (OB) gives the value of work function in joule.
29. Find the values of (i) threshold frequency and (ii) work function from the graph.

KE
(eV)

4
O 4 10 20 × 10 Hz

Ans. (i) 0
= 4 × 104 Hz
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

(ii) work function 0 = h 0.

h = 6.62 × 10– 34 J–s = 4.14 × 10–15 eV–s
0
= 4.14 × 10–15 × 4 × 104 = 165 Å
30. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted from a photosensitive surface of
work function 3.2eV, for the incident radiation of wavelength 300nm.
hc
Ans. KE max h 0 – 0
= 4.13 – 3.2 = 0.93 eV

31. The work function of lithium is 2.3 eV. What does it mean? What is the relation between the
work function and threshold wavelength?
Ans. It means that the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the surface of lithium is
hc
2.3eV. Work function 0
= h 0= where 0
= Threshold wavelength
0

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80 Physics
m 2m
32. A nucleus of mass M initially at rest Splits into two fragments of masses and (M > m).
3 3
Find the ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths of these.
Ans. From the law of conservation of linear momentum p 1 p2 0 | p1 | | p2 |
h 1 p2
As i.e. 1
p 2 p1
33. Calculate the ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths associated with a deuteron moving with velocity 2v
and an alpha particle moving with velocity v.
h h h h h h d
Ans. d and 1
p 2m 2v 4mv p 4m v 4mv
34. The following table gives the values of work function for a few photo sensitive metals
S. No. Metal Work Function (eV)
1. Na 1.92
2. K 2.15
3. Mo 4.17
If each of these metals is exposed to radiations of wavelength 300 nm, which of them will not
emit photo electrons and why?
hc
Ans. Energy of photon = = 4.16 eV. Mo will not emit photo electrons because the energy of

incident photon is less than the work function of Mo.

35. By how much would the stopping potential for a given photosensitive surface go up if the
frequency of the incident radiations were to be increased from 4 × 1015 Hz to 8 × 1015Hz?
Given h = 6.4 × 10–34 J-s, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C and C = 3 × 108 ms–1.
Ans. eV01 = h 1 0
and eV02 = h 2
– 0

e(V02 – V01) = h( 2
– )
1

h
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx
V02 – V01 = ( 2
– ) = 16 V.
1
e
Short Answer Type Questions-II (3 Marks each)
36. Draw a graph showing the variation of stopping potential with frequency of the incident
radiation. What does the slope of the line with frequency axis and Intercept on stopping potential
axis indicate?
Ans. According to the Einstein’s photoelectric equation Kmax = h – 0

If V0 is the stopping potential, then Kmax = e V0

e V0 = h – 0

h 0
V0 = .....(1)
e e

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 CBSE 81
Compare this equation with the straight line equation
y = mx + c
It follows from equation (1) that V0 versus graph is a straight line as shown in following figure.

Stopping A
potential
(V0)
> 0
C
B
0

0 Frequency of incident radiation ( )

h
Clearly from the graph of V0 versus , slope =
e
To determine the slope, take two points A and B on the straight line graph, then
AC h
m tan
BC e
AC
h=e×
BC
h = e × slope of V0 – graph
0
Moreover the intercept on vertical axis = –
e
0
= e × magnitude of the intercept on vertical axis
37. Define the terms threshold frequency and stopping potential. How is the photoelectric current
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

affected on increasing the (1) frequency (2) intensity of the incident radiations and why?
Ans. Threshold Frequency :- It is the minimum frequency, required by the photons so that they can
just emit the photoelectrons from the metal surface.
Stopping Potential :- It is the minimum value of negative potential applied between emitter and
collector for which no photoelectron reaches collector is called stopping potential.
The photoelectric current is independent of frequency and directly proportional to the intensity of
incident light.
38. Sketch the graphs showing the variation of stopping potential with frequency of Incident
radiations for two photosensitive material A and B having threshold frequencies 01 02

respectively. (i) Which of the two materials A or B have higher work function? (ii) What
information do you get from the slope of the graphs? (iii)What does the value of the intercept of
graph on the potential axis represent?

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82 Physics
Ans. (i) 0
=h 0 0 0

Since 02 01 , material B has higher

work function.
A B
V0

v01 v02 v

h 0
(ii) eV0 = h – 0
V0 =
e e
h
Slope of both graphs is same and equal to .
e
0
(iii) Intercept on the potential axis is (where = work function in eV).
e
39. An electromagnetic wave of wavelength is incident on a photosensitive surface of negligible
work function. If the photoelectrons emitted from this surface have the de-Broglie wavelength 1
,
2mc 2
prove that 1 .
h
Ans. From Einstein’s photoelectric equation, KE of photoelectron

1 2 hc 2hmc
mv h 0 h 0 mv
2

h h 2mc 2
de-Broglie wavelength of photoelectron 1 1
mv 2mc h

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40. Neutrons, in thermal equilibrium with matter at a temperature T Kelvin, are known to have an
3
average kinetic energy of kT. Compute the de-Broglie wavelength associated with a neutron
2
at 300 Kelvin.
3
Ans. E = kT, T = 300 K de-Broglie wavelength associated with a neutron
2
h h
= = 0.145 nm
2mE 3mkT
41. Why is de- Broglie waves associated with a moving football not visible?
The wavelength , of a photon and the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron have the same
value. Show that the energy of the photon is 2 mc/h times the kinetic energy of the electron.

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 CBSE 83
Ans. Due to large mass of football the wavelength of de-Broglie waves associated with it is very small
and beyond the measurement.
h h
de-Broglie wavelength of electron p
p
p2 h2
Kinetic energy of electron = 2
,
2m 2m
hc
Energy of the photon =

2
Energy of photon hc 2m 2 mc
kinetic energy of electron h2 h
2 mc
Energy of the photon = × Kinetic energy of electron.
h
42. The work function of caesium is 2.14 eV. Find (i) the threshold frequency for caesium and
(ii) the wavelength of incident light if the photocurrent is brought to zero by a stopping potential
of 0.60 V.

Ans. (i) 0
=h 0 0
= 0
= 5.16 × 1014 Hz
h
hc hc
(ii) eV0 = h – 0
= – 0
= = 453.7 nm.
eV0 0

43. Mention the significance of Davisson-Germer experiment. An -particle and a proton are
accelerated from rest through the same potential difference V. Find the ratio of de-Broglie
wavelength associated with them.
Ans. Davisson-Germer experiment established the wave nature of moving matter particle. de-Broglie
h
wavelength of proton P
2m P eV
h h h
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

de-Broglie wavelength of -particle =

2m qV 2(4m p )2eV 16m p eV
1
p 2 2
44. Define the term work function of a metal. The threshold frequency of a metal is 0
.When the light
of frequency 2 0
is incident on the metal plate, the maximum velocity of electrons emitted is v1.
When the light of frequency 5 0
is incident on the metal plate, the maximum velocity of electrons
emitted is v2. Find the ratio of v1 and v2.
Ans. The minimum energy required by an electron to escape from the metal surface called the work
function of the metal. The work function depends on the properties of the metal and the nature of
its surface.

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1 2
From Einstein’s photoelectric equation, KE of photoelectrons mv h h 0
2
1 2
mv1 h(2 0 ) h 0 h 0
2
1 2 v1 1
and mv2 h(5 0 ) h 0 4h 0
2 v2 2
45. A source of light of frequency > 0 is placed at 2m from the cathode of a photocell. The
stopping potential is found to be V0. If the distance of the light source is halved, state with reason
what changes occur in – (i) Stopping potential (ii) photoelectric current and (iii) maximum
velocity of photoelectrons emitted.
1
Ans. Intensity I . If the distance of the light source from the cathode is halved, the intensity of
d2
incident radiation increases (four times).
(i) Stopping potential is independent of the intensity, so it remains same.
(ii) Photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light, so it increases
(four times).
(iii) Maximum velocity of photoelectrons emitted is independent of the intensity, so it remains
same.
46. What is the momentum of photon of energy 2.4 eV in kg ms–1?
19
E 2.4 1.6 10 27 1
Ans. p 1.28 10 kgms
c 3 108
47. What will be the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron of energy 100 eV?
Ek 100eV
Ans. eV = Ek V= 100V
e e
12.27
Å 1.227Å

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

V
48. If the maximum K.E of electrons emitted in a photocell is 3 eV, what is the stopping potential?
Ek
Ans. Vs = = 3V.
e
49. Two metals A and B have work functions 2 eV and 4 eV respectively. Which of the two metals
has a smaller threshold wavelength?
hc
Ans. W0 = h 0
or W0 =
0

hc
0
=
W0

Metal B, having higher work function has smaller threshold wavelength.

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50. What is the de-Broglie wavelength of an atom at absolute temperature T?
h h
Ans.
2mE k 3
2m kT
2

h 1
3mkT T
51. What is photoelectric effect? Why it can’t be explained on the basis of wave nature of light?
Ans. When light of suitable frequency is incident on a metal surface, then photoelectrons are emitted.
This effect is called photoelectric effect.
According to wave theory, when intensity of incident radiation increases, free electrons should be
able to absorb more energy and K.Emax of the photoelectrons should increase. However, it is not
experimentally verified.
52. Show that the de-Broglie wavelength of the electrons of energy E is given by the relation
h
.
2mE

1 2 2E
Ans. E = mv v
2 m

h h E
But v =
m m m
h
2mE
53. State laws of photoelectric effect. Establish Einstein’s photoelectric relation. Explain the laws of
photoelectric emission on the basis of this relation.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

Ans. Refer to the theory of this chapter.

54. Write Einstein photoelectric equation and use it to explain:
(i) Independence of maximum energy of emitted photoelectrons from intensity of incident light,
(ii) Existence of threshold frequency for emission of photoelectrons.
1
Ans. K.Emax = mv 2max h 0
2
(i) Number of photoelectrons emitted per second from a metal surface depends on the number
of photons incident on that surface in one second. If intensity of the incident radiations in
increased therefore the number of photoelectrons emitted increases.
Therefore K.Emax is independent of the incident lights intensity.
(ii) If < , K.Emax is negative which is impossible.
0

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55. Radiations of frequencies 1 and 2 are made to fall in turn on a photosensitive surface. The
stopping potential required for stopping the most energetic photoelectrons in the two cases are V1
and V2 respectively. Obtain a formula for determining the Plank’s constant and threshold
frequency in terms of these parameters.
Ans. eV1 = h 1
h 0
…(i)
eV2 = h 2
h 0
…(ii)
Solve equation (i) and (ii) to obtain h and .
0

56. An electron, alpha particle and a proton have the same K.E. Which of these particles has the
shortest de-Broglie wavelength?
p2 h h2
Ans. As Ek mv 2 & Ek = 2
2 2m p 2m
h2 h2
Therefore K.E of an electron EKe 2
& E Kp 2
2m e e 2m p p

But Ekp = Eke

h2 h2 e
mp
2 2
2m e e 2m p p p me

But mp > me e
> p

i.e. wavelength of electron is more than wavelength of proton . Similarly we can show that a p
> .
i.e. wavelength of electron is largest and that of alpha particle is shortest.
1
57. The two lines A and B shows in the graph plot the de-Broglie wavelength as a function of
V
for two particles having the same charge. Which of the two represents the particle of heavier
mass?
B

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

A

h h 1
Ans. = V V
2mqV 2mq m
1
Slope of graph V
m
As the slope of line A is smaller than that of line B. Hence the line A represents the particle of
heavier mass.

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 CBSE 87
58. Ultraviolet light of wavelength 2271 Å from a 100 W mercury source radiates a photocell made
of molybdenum metal. If the stopping potential is 1.3V, estimate the work function of the metal.
How would the photo-cell respond to high intensity red light of wavelength 6328 Å produced by
He-Ne laser? Plot a graph showing the variation of photoelectric current with anode potential for
two light beams of same wavelength but different intensity.
hc hc
Ans. eV0 = h – 0
= – 0 0
= – eV0 0
= 4.2eV

hc hc 12400 eV Å
0 0 0 = 2952 Å
0 0 4.2 eV
Wavelength of red light is 6328 Å, which is greater then threshold wavelength. For pothoelectric
emission 0
.
So it will not show PEE.
Photocurrent

I2 > I1
I2
I1

Slopping potential

–V0 0 Collector plate

Retarding potential potential

59. The given graphs show the variation of the stopping potential V0 with the frequency ( ) of the
incident radiations for two different photosensitive materials M1 and M2.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx

(i) What are the values of work functions for M1 and M2 ?

(ii) The values of the stopping potential for M1 and M2 for a frequency 3
> 02 of the incident
V1 V2
radiations are V1 and V2 respectively. Show that the slope of the lines equals .
02 01

M1 M2

V0

01 01

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88 Physics
Ans. (i) Work functions for M1 is h 01
and for M2 is h 02
.
CB V V1
(ii) Slope of the lines = = 2 .
AC 02 01

M1 M2
V2 B
V0

A
V1 C

01 02 3

60. For photoelectric effect in sodium, fig. shows the plot of cut-off voltage versus frequency of
incident radiation. Calculate:
(1) The threshold frequency.
(2) The work function of sodium.
(3) Plank’s constant
cut-off voltage (ln Volts)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

frequency (ln Hz) × 1014

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter.docx
Ans. (i) From the given graph, threshold frequencies is 0
= 4.5 × 1014 Hz
(ii) Work function of the metal is W0 = h 0
= 6.6 × 10–34 × 4.5 × 1014 = 2.97 × 10–19 J = 1.86 eV
(iii) Using Einstein’s photoelectric equation, eV = h – W0
On differentiating, we get e V = h
V 34
h= e 7.2 10 J s

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UNIT-VIII : ATOMS AND NUCLEI

CHAPTER – 12 : ATOMS

RUTHERFORD'S ALPHA-PARTICLE SCATTERING (Discovery of atomic nucleus)

Fig.1 shows Rutherford's apparatus to investigate the scattering of -particles. Alpha-particles
214
emitted by a 83 Bi radioactive source were collimated into a narrow beam by their passage
through lead bricks. The beam was allowed to fall on a thin foil of gold of thickness 2.1 × 10–7 m.
The scattered alpha-particles were observed through a rotatable detector consisting of zinc
sulphide screen and a microscope. The scattered alpha- particles on striking the screen produced
brief light flashes or scintillations. These flashes may be viewed through a microscope and
counted at different angles from the direction of incidence of beam. The angle of the deviation
of -particles from its original direction is called its scattering angle.

-particle

-particle

Fig.1
The graph between the total number of -particles N ( ) scattered at angle and the scattering
angle is shown in Fig.2.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

y
N( )

O x
0 90° 180°

Fig.2

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90 Physics
From the graph we conclude that -
(i) A very few -particles were scattered at angles greater than 90°. Some even bounced
straight back; a deflection of 180°.
(ii) Some of the -particles were deflected through small angles i.e. scattering angle (angle
between the incident particle and the scattered one) was small.
(iii) Most of the -particles passed straight way through the gold sheet with no change of
direction.
Conclusions:
Rutherford made the following conclusions from the scattering of -particles:
(i) The large angle scattering of -particles could happen, Rutherford reasoned, only if the
positively charged -particles were being repelled by a massive positive charge concentrated
in a very small region of space. Therefore, Rutherford proposed that:

Fig.3
(a) An atom has a tiny positively charged core (now called the nucleus) which contains most of
the mass (99.9%) of the atom.
(b) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons some distance away. The electrons are moving in
orbits about the nucleus - much like the planets move around the sun - because if they were
at rest, they would fall into the nucleus due to electrical attraction.
(c) As the atom is electrically neutral, the total positive charge on the nucleus is equal to the
total negative charge of the electrons in the atom.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

DISTANCE OF CLOSEST APPROACH (SIZE OF NUCLEUS)

The smallest distance between the nucleus and -particle fired for head on collision towards the
nucleus is called the distance of closest approach (r0).
To calculate the nuclear dimensions from the scattering experiment. Rutherford assumed the
following points
(i) Since the nucleus of gold is about 50 times heavier than a -particle, it is reasonable to
assume that it remains stationary throughout the scattering process.
(ii) The scattering is due to elastic collision between nucleus and -particle.

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 CBSE 91

-particle

Nucleus
r0

Suppose a -particle is directed towards the centre of the nucleus of an atom as shown in Fig.
The -particle slows down and then comes to a momentary stop at a distance r0 from the nucleus
before it begins to move back along its original path. When the -particle is outside the atom, the
electric potential energy of the system is zero because the atom is neutral and does not produce
any external electric field.
But once the -particle passes through the region of electron orbits on its way towards the
nucleus, it experiences a repulsive force due to the positive charge on the nucleus.
Consequently, the -particle starts slowing down. As the -particle slows down, its kinetic
energy starts transferring into electric potential energy of the system. The transfer is complete
when the -particle stops momentarily. At this point, the distance of the -particle from the
nucleus is r0 and its entire kinetic energy is transferred to the electric potential energy of the
system. The -particle now retraces its path.

Mathematical expression for r0

Let m = mass of the -particle
v = initial velocity of the -particle
q1 = charge on -particle (+2e)
q2 = charge on the nucleus (= +Ze)
Ze
Electric potential at distance r0 due to the nucleus =
4 0 0 r
Ze
Potential energy of -particle at this distance r0 from the nucleus = 2e
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

4 0 0 r
1 2
Kinetic energy of -particle of mass m moving with velocity v is E m
2
At the distance of closest approach, K.E. = P.E
1 2Ze 2
mv 2
2 4 0 r0
2Ze 2
r0 …. (1)
1
4 0 mv2
2

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92 Physics
In original experiment K.E. of -particle = 5.5 MeV = 5.5 × 1.6 × 10–13J
Z = 79 for gold, e = 1.6 × 10–19C
From equation (1)
9 109 2 79 (1.6 10 19 2
)
r0
8.8 10 13
r0 = 4.13 × 10–14 metre
r0 = 41.3 fermi
Therefore radius of gold nucleus must be less than 41.3 fermi

IMPACT PARAMETER
The impact parameter is the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector of the -particle
from the centre of the nucleus (Fig 5).

-particle (+2e)

b
+Ze
Nucleus
Fig.5
1
For large impact parameters, force experienced by -particles is weak because F
(distance)2
Rutherford found mathematically the relation between impact parameter b and the scattering
angle as:
Ze 2 cot / 2
b
1
4 0 mv 2
2
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

RUTHERFORD'S MODEL OF ATOM

The essential features of this model are:
(i) Every atom consists of a tiny central core, called the nucleus which contains all of the atom's
positive charge and most of its mass (99.9%). Therefore, -particle travelling close to the
nucleus (i.e. impact parameter b is small) will have large scattering angle. Thus Rutherford's
model explains large angle scattering of -particles.
(ii) The radius of the nucleus is of the order of 10–15 m and that of the atom is of the order of 10–10 m.
Therefore, the nucleus occupies only a small portion of the available space.

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 CBSE 93
(iii) The electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus. Since an atom is electrically neutral, the
positive charge on the nucleus is equal to the negative charge on the electrons.
(iv) Electrons are not stationary but revolve around the nucleus in circular paths. In this way
Rutherford provided stability to the atom. It is because now the force of attraction between
the electrons and the nucleus provided the necessary centripetal force to the revolving
electrons.

e m
F

+Ze
+
Nucleus r

Electron

Fig.6
Let e = charge on electron
Z = total number of protons in the nucleus
m = mass of the electron
r = distance of electron from the nucleus
v = linear velocity of the electron
Ze = Charge on the nucleus
Force of attraction between electron and nucleus
(Ze)e Ze 2
F
4 0r2 4 0r 2
This force of attraction between the electrons and the nucleus provided the necessary centripetal
force to the revolving electrons
Ze 2 mv2
4 0r 2 r

SUCCESS OF THE MODEL

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

(i) It could explain large angle scattering of -particle through thin gold foil.
(ii) It justified the classification of elements in the periodic table on the basis of their atomic number.

LIMITATIONS OR DRAWBACKS
(i) According to Maxwell's theory of electro-magnetism, a charge that is accelerating radiates
energy as electromagnetic waves. The electron moving around the nucleus is under constant
acceleration and, therefore, it should continuously lose energy. Due to this continuous loss of
energy, the electrons in Rutherford's model was bound to spiral towards the nucleus and fall into
it when all of their rotational energy were radiated [See Fig.7].

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94 Physics
Hence, Rutherford's atomic model cannot be stable while in actual practice, an atom is stable.
This shows that Rutherford's model is not correct.

Fig.7
(ii) During inward spiraling, the electron's angular frequency continuously increases. As a result,
electrons will radiate electromagnetic waves of all frequencies i.e. the spectrum of these waves
will be continuous in nature because there is continuous loss of energy. But this is contrary to
observation. Experiments show that an atom emits line spectra and each line corresponds to a
particular frequency/wavelength. But Rutherford's model fails to explain the line spectra. Thus
the Rutherford model failed to account for the stability of the atom. It was also unable to explain
the emission of line spectra.

BOHR MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

The followings are the basic postulates of Bohr's model
(i) The electrons in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without the emission of radiant
energy.
(ii) The electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular momentum is
integral multiple of h/2 where h is the Planck's constant (= 6.6 × 10–34 J s). Thus the angular
momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is quantized. That is L = nh/2 .
(iii) The radiation of energy occurs only when an electron jumps from one permitted orbit to another.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

The difference in the total energy of electron in the two permitted orbits is absorbed when the
electron jumps from inner to the outer orbit and emitted when electron jumps from outer to the
inner orbit. Suppose an electron jumps from a higher orbit of energy E2 to a lower orbit of energy
E1. According to Bohr, the atom will release energy E2 – E1 in the form of electromagnetic
radiation. The frequency f of the emitted radiation is given by Planck's law as :
E2 – E1 = hf

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 CBSE 95
BOHR'S THEORY OF HYDROGEN ATOM
Consider an electron revolving around the nucleus in the nth stationary orbit as shown in Fig. 8
n
Let e = charge on electron
m = mass of electron
rn = radius of the nth orbit rn

Z = number of positive charges (or protons) +Ze

vn = velocity of the electron in the nth orbit

1. Radii of Bohr's stationary orbits : Fig.8

The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus of charge (Ze) and electrons of
charge (-e) is
(Ze)e Ze 2
F
4 0 rn2 4 0 rn2
This force of attraction between the electrons and the nucleus provided the necessary centripetal
force to the revolving electrons
Ze 2 mv2n
….(1)
4 0 rn2 rn
nh
According to Bohr's theory, angular momentum (i.e. mvn rn) of electron is equal to
2
nh
i.e. mvnrn =
2
nh
vn ....(2)
(2 )mrn
Substituting this value in equation (1)
Ze 2 mn 2 h 2
4 0 rn2 (4 2 )m 2 rn3
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

0n 2h 2 0h2 n2
rn rn ….(3)
Zme2 me 2 Z

(8.85 10 12 )(6.62 10 34 )2 n 2 10 n2
rn (0.53 10 ) meter
3.14 9.1 10 31 (1.6 10 19 )2 Z Z
For hydrogen atom Z = 1,
rn = 0.53n2 Å
rn n2

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Hence radii of different orbits are directly proportional to the square of n. In other words, the
radii are in the ratio of 12, 22, 32, 42 ... i.e. in the ratio 1 : 4 : 9 : 16 ... It may be noted that the
orbits are not equally spaced.
For first orbit of hydrogen atom
i.e. n = 1
r = 0.53 Å

2. Velocity of electron in the stationary orbits:

From equation (2) velocity of electron in the nth orbit
nh
vn = ....(4)
(2 )mrn
Substituting the value of rn from equation (3) in equation (4)
nh mZe2
vn 2 2
....(5)
(2 )m 0n h

Ze 2
vn
2 0 nh
For hydrogen atom, Z = 1
e2
vn ....(6)
2 0 nh
3. Frequency of electron in stationary orbits: The number of revolutions completed per second
by the electron in a stationary orbit around the nucleus is called frequency of the electron.
It is denoted by f.
We know that
Vn = rn n
= rn2 fn
Ze 2
fn ....(7)
4 0 nhrn
For hydrogen atom Z = 1
e2
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

fn ....(8)
4 0 nhrn
For n = 1, r1 = 0.53 × 10–10 m.
Frequency of electron in the first orbit of hydrogen atom is

e2
f1
4 0 hr1

9 109 (1.6 10 19 )2
f1 = 6.57 1015 rps
6.62 10 34 0.53 10 10

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 CBSE 97
4. Total energy of electron in the stationary orbits:
The electron revolving around the nucleus has both electric potential energy (due to its position
w.r.t. the nucleus) and kinetic energy (due to its motion) i.e.
Total energy of electron in nth orbit, En = P.E. + K.E.
Ze 2 Ze 2 Zme 2 mZ 2e 4
P.E. of electron in the nth orbit =
4 0 rn 4 0 0 n2h 2 4 20 n 2 h 2
1 1 Z2e 4 mZ2e 4
K.E. of electron in the nth orbit = mv 2n m 2 2 2
2 2 4 0n h 8 02 n 2 h 2
En = P.E. + K.E.
mZ2e4 mZ2e 4 mZ 2e 4
En = En
4 20 n 2h 2 8 02 n 2 h 2 8 20 n 2 h 2
Z2 21.7 10 19 Z 2
En = –21.7 × 10–19 joule En eV
n2 1.6 10 19 n2
13.6Z2
En eV ….(9)
n2
For hydrogen atom Z = l
13.6
En eV ….(10)
n2
The total energy of the electron is negative. This implies the fact that the electron is bound to the
nucleus. If E were positive, an electron will not follow a closed orbit around the nucleus.
When n , E = 0 and the electron becomes free. Thus energy is required to remove an
electron from the atom, this is called ionisation energy. The ionisation energy of hydrogen atom
has been measured to be 13.6 eV and this corresponds precisely to removing the electron from
the lowest state E1 = - 13.6 eV to E = 0 where it will be free.
Spectral Series
The whole hydrogen spectrum can be divided into distinct groups of lines, each group of lines is
called spectral series.
When an electron jumps from a higher orbit (n2) to the lower orbit (n1), the energy difference
between the two orbits is released because the energy of electron in the higher orbit is more than
in the lower orbit. Consider two orbits having principal quantum numbers n2 and n1 where n2 > n1
[See Fig.9].
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

n2
hf
n1

Fig.9

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98 Physics
Then energy of electron in the two orbits is given by;
mZ2e 4
E n2
8 02n22h2
mZ2e 4
E n1
8 0 2 n12 h 2
The frequency f of the emitted radiation is given by ;
En2 – En1 = h f
mZ2e 4 mZ2e 4
hf
8 02 n 22 h 2 8 02 n12 h 2

mZ2e 4 1 1
f
8 0 h 3 n12 n 22

c mZ2 e4 1 1 c
f
8 0 h 3 n12 n 22

1 mZ2e 4 1 1
8c 0 h 3 n12 n 22

1 1 1 me 4
RZ2 ...(1) R
n12 n 22 8c 0 h3
R is a constant called the Rydberg constant, The value of R is 1.097 × 107 m–1
For hydrogen atom Z =1
1 1 1
R ...(2)
n12 n 22
This equation is known as Rydberg formula for the spectrum of hydrogen atom. The various
spectral series of hydrogen atom are represented as below:

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

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1. Lyman series: The Lyman series is obtained when electrons jump to first orbit (n1 = 1) from
outer orbits (n2 = 2, 3, 4, ...). Therefore, the formula for calculating the wavelengths of the lines

1 1 1
in this series is R
(1)2 n 22

This series lies in the ultraviolet region which is the invisible region.
2. Balmer series: The Balmer series is obtained when electrons jump to second orbit (n1 = 2) from
outer orbits (n2 = 3, 4, 5 ...). Therefore, the formula for calculating the wavelengths of the lines in
1 1 1
this series is R
(2)2 n 22

This series lies in the visible spectrum and was found first of all in the hydrogen series.
3. Paschen series: The Paschen series is obtained when electrons jump to third orbit (n1 = 3) from
outer orbits (n2 = 4, 5, 6 ...). Therefore, the formula for calculating the wavelengths of the lines in
1 l l
this series is R
(3) 2 n 22

This series lies in the infrared region.

4. Brackett series: The Brackett series is obtained when electrons jump to fourth orbit (n1 = 4)
from outer orbits (n2 = 5, 6, 7 ...). Therefore, the formula for calculating the wavelengths of the lines
1 1 1
in this series is R
(4)2 n 22

This series lies in the infrared region.

5. Pfund series: The Pfund series is obtained when electrons jump to fifth orbit (n1 = 5) from outer
orbits (n2 = 6, 7, 8 ...). Therefore, the formula for calculating the wavelengths of the lines in this

l 1 1
series is R
(5)2 n 22
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

This series lies in the infrared region.

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM OR THE LINE SPECTRA OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

A diagram which represents the total energies of electron in different stationary orbits of an atom
by the parallel horizontal lines is called energy level diagram.
Total energy of an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom is given by:
13.6
En = – eV
n2

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100 Physics

By substituting the value of n, we can find the energy of electron of hydrogen atom in any orbit.
Table below gives the energy of electron of hydrogen atom in different orbits.
S. No. Orbits (n) Energy of Electron (En)
1 n=1 – 13.6 eV
2 n=2 – 3.4 eV
3 n=3 – 1.51 eV
4 n=4 – 0.85 eV
5 n=5 – 0.54 eV
6 n=6 – 0.38 eV
........
........
........
n= 0 eV

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The various lines in the atomic spectra are produced when electrons jump from higher energy
state to a lower energy state and photons are emitted. These spectral lines are called emission lines.
But when an atom absorbs a photon that has precisely the same energy needed by the electron in
a lower energy state to make transitions to a higher energy state, this process is called absorption.

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 CBSE 101
LIMITATIONS OF BOHR'S THEORY
The following are some of the limitations of Bohr's theory
(i) Bohr's model is applicable to simplest atoms like hydrogen with Z = 1. It fails for other elements
(ii) This theory does not explain the fine structure of spectral lines in the hydrogen atom.
(iii) It could not explain the difference in the intensities of emitted radiations.
(iv) It does not take into account the wave properties of electrons.
(v) Bohr's model does not explain why the orbits are circular while elliptical orbits are also possible.
de Broglie's hypothesis that electrons have a wavelength = h/mv gave an explanation for Bohr's
quantized orbits by bringing in the wave particle duality. The orbits correspond to circular
standing waves in which the circumference of the orbit equals a whole number of wavelengths.
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102 Physics

EXERCISE-1

1. If the time period of revolution of electron in first orbit of H-atom be T the time period of
electron in second orbit will be -
(A) T (B) 2T (C) 4T (D) 8T
Ans. (D) 8T
2. In which of the following transition will the wavelength be minimum?
(A) n = 5 to n = 4 (B) n = 4 to n = 3 (C) n = 3 to n = 2 (D) n = 2 to n = 1
Ans. (D) n = 2 to n = 1
3. When a hydrogen atom is excited from its ground state to fourth orbit, the maximum number of
spectral line that can be emitted is-
(A) 6 (B) 4 (C) 3 (D) 1
Ans. (A) 6
4. In the first orbit of hydrogen atom speed of electron is :
(A) 2 × 104 m/s (B) 2 × 105 m/s (C) 2 × 106 m/s (D) 2 × 107 m/s
Ans. (C) 2 × 106 m/s
5. Match the column :-
Column (A) Column (B)
(a) Fission in atom bomb (i) Uncontrolled chain reaction
(b) Fusion (ii) Controlled chain reaction
(c) Atom Bomb (iii) Binding energy per nucleon
(d) Radioactivity (iv) No radioactive pollution
(e) Stability criteria (v) Henry Becquerel
Ans. Column (A) Column (B)
(a) Fission in atom bomb [ii] (i) Uncontrolled chain reaction
(b) Fusion [iv] (ii) Controlled chain reaction
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(c) Atom Bomb [i] (iii) Binding energy per nucleon

(d) Radioactivity [v] (iv) No radioactive pollution
(e) Stability criteria [iii] (v) Henry Becquerel
6. Calculate the frequency of the photon, which can excite the electron to –3.4 eV from –13.6 eV
Ans. = 2.47 × 1015 Hz., Using E=h
7. If a is radius of first Bohr orbit in hydrogen atom. What is the radius of the third orbit.
Ans. r n2 , so radius of third orbit = 9a.

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 CBSE 103
8. The first line of the Lyman series in the hydrogen spectrum has wavelength 1200 Å . Calculate
the wavelength of the second line.

Ans. 1012.5 Å, using Rydberg formula.

9. Write full form for LASER .

Ans. Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

10. A hydrogen atom initially in the ground state absorbs a photon, which excites it to the n = 4 level.
Determine the wavelength and frequency of photon.

Ans. 970 Å, 3.090 × 1015 Hz. using Rydberg formula.

11. The total energy of an electron in the first excited state of hydrogen atom is –3.4eV what is its
K.E. ? What is its potential energy ?

Ans. K.E. = 3.4 eV , P.E. = - 6.8 eV

12. Write any one limitation of Rutherford's model.

Ans. It could not explain, why atoms emit light of only discrete wavelengths and unable to explain
stability of an atom.

13. Mention any two shortcomings of Bohr's model.

Ans. (i) It is applicable to hydrogen like atoms only which have one electron only.
(ii) This model is unable to explain the relative intensities of the frequencies in the spectrum.

14. Why it is difficult to detect the presence of a neutron ?

Ans. Neutron do not have any charge, so it does not interact with other particles.
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104 Physics

EXERCISE-2

Instructions:
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and the Reason is the correct explanation of the
Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but Reason is not the correct explanation of the
Assertion.
(c) If Assertion is true but Reason is false.
(d) If the Assertion and Reason both are false.
(e) If Assertion is false but Reason is true.

1. Assertion : The force of repulsion between atomic nucleus and -particle varies with distance
according to inverse square law.
Reason : Rutherford did -particle scattering experiment.
Ans. (b)
Explanation : Rutherford confirmed the repulsive force on -particle due to nucleus varies with
distance according to inverse square law and that the positive charges are concentrated at the
centre and not distributed throughout the atom.

2. Assertion : The positively charged nucleus of an atom has a radius of almost 10–15 m.
Reason : In -particle scattering experiment, the distance of closest approach for -particles is
10–15m
Ans. (a)
Explanation : In -particle scattering experiment, Rutherford found a small number of -particles
which were scattered back through an angle approaching to 180°. This is possible only if the
positive charges are concentrated at the centre or nucleus of the atom.

3. Assertion : According to classical theory, the proposed path of an electron in Rutherford atom
model will be parabolic.
Reason : According to electromagnetic theory an accelerated particle continuously emits
radiation.
Ans. (e)
Explanation : According to classical electromagnetic theory, an accelerated charge continuously emits
radiation. As electrons revolving in circular paths are constantly experiencing centripetal
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

acceleration, hence they will be losing their energy continuously and the orbital radius will go on
decreasing and form spiral and finally the electron will fall on the nucleus.

4. Assertion : Electrons in the atom are held due to coulomb forces.

Reason : The atom is stable only because the centripetal force due to Coulomb’s law is balanced
by the centrifugal force.
Ans. (c)
Explanation : According to postulates of Bohr’s atom model, the electron revolve round the nucleus in
fixed orbit of definite radii. As long as the electron is in a certain orbits it does not radiate any
energy.

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 CBSE 105
5. Assertion : The electron in the hydrogen atom passes from energy level n = 4 to the n = 1 level.
The maximum and minimum number of photon that can be emitted are six and one respectively.
Reason : The photons are emitted when electron make a transition from the higher energy state
to the lower energy state.
Ans. (b)
Explanation : Maximum number of photon is given by all the transitions possible = 4 C 2 = 6. Minimum
number of transition = 1, that is directly jump from 4 to 1.

6. Assertion : Hydrogen atom consists of only one electron but its emission spectrum has many
lines.
Reason : Only Lyman series is found in the absorption spectrum of hydrogen atom whereas in
the emission spectrum, all the series are found.
Ans. (b)
Explanation : When the atom gets appropriate energy from outside, then this electron rises to some
higher energy level. Now it can return either directly to the lower energy level or come to the
lowest energy level after passing through other lower energy levels, hence all possible transitions
take place in the source and many lines are seen in the spectrum.

7. Assertion : It is essential that all the lines available in the emission spectrum will also be
available in the absorption spectrum.
Reason : The spectrum of hydrogen atom is only absorption spectrum.
Ans. (d)
Explanation : Emission transitions can take place between any higher energy level and any energy
level below it while absorption transitions start from the lowest energy level only and may end at
any higher energy level. Hence number of absorptions transitions between two given energy
levels is always less than the number of emission transitions between same two levels.

8. Assertion : For the scattering of -particles at a large angles, only the nucleus of the atom is
responsible.
Reason : Nucleus is very heavy in comparison to particle.
Ans. (a)
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Explanation : We know that an electron is very light particle as compared to an -particle. Hence
electron cannot scatter the -particle at large angles, according to law of conservation of
momentum. On the other hand, mass of nucleus is comparable with the mass of -particle, hence
only the nucleus of atom is responsible for scattering of -particles.

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106 Physics

EXERCISE-3

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS

BOHR'S MODEL

According to the third postulates of Bohr's model, when an atom makes a transition from
the higher energy state with quantum number ni to the lower energy state with quantum number
nf(nf < ni), the difference of the energy is carried away by the photon of frequency such that
h Eni E nf

Since both ni and nf are integers, this immediately shows that in transitions between the different
atomic levels, light is radiated in various discrete frequencies. For hydrogen atom spectrum, the
Balmer formula corresponds to nf = 2 and ni = 3, 4, 5 etc. This result of the Bohr's model
suggested the presence of other series spectra for hydrogen atom - those corresponding to the
transitions resulting from nf = 1 and ni = 2, 3 etc ; and nf = 3 and ni = 4, 5 etc. and so on. Such
series were identified in the course of spectroscopic investigations and are known as Lyman,
Balmer, Paschen, Brackett and Pfund-series. The electronic transitions corresponding to this
series are shown

n=

n=
3.4 eV

Humphrey
(Infrared)
n=
1.0 eV

Pfund
1.5 eV

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

(Infrared)
n=
0.65 eV

Bracket
(Infrared)
n=
1.9 eV

Paschen
(Infrared)
n=
102eV

Balmer
(visible)
n=

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 CBSE 107
(i) The total energy of an electron in an atom in an orbit is –3.4 eV. Its kinetic and potential energies

are respectively

(1) 3.4 eV, 3.4 eV (2) –3.4 eV, –3.4 eV (3) –3.4 eV, –6.8 eV (4) 3.4 eV, –6.8 eV

(ii) Given the value of Rydberg constant is 107 m–1, the wave number of the last line of the Balmer

series in hydrogen spectrum will be

(1) 0.5 × 107 m–1 (2) 0.25 × 107 m–1 (3) 2.5 × 107 m–1 (4) 0.025 × 104 m–1

(iii) The ratio of wavelength of last line of Balmer series and the last line of Lyman series

(1) 0.5 (2) 2 (3) 1 (4) 4

(iv) The wavelength of Balmer series lies in

(1) ultraviolet region (2) infrared region (3) far infra-red region (4) visible region

1 1 1
(v) In the empirical formula for the observed wavelength ( ) for hydrogen is R where
42 n2

n is integral values higher than 4 then it represents ----------- series.

(1) Balmer series (2) Brackett series (3) Pfund series (4) Lyman series

ANSWER KEY
(i) (4) (ii) (2) (iii) (4) (iv) (4) (v) (2)
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108 Physics

Very short Answer type Questions (1 Marks each)

1. What was the main conclusion of Rutherford's experiment on the scattering of alpha particles by
thin foils?
Ans. Rutherford concluded that there is a central massive positively charged core called nucleus
inside every atom.
2. What is the value of impact parameter for head on collision?
Ans. zero
3. Write two important inferences drawn from Rutherford's alpha particles scattering experiment.
Ans. (i) The most of the mass and the entire positive charge of an atom are concentrated in a very
small volume of an atom called nucleus.
(ii) The nuclear radius is about 1/10,000 of the atomic radius.
4. Why do we use a very thin gold foil in Rutherford's alpha particle scattering experiment?
Ans. In thick foil, the entire kinetic energy of alpha particle will be absorbed and alpha particle will
not be able to penetrate through the foil.
5. Why is it that mass of the nucleus does not enter the formula for impact parameter, but its charge
does?
Ans. The scattering occurs due to electrostatic field of the nucleus. That is why charge of nucleus
enters the expression for the impact parameter.
6. Name the series of hydrogen spectrum which least wave length.
Ans. Lyman Series
7. Out of the three radiations of wave lengths 8000Å, 5000 Å, 1000 Å, which one corresponds to
Lyman series of hydrogen spectrum?
Ans. 1000 A°, because Lyman series lies in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum.
8. Name the spectral series of hydrogen spectrum which lies in the visible region of e.m. spectrum.
Ans. Balmer Series

Short Answer Type Questions-I (2 Marks each)

9. The kinetic energy of -particle incident on gold foil is doubled then how does the distance of
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

closest approach change?

Ans. As the distance of closest approach is inversely proportional to the kinetic energy of the incident
alpha particle, so the distance of closest approach is halved when the kinetic energy of alpha
particle is doubled.
10. What is the angular momentum of an electron in the third orbit of an atom?
Ans. Angular momentum of an electron L = nh/2
For third orbit of an atom n = 3
34
3 6.6 10 34
L 3.15 10 Js
2 3.14

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 CBSE 109
11. What is the Bohr's quantization condition of the angular momentum of an electron in the second orbit?
Ans. According to the Bohr's theory, the stationary orbits are those for which the angular momentum
is some integral multiple of h/2 (Bohr's quantization condition). That is L = nh/2 , where n is
an integer called a quantum number.
12. The total energy of an electron in the first excited state of hydrogen atom is about –3.4eV.
What is the kinetic energy and potential energy of electron in this state?
Ans. K.E. of the electron = – total energy of the electron = –(–3.4eV) = 3.4eV
Potential energy of electron = 2(total energy of electron) = 2x (–3.4) = –6.8eV
13. Calculate the ratio of energies of photons produced due to transition of electron of hydrogen
atom from its,
(i) Second permitted energy level to the first level, and
(ii) Highest permitted energy level to the second permitted level
Ans. E1= –3.4 – (–13.6) = 10.2 eV and E2 = 0 – (–3.4) = 3.4 eV
E1 10.2
Ratio 3 :1
E2 3.4

Short Answer Type Questions-II (3 Marks each)

14. State Bohr's postulate for the 'permitted orbits' for the electron in a hydrogen atom. Use this
postulate to prove that the circumference of the nth permitted orbit for the electron can 'contain'
exactly n wavelengths of the de Broglie wavelength associated with the electron in that orbit.
Ans. The stationary orbits are those for which the angular momentum is some integral multiple of
h/2 (Bohr's quantization condition). That is L = nh/2 , where n is an integer called a quantum number
h h
mv n rn n 2 rn = n
2 mv n

h
But = n
= the associated de Broglie wavelength for electron in its nth orbit.
mv n
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\12. Atoms.docx

Hence 2 rn = n n
i.e. circumference of the nth permitted orbit for the electron is equal to n
wavelengths of the de Broglie wavelength.
15. The total energy of an electron in the first excited state of the hydrogen atom is about –3.4 eV.
(a) What is the kinetic energy of the electron in this state?
(b) What is the potential energy of the electron in this state?
(c) Which of the answers above would change if the choice of the zero of potential energy is
changed?

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110 Physics

Ans. (a) The quoted value of E = –3.4 eV is based on the customary choice of zero of potential
energy at infinity. Using K = –E, the kinetic energy of the electron in this state is + 3.4 eV.
(b) Using U = 2E, potential energy of the electron is = –6.8 eV
(c) If the zero of potential energy is chosen differently, kinetic energy does not change.
Its value is + 3.4 eV independent of the choice of the zero of potential energy. The potential
energy, and the total energy of the state, however, would alter if a different zero of the potential
energy is chosen.
16. Obtain the first Bohr's radius and the ground state energy of a muonic hydrogen atom [i.e. an
atom in which a negatively charged muon ( –) of mass about 207me orbits around a proton].
Ans. All that is needed is to replace me by m in the formulas of the Bohr model. We note that keeping
other factors fixed, r (1/m) and E m.
Therefore,
10
re m e 0.53 10 13 me 1
r 2.56 10 m
m 207 m 207

Ee m
E (13.6 207)eV 2.8keV
me

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 CBSE 111

UNIT-VIII : ATOMS AND NUCLEI

CHAPTER – 13 : NUCLEI

An atom has a nucleus. The nucleus is positively charged. The radius of the nucleus is smaller
than the radius of an atom by a factor of 104. More than 99.9% mass of the atom is concentrated
in the nucleus.
On the atomic scale, mass is measured in atomic mass units (u). By definition, 1 atomic mass
th
1
unit (1u) is mass of one atom of C12; 1u = 1.660563 × 10–27 kg.
12
A nucleus contains a neutral particle called neutron. Its mass is almost the same as that of proton
The atomic number Z is the number of protons in the atomic nucleus of an element. The mass
number A is the total number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus; A = Z + N; Here N
denotes the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
A nuclear species or a nuclide is represented as Z X A or A
Z X , where X is the chemical symbol of
the species. Nuclides with the same atomic number Z, but different neutron number N are called
isotopes. Nuclides with the same A are isobars and those with the same N are isotones. Most
elements are mixtures of two or more isotopes.
The atomic mass of an element is a weighted average of the masses of its isotopes. The masses
are the relative abundances of the isotopes.
A nucleus can be considered to be spherical in shape and assigned a radius. Electron scattering
experiments allow determination of the nuclear radius; it is found that radii of nuclei fit the
formula R = R0 A1/3, where R0 = constant = 1.2 fm. This implies that the nuclear density is
independent of A. It is of the order of 1017 kg/m3.
Neutrons and protons are bound in a nucleus by the short-range strong nuclear force. The nuclear
force does not distinguish between neutron and proton.
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The nuclear mass M is always less than the total mass ( m), of its constituents. The difference in
mass of a nucleus and its constituents is called the mass defect,
M = [Z mp + (A – Z )mn] – M
Using Einstein's mass energy relation, we express this mass difference in terms of energy as
Eb = Mc2
The energy Eb represents the binding energy of the nucleus. In the mass number range A = 30 to
170, the binding energy per nucleon is nearly constant, about 8 MeV/nucleon.

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112 Physics

Radioactivity is the phenomenon in which nuclei of a given species transform by giving out or
or rays; -rays are helium nuclei; -rays are electrons. -rays are electromagnetic radiation of
wavelengths shorter than X-rays;
Law of radioactive decay : N(t) = N0 e– t
where is the decay constant or disintegration
constant.
The half-life T1/2 of a radionuclide is the time in which N has been reduced to one-half of its
initial value. The mean life is the time at which N has been reduced to e–1 of its initial value.
ln 2
T1/2 ln 2

Energy is released when less tightly bound nuclei are transmuted into more tightly bound nuclei.
235
In fission, a heavy nucleus like 92 U breaks into two smaller fragments, e.g.
235 1 133 99
92 U 0 n 51 Sb 41 Nb 410 n

The fact that more neutrons are produced in fission than are consumed gives the possibility of a
chain reaction with each neutron that is produced triggering fission. The chain reaction is
uncontrolled and rapid in a nuclear bomb explosion. It is controlled and steady in a nuclear
reactor. In a reactor, the value of the neutron multiplication factor k is maintained at 1.
In fusion, lighter nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus.
1 1 2
1 H H
1 1 H e v 0.42MeV

Fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium nuclei is the source of energy of all stars including our sun
4 11H 2e 4
2 He 2 + 6 + 26.7 MeV

NOTE :
Not is syllabus for session 2021–22.
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 CBSE 113

EXERCISE-2
Instructions:
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and the Reason is the correct explanation of the
Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but Reason is not the correct explanation of the
Assertion.
(c) If Assertion is true but Reason is false.
(d) If the Assertion and Reason both are false.
(e) If Assertion is false but Reason is true.

1. Assertion : Nuclear density is almost same for all nuclei.

Reason : The radius R of a nucleus depends only on the mass number A as r A1/3.
Ans. (a)
2. Assertion : It is not possible to use Cl35 as the fuel for fusion energy .
Reason : The binding energy of Cl35 is too small.
Ans. (c)
Explanation : In fusion, lighter nuclei are used so, fusion is not possible with Cl35. Also binding
energy of Cl35 is not too small.
3. Assertion: Density of all the nuclei is same.
Reason : The radius of nucleus is directly proportional to the cube root of the mass number.
Ans. (b)
4. Assertion : Isobars are the elements having same mass number but different atomic number.
Reason : Neutrons and protons are present inside nucleus.
Ans. (b)
5. Assertion : Sr90 from the radioactive fall out from a nuclear bomb ends up in the bones of human
beings through the milk consumed by them. It causes impairment of the production of red blood
cells.
Reason : The energetics -particles emitted in the decay of Sr90 damage the bone marrow.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\13. Nuclei.docx

Ans. (a)
–
Explanation : 38 Sr 90 decays to 39 Y 90 by the emission of rays. 38 Sr 90 gets absorbed in bones along
with calcium. Reason is also true.
6. Assertion : Neutrons penetrate matter more readily as compared to protons.
Reason : Neutrons are slightly more massive than protons.
Ans. (b)
Explanation : Neutron is about 0.1 more massive than proton. But the unique thing about the neutron
is that while it is heavy, it has no charge (it is neutral). This lack of charge gives it the ability to
penetrate matter without interacting as quickly as the beta particles or alpha particles.

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114 Physics
–
7. Assertion : Radioactive nuclei emit particles.
Reason : Electrons exist inside the nucleus.
Ans. (b)
Explanation : Nuclear stability depends upon the ratio of neutron to proton. If the n/p ratio is more
than the critical value, then a neutron gets converted into a proton forming a -particle in the
process. So electrons do not exist in the nucleus but they result in some nuclear transformation.
8. Assertion : Density of all the nuclei is same.
Reason : Radius of nucleus is directly proportional to the cube root of mass number.
Ans. (a)
Explanation : Experimentally it is found that the average radius of a nucleus is given by R = R0A1/3
where R0 = 1.1 × 10–l5 m = 1.1 fm and A = mass number.
9. Assertion : Isobars are the element having same mass number but different atomic number.
Reason : Neutrons and protons are present inside nucleus
Ans. (b)
10. Assertion : Fragments produced in the fission of U235 are radioactive.
Reason : The fragments have abnormally high proton to neutron ratio.
Ans. (c)
11. Assertion : The mass of a nucleus can be either less than or more than the sum of the masses of
nucleons present in it.
Reason : The whole mass of the atom is considered in the nucleus.
Ans. (e)
Explanation : The whole mass of the atom is concentrated at nucleus and M(nucleus) < (Sum of the
masses of nucleus) because, when nucleus combines, some energy is wasted.
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 CBSE 115

EXERCISE-3

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTION

(NUCLEAR FORCE)

Neutrons and protons are identical particle in the sense that their masses are nearly the same and

the force called nuclear force, does not distinguish them. Nuclear force is the strongest force.

Stability of nucleus is determined by the neutron Proton ratio or mass defect or packing fraction.

Shape of nucleus is calculated by quadrupole moment and the spin of nucleus depends on even or

odd mass number. Volume of nucleus depends on the mass number. Whole mass of the atom

(nearly 99%) is centered at the nucleus.

(i) The correct statement about the nuclear force is are

(1) Charge independent (2) Short range force

(3) Non conservative force (4) all of these

(ii) The range of nuclear force is the order of

(1) 2 × 10–10 m (2) 1.5 × 10–20 m (3) 1.2 × 10–4 m (4) 1.4 × 10–15 m

(iii) A force between two protons is same as the force between proton and neutron. The nature of the

force is

(1) electrical force (2) weak nuclear force (3) gravitational force (4) strong nuclear force

(iv) All the nucleons in an atom are held by

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\13. Nuclei.docx

(1) Nuclear forces (2) Vander Waal's forces

(3) Tensor forces (4) Coulomb forces

ANSWER KEY
(i) (4) (ii) (4) (iii) (4) (iv) (1)

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116 Physics

Very short Answer type Questions (1 Marks each)

1. Two nuclei have mass number in the ratio 1 : 2. What is the ratio of their nuclear densities?
Ans. Nuclear density is independent to the mass number therefore ratio of nuclear densities is 1 : 1.
2. Four nuclei of an element fuse together to form a heavier nucleus. If the process is accompanied
by release of energy, which of the two - the parent or the daughter nucleus would have a higher
binding energy/nucleon?
Ans. daughter nucleus
3. Can it be concluded from beta decay that electrons exist inside the nucleus?
Ans. No
4. What will be the ratio of radii of two nuclei of mass numbers A1 and A2?
1/3
R1 A1
Ans.
R2 A2

5. A nucleus of mass number A has a mass defect m. Give the formula for the binding energy per
nucleon of this nucleus.

mc2
Ans. B E per nucleon =
A
6. Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 g of substance.
Ans. Energy, E = 10–3 × (3 × 108)2 J
E = 10–3 × 9 × 1016 = 9 × 1013 J
Thus, if one gram of matter is converted to energy, there is a release of enormous amount of
energy.

7. You are given two nuclides 37 X and 34 Y .

(i) Are they the isotopes of the same element? Why?

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(ii) Which one of the two is likely to be more stable? Give reason.
Ans. (i) Since X and Y have the same atomic numbers, they are the isotopes of the same element viz Li.
(ii) 3X7 (or 3Li7) is more stable than 3Y4 (or 3Li4). This is due to the fact that number of neutrons is
more in 3X7 as compared to that in 3Y4. Therefore, attractive force between the nucleons is
greater in 3X7

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 CBSE 117
Short Answer Type Questions (2 Marks each)
235
8. The nucleus of an atom of 92 Y , initially at rest, decays by emitting an -particle as per the equation
235 231 4
92 Y 90 X 2 He + Energy

It is given that the binding energies per nucleon of the parent and the daughter nuclei are
7.8 MeV and 7.835 MeV respectively and that of -particle is 7.07MeV/nucleon. Assuming the
daughter nucleus to be formed in the unexcited state and neglecting its share in the energy of the
reaction, calculate the speed of the emitted -particle. Take mass of -particle to be 6.68 × 10–27 kg.
Ans. Total B.E. of parent nucleus = 7.8 × 235 = 1833 MeV
Total B.E. of Daughter nucleus = 7.835 × 231 = 1809.9 MeV
Total B.E. of alpha particle = 7.07 × 4 = 28.28 MeV
Increase in B.E. after the reaction = [(1809.9 + 28.28) – 1833] = 5.18 MeV
This is the energy released in the reaction, since it assumed to be taken up totally by the alpha
particle.
1
mv2 = 5.18 × 1.6 × 10–13 J
2
5.18 3.2
v2 1014 m 2s 2

6.68

v= 2.48 107 m/s 1.58 107 m/s

9. Find the energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit, first in joules and then in MeV. Using this,
16 16
express the mass defect of 8 O in MeV/c2. ( m = 0.13691u for 8 O)

Sol. 1 a.m.u = 1.6605 × 10–27 kg

To convert it into energy units, we multiply it by c2 and find that
Energy equivalent = 1.6605 × 10–27 × (2.9979 × 108)2 kg m2/s2
= 1.4924 × 10–10 J
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\13. Nuclei.docx

1.4924 10 10
19
= 0.9315 × 109 eV
1.602 10
= 931.5 MeV
or, a.m.u = 931.5 MeV/c2
16
For 8 O , M = 0.13691 u

Thus EB = 0.13691 × 931.5 MeV/c2 = 127.5 MeV/c2

16
The energy needed to separate 8 O into its constituents is thus 127.5 MeV/c2.

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118 Physics

IMPORTANT NOTES
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UNIT-VIII : ELECTRONIC DEVICES

CHAPTER – 14 : SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
ELECTRONIC DEVICES :
Any device whose action is based on the controlled flow of electrons through it is called an
electronic device.
ENERGY BAND
Inside the crystal each electron has a unique position and no two electrons see exactly the same
pattern of surrounding charges. Because of this, each electron will have a different energy level.
These different energy levels with continuous energy variation form what are called energy
bands as shown in Fig. 1
Conduction Band : It is defined as the band which either completely empty or partially filled
with electrons. Electron is free to move in the band.
Valence Band : It is defined as the band which either completely filled or partially filled with
electrons. No electron is free to move in the band.

Fig.1
Forbidden energy gap : The separation between the top of the valence band and bottom of the
conduction band is called the energy band gap (Energy gap E g). It may be large, small or zero,
depending upon the material. It is also known as forbidden energy gap (Eg).
The difference in the resistivity of C, Si and Ge depends upon the energy gap between their
conduction and valence bands. For C (diamond), Si and Ge, the energy gaps are 5.4 eV, 1.1 eV
and 0.7 eV, respectively. Sn also is a group IV element but it is a metal because the energy gap in
its case is 0 eV.
Some electron gain energy to cross the energy gap and enter the conduction band. These
electrons (though small in numbers) can move in the conduction band. Hence, the resistance of
semiconductors is not as high as that of the insulators.

Fig.1

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120 
Formation of Hole : At 0K no electron jumps from valence band to conduction band. It means
germanium or silicon semiconductor at 0K behaves as an insulator as shown in fig.

When the temperature of germanium or silicon semiconductor increases then some electrons
gains thermal energy due to thermal agitation and jump the conduction band from valence band
leaving behind equal number of holes in valence band as shown in fig. This deficiency of
electron is called hole.
As the temperature increases, more thermal energy becomes available to these electrons and
some of these electrons may break-away (becoming free electrons contributing to conduction).
The thermal energy effectively ionizes only a few atoms in the crystalline lattice and creates a
vacancy of electron in the bond known as hole as shown in Fig. The hole behaves as an apparent
free particle with effective positive charge.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTOR

Electrical conduction in semiconductor is due to motion of electron in conduction band and due
to motion of hole in valence band. When an electric field is applied across the semiconductor,
electrons move in opposite direction to the applied electric field and holes moves in the direction
of electric field. (Remember that the motion of hole is only a convenient way of describing the
actual motion of bound electrons, whenever there is an empty bond anywhere in the crystal.)
The total current in semiconductor, I is thus the sum of the electron current Ie and the hole current Ih.
i.e. I = Ie + Ih

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  121
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an intrinsic semiconductor.
For example: germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si).
In crystalline structure of Si or Ge, every Si or Ge atom tends to share one of its four valence
electrons with each of its four nearest neighbour atoms, and also to take share of one electron
from each such neighbour. These shared electron pairs are referred to as forming a covalent bond
or simply a valence bond as shown in fig. (c).
Electrical conduction in an intrinsic semiconductor is due to electron hole pairs.
In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of free electrons (ne) is equal to the number of holes (nh).
That is ne = nh = ni where ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration.

(c)
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
It is the doped semiconductor i.e. impurities are added to pure semiconductor. The dopant has to
be such that it does not distort the original pure semiconductor lattice. It occupies only a very few
of the original semiconductor atom sites in the crystal. A necessary condition to attain this is that
the sizes of the dopant and the semiconductor atoms should be nearly the same.
There are two types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent Si or Ge:
(i) Pentavalent (valency 5); like Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P),
(ii) Trivalent (valency 3); like Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), etc.
There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors.
(i) n-type semiconductor (ii) p-type semiconductor

(i) n-type semiconductor :It is obtained by adding controlled amount of impurities of pentavalent
atoms to the pure semiconductor.
When an atom of +5 valency element [Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P)], occupies
the position of an atom in the crystal lattice of Si, four of its electrons bond with the four silicon
neighbours, while the fifth remains very weakly bound to its parent atom as shown in fig1(a).

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122 
This is because the four electrons participating in bonding are seen as part of the effective core of
the atom by the fifth electron. As a result the ionisation energy required to set this electron free is
very small and even at room temperature it will be free to move in the lattice of the
semiconductor. For example, the energy required is ~ 0.01 eV for germanium, and 0.05 eV for
silicon, to separate this electron from its atom.
Thus, the pentavalent dopant is donating one extra electron for conduction and hence is known as
donor impurity. The number of electrons made available for conduction by dopant atoms
depends strongly upon the doping level and is independent of any increase in ambient
temperature.
In n-type semiconductor electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers.
i.e. ne >> nh

Fig.1 (a)
The energy band diagram for n-type semiconductor is shown in fig.1 (b). In the energy band
diagram of n-type Si semiconductor, the donor energy level ED is slightly below the bottom of the
conduction band EC and electrons from this level move into the conduction band with very small
supply of energy. At room temperature, most of the donor atoms get ionised but very few (~10–12)
atoms of Si get ionised. So the conduction band will have most electrons coming from the donor
impurities, as shown in Fig. 1(b)

Fig.1 (b)

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  123
(ii) p-type semiconductor : It is obtained when Si or Ge is doped with a trivalent impurity like Al,
B, In, etc.
The dopant has one valence electron less than Si or Ge and, therefore, this atom can form
covalent bonds with neighboring three Si atoms but does not have any electron to offer to the
fourth Si atom. So the bond between the fourth neighbour and the trivalent atom has a vacancy or
hole as shown in Fig. 1 (a) Since the neighboring Si atom in the lattice wants an electron in place
of a hole, an electron in the outer orbit of an atom in the neighborhood may jump to fill this
vacancy, leaving a vacancy or hole at its own site. Thus the hole is available for conduction.
It is obvious that one acceptor atom gives one hole.

Fig.1 (a)
These holes are in addition to the intrinsically generated holes while the source of conduction
electrons is only intrinsic generation. Thus, for such a material, the holes are the majority carriers
and electrons are minority carriers. Therefore, extrinsic semiconductors doped with trivalent
impurity are called p-type semiconductors.
In p-type semiconductor holes are the majority carriers and electrons are the minority carriers
i.e. nh >> ne
The energy band diagram for p-type semiconductor is shown in fig.1 (b)
For p-type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level EA is slightly above the top EV of the valence
band as shown in Fig. 1(b). With very small supply of energy an electron from the valence band
can jump to the level EA and ionise the acceptor negatively.
(Alternately, we can also say that with very small supply of energy the hole from level E A sinks
down into the valence band. Electrons rise up and holes fall down when they gain external
energy.) At room temperature, most of the acceptor atoms get ionised leaving holes in the
valence band.

Fig.1 (b)

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124 
Thus at room temperature the density of holes in the valence band is predominantly due to
impurity in the extrinsic semiconductor. The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor
in thermal equilibrium is given by nenh = n 2i .

Difference between n & p type semiconductor

S.No n-type Semiconductor p-type Semiconductor
1. It is produced by adding controlled It is produced by adding controlled
amount of pentavalent impurity to a amount of trivalent impurity to a pure
pure (intrinsic) semiconductor. (intrinsic) semiconductor.
2. Electrons are majority carriers and holes Holes are majority carriers and Electrons
are minority carriers. are minority carriers.
3. The current conduction is predominantly The current conduction is predominantly
by electrons. by holes.
4. The donor energy level is just below the The acceptor energy level is just above
bottom of the conduction band. the top of valence band.

Difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor

S.No Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
1. It is a pure semiconductor with no It is an impure semiconductor i.e. a
impurity. controlled pentavelent or trivalent impurity
added to a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor.
2. Its electrical conductivity is low. Its electrical conductivity is high.
3. Its electrical conductivity depends on Its electrical conductivity depends on
temperature alone. temperature and the amount of doping.
4. The number of free electrons in the In an n-type semiconductor, free electrons
Conduction band is equal to the number far exceed the holes. In a p-type
of holes in the valence band. semiconductor, it is the reverse.

p-n JUNCTION
A p-n junction is the basic building block of many semiconductor devices like diodes, transistor, etc.
When a thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor wafer by adding precisely a small quantity of
pentavelent impurity and heated at high temperature i.e. at 580°C then part of the p-Si wafer can
be converted into n-Si. The wafer now contains p-region and n-region and a metallurgical
junction between p- and n- region.

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  125
Depletion Layer, Barrier Potential and Barrier Electric Field
This space-charge region on either side of the junction together is known as depletion region as
the electrons and holes taking part in the initial movement across the junction depleted the region
of its free charges (Fig.1).

Fig. 1
The thickness of depletion region is of the order of one-tenth of a micrometer.
The potential tends to prevent the movement of electron from the n region into the p region, and
then it is often called a barrier potential.

The barrier potential for Ge is 0.2V and for Si is 0.7V. The order of width of depletion layer is 10–6 m.
V 0.2
Barrier electric field E = O For Ge, Barrier electric field E = –6 = 2 × 105 V /m, this is very high.
d 10
0.7
For Si, Barrier electric field E = 6 = 7 × 105 V /m, this is very high
10
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
A semiconductor diode [Fig. 1(a)] is basically a p-n junction with metallic contacts provided at
the ends for the application of an external voltage. It is a two terminal device. A p-n junction
diode is symbolically represented as shown in Fig. 1(b). The direction of arrow indicates the
conventional direction of current (when the diode is under forward bias).

Fig. 1

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126 
(i) P-n junction diode under forward bias : When an external voltage V is applied across a
semiconductor diode such that p-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and
n-side to the negative terminal [Fig. 1(a)], it is said to be forward biased.

The applied voltage mostly drops across the depletion region and the voltage drop across the
p-side and n-side of the junction is negligible. [This is because the resistance of the depletion
region (a region where there are no charges) is very high compared to the resistance of n-side and
p-side.)]
The direction of the applied voltage (V) is opposite to the built-in potential V0. As a result, the
depletion layer width decreases.
For different values of voltages, the value of the current is noted. A graph between V and I is
obtained as in Fig. (c). In forward bias, the current first increases very slowly, almost negligibly,
till the voltage across the diode crosses a certain value.
After the characteristic voltage, the diode current increases significantly (exponentially), even for
a very small increase in the diode bias voltage. This voltage is called the threshold voltage or
cut-in voltage or knee voltage (~0.2V for germanium diode and ~0.7 V for silicon diode).
The magnitude of this current in usually in mA.
(ii) Reverse bias : For the diode in reverse bias, the current is very small (A) and almost remains
constant with change in bias. It is called reverse saturation current.
However, for special cases, at very high reverse bias (break down voltage), the current suddenly
increases.

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  127
The general purpose diodes are not used beyond the reverse saturation current region.
I(m A)

100
80
60
40

100 80 60 40 20 20
V(V)
V br 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

I(A)
Fig.(c)
Breakdown voltage : It is the reverse voltage at which pn junction breaks down with sudden rise
in reverse current.
Dynamic or A.C. Resistance : The ratio of change in forward voltage (V) across the diode to
the resulting change in current (I ) through it is called dynamic or a.c. forward resistance of the
diode.
V
rd 
I

JUNCTION DIODE AS A RECTIFIER

The process of converting an alternating current into a direct current is called rectification and
the device used for this process is called rectifier.
The following two rectifier circuits can be used:
(i) Half-wave rectifier (ii) Full-wave rectifier
(i) Half-wave rectifier : If an alternating voltage is applied across a diode in series with a load, a
pulsating voltage will appear across the load only during the half cycles of the ac input during
which the diode is forward biased. Such rectifier circuit, as shown in Fig. (a) is called a half-
wave rectifier.

Fig.
Fig.

The output voltage, though still varying, is restricted to only one direction and is said to be
rectified. Since the rectified output of this circuit is only for half of the input ac wave it is called
as half-wave rectifier.

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128 
(ii) Full-wave rectifier : The circuit using two diodes, shown in Fig. (a), gives output rectified
voltage corresponding to both the positive as well as negative half of the ac cycle. Hence, it is
known as full-wave rectifier.

Fig.(a)

Fig.(b)
During the positive half cycle of the input a.c., the diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is reversed
biased. The forward current flows due to D1.During negative half cycle of a.c. input diode D1 is
reversed biased and D2 is forward biased.
The forward current flows due to D2. During both the halves the current through RL flows in the
same direction. The output signal voltage is unidirectional having d.c. and a.c. components which
can be made d.c. voltage by filtering through a filter circuit.
The rectified voltage is in the form of pulses of the shape of half sinusoids. Though it is
unidirectional it does not have a steady value.
To get steady dc output from the pulsating voltage normally a capacitor is connected across the
output terminals (parallel to the load RL). One can also use an inductor in series with R L for the
same purpose. Since these additional circuits appear to filter out the ac ripple and give a pure dc
voltage, so they are called filters.

SPECIAL PURPOSE p-n JUNCTION DIODES

Optoelectronic junction devices
Semiconductor diodes in which carriers are generated by photons (photo-excitation) are called
optoelectronic devices. Optoelectronic devices are given below
(i) Photodiodes used for detecting optical signal (photo detectors).
(ii) Light emitting diodes (LED) which convert electrical energy into light.
(iii) Photovoltaic devices which convert optical radiation into electricity (solar cells).

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  129
(i) Photodiode : A Photodiode is again a special purpose p-n junction diode fabricated with a
transparent window to allow light to fall on the diode. It is operated under reverse bias. When the
photodiode is illuminated with light (photons) with energy (E) greater than the energy gap (Eg) of
the semiconductor, then electron-hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of photons.
Photodiode can be used as a photo detector to detect optical signals. The circuit diagram used for
the measurement of I-V characteristics of a photodiode is shown in Fig. (a) and a typical I-V
characteristic in Fig. (b).

Fig.(a) Fig.(b)
(ii) Light emitting diode : It is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward bias emits
spontaneous radiation.
The diode is encapsulated with a transparent cover so that emitted light can come out.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons are sent from n  p (where they are minority
carriers) and holes are sent from p  n (where they are minority carriers).

RL

+ –
At the junction boundary the concentration of minority carriers increases compared to the
equilibrium concentration (i.e., when there is no bias). Thus at the junction boundary on either
side of the junction, excess minority carriers are there which recombine with majority carriers
near the junction. On recombination, the energy is released in the form of photons. As the
forward current increases, intensity of light increases and reaches a maximum.
These LEDs find extensive use in remote controls, burglar alarm systems, optical communication,
etc. Extensive research is being done for developing white LEDs which can replace incandescent
lamps. LEDs have the following advantages over conventional incandescent low power lamps:
(i) Low operational voltage and less power.
(ii) Fast action and no warm-up time required.
(iii) The bandwidth of emitted light is 100 Å to 500 Å or in other words it is nearly (but not
exactly) monochromatic.
(iv) Long life and ruggedness.
(v) Fast on-off switching capability.

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130 
(iii) Solar cell : A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar radiation falls
on the p-n junction. It works on the same principle (photovoltaic effect) as the photodiode, except
that no external bias is applied and the junction area is kept much larger for solar radiation to be
incident because we are interested in more power. A simple p-n junction solar cell is shown in
Fig.

The generation of emf by a solar cell, when light falls on, it is due to the following three basic
processes: generation, separation and collection-
(i) generation of e-h pairs due to light (with h > Eg) close to the junction
(ii) separation of electrons and holes due to electric field of the depletion region.
Electrons are swept to n-side and holes to p-side.
(iii) the electrons reaching the n-side are collected by the front contact and holes reaching p-side
are collected by he back contact. Thus p-side becomes positive and n-side becomes negative
giving rise to photo voltage.
When an external load is connected as shown in the Fig. 2(a) a photocurrent I L flows through the
load. A typical I-V characteristic of a solar cell is shown in the Fig. 2(b).

(a) (b)
Fig.2
Note that the I - V characteristics of solar cell is drawn in the fourth quadrant of the coordinate
axes. This is because a solar cell does not draw current but supplies the same to the load.

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  131

EXERCISE-1
(Electronic Devices)

1. Which of the following is used as optical detector

(A) Laser Diode (B) LED (C) LASER (D) Photo diode
Ans. (D) Photo diode
2. At zero Kelvin, Ge is -
(A) Superconductor (B) Good conductor (C) Insulator (D) Semiconductor
Ans. (C) Insulator
3. In depletion region-
(A) Only electrons exist (B) Only holes exist
(C) Electrons and holes both exist (D) Neither electrons and nor holes exist
Ans. (D) Neither electrons and nor holes exist
4. The energy gap of silicon is 1.14 ev. The maximum wavelength at which the silicon will start
absorption of energy, will be-
(A) 10877 Å (B) 1087.7 Å (C) 108.77 Å (D) 10.877 Å
Ans. (A) 10877 Å
5. The number of diodes needed to make full wave rectifier is -
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 4 (D) Either 2 or 4
Ans. (D) Either 2 or 4
6. Match the column : -
Column (A) Column (B)
(a) Zener diode (i) Photo- voltaic action
(b) Photo diode (ii) Electron - hole recombination
(c) Laser diode (iii) Voltage regulation
(d) Light emitting diode (iv) Sorting & counting m/c
(e) Solar cell (v) Stimulated emission
Ans. (a) - (iii), (b) - (iv), (c) - (v), (d) - (ii), (e) - (i)
7. The semiconductors are not suitable for practical purposes in their pure form because of their
_________ conductivity.
Ans. small.
8. The valency of Si is ____ & forbidden energy gap for it is _____eV, which is _______
compared to that for _________ , [ ____ eV ].
Ans. 4 , 1.1 eV , large , Ge , 0.7 eV

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132 
9. The 4 N filled energy levels form ________ band, while the 4N _____ Levels form _________
band.
Ans. valence , empty , conduction.
10. When a semiconductor is heated, its resistance _____________.
Ans. decreases.
11. The p-n junction can be connected in two ways - [a] ____________& [b] ____________
Ans. forward bias & reverse bias
12. The impurities for making n type extrinsic semiconductor includes -
Ans. Sb , Bi , As , P
13. Al is known as _______ atom & P is known as ___________ atom when introduced as
___________ atom in crystal lattice of __________ semiconductor such as Ge or ______.
Ans. acceptor , donor , impurity , intrinsic , Si.
14. In a p-type semiconductor, the majority carriers are _______ .
Ans. holes.
15. _____ biasing of the p-n junction offers high resistance to current flow across the junction. This
biasing is obtained by connecting the p- side to the ______ terminal of the battery.
Ans. reverse , negative.
16. The current in a diode is proportional to the applied voltage . [True / False]
Ans. False.
17. A diode / triode can be used as a rectifier.
Ans. diode.
18. A single diode can be used as full wave rectifier. [True / False]
Ans. False.
19. The energy gap b/w conduction band and the valence band in a material is 0.7 eV. It is _____.
Ans. Ge.
20. P-n junction diode works as insulator, if connected _____________________
Ans. in reverse bias.
21. For successful rectification, the peak inverse of input ac voltage to a p-n junction diode should be
______ than breakdown voltage for it.
Ans. lesser.
22. The rate of fall of the voltage across the capacitor depends upon the inverse product of
capacitance C and the effective resistance R used in the circuit and is called the _______.
To make the time constant large value of C should be ________. So capacitor input filters use
large capacitors.
Ans. time constant, large.

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  133

EXERCISE-2

ASSERTION AND REASON

Directions (Q. Nos. 1-5)
In the following questions an Assertion (A) is followed by a corresponding Reason (R). Use the
following keys to choose the appropriate answer.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is the correct explanation of (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).
(c) (A) is correct; (R) is incorrect.
(d) (A) is incorrect; (R) is incorrect

1. Assertion : If there is some gap between the conduction band and the valence band, electrons in
the valence band all remain bound and no free electrons are available in the conduction band.
Then the material is an insulator.
Reason : Resistance of insulators is very low.
2. Assertion : If the temperature of a semiconductor is increased then it's resistance decreases.
Reason : The energy gap between conduction band and valence band is very small.
3. Assertion : An N-type semiconductor has a large number of electrons but still it is electrically
neutral.
Reason : An N-type semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with a
pentavalent impurity.
4. Assertion : Semiconductors do not obeys Ohm's law.
Reason : Current cannot be determined by the rate of flow of charge carriers.
5. Assertion : The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is greater in silicon
than in germanium.
Reason : Thermal energy produces fewer minority carriers in silicon than in germanium.

ANSWER KEY

1. (c) 2 (a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 5 (b)

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134 

EXERCISE-3

CASE STUDY BASED QUESTIONS

PASSAGE
Read the Case Study given below and answer the questions that follow:
Consider a thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor wafer. By adding precisely a small quantity
of pentavalent impurity, part of the p-Si wafer can be converted into n-Si. There are several
processes by which a semiconductor can be formed. The wafer now contains p-region and n-
region and a metallurgical junction between p-, and n- region. Two important processes occur
during the formation of a p-n junction: diffusion and drift. We know that in an n-type
semiconductor, the concentration of electrons (number of electrons per unit volume) is more
compared to the concentration of holes. Similarly, in a p-type semiconductor, the concentration
of holes is more than the concentration of electrons. During the formation of p-n junction, and
due to the concentration gradient across p-, and n- sides, holes diffuse from p- side to n-side (p
n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n  p). This motion of charge carriers gives
rise to diffusion current across the junction.
(i) How can a p-type semiconductor be converted into n- type semiconductor?
(1) adding pentavalent impurity (2) adding trivalent impurity
(3) not possible (4) heavy doping
(ii) Which of the following is true about n-type semiconductor?
(1) concentration of electrons is less than that of holes.
(2) concentration of electrons is more than that of holes.
(3) concentration of electrons equal to that of holes.
(4)None of the above .
(iii) Which of the following is true about p-type semiconductor?
(1) concentration of electrons is less than that of holes.
(2) concentration of electrons is more than that of holes.
(3) concentration of electrons equal to that of holes.
(4) None of these
(iv) Which of the following is the reason about diffusion current?
(1) diffusion of holes from p to n (2) diffusion of electrons from n to p
(3) both (1) and (2) (4) None of these
(v) What are the processes that occur during formation of a p-n junction?
(1) drift (2) diffusion
(3) both (1) and (2) (4) None of these

ANSWER KEY

(i) (1) (ii) (2) (iii) (1) (iv) (3) (v) (3)

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  135

Very short Answer type Questions (1 Marks each)

1. How does conductivity of a semiconductor change with increase in temperature?
Ans. Increases
2. How does resistivity of a semiconductor change with rise in its temperature?
Ans. Decreases
4. What is the order of energy gap in a semiconductor?
Ans. 1eV
5. Give the ratio of the number of holes and the number of conduction electrons in an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Ans. 1:1
6. In the given diagram, is the diode D forward or reverse biased?
–10V R D

Ans. reverse biased

7. In the following diagrams, indicate which of the diodes are forward biased and which are reverse
biased.
+2V
+7V –10V –12V

+5 V –5V
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Ans. (i) forward biased (ii) reverse biased (iii) reverse biased (iv) forward biased
8. Name two factors on which electrical conductivity of a pure semiconductor at a given
temperature depends.
Ans. (i) The width of the forbidden energy gap.
(ii) Intrinsic charge carrier concentration.
9. Give the ratio of the number of holes and number of conduction electrons, in an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Ans. In an intrinsic semiconductor,
nh = ne = ni, Therefore nh : ne = 1: 1
10. The forbidden energy gaps in insulators, semiconductors and conductors are EG1 , EG2 and EG3

respectively. Arrange them in ascending order.

Ans. EG3  EG2  EG1

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136 
11. Why is germanium preferred over silicon for making semiconductor devices?
Ans. This is because the energy gap for Ge (Eg = 0.7 eV) is smaller than the energy gap for Si (Eg = 1.1 eV).
12. Why is the conductivity of n-type semiconductor greater than that of the p-type semiconductor
even when both of these have same level of doping?
Ans. This is because under a given electric field, free electrons have higher mobility than holes.
13. Draw energy band diagram for an n-type extrinsic semiconductor.

Ans.

14. Draw energy-band diagram for a p-type extrinsic semiconductor.

Ans.

15. What is depletion region in a p-n junction?

Ans. It is a thin region around the junction of p and n-sections, which is devoid of free electrons and
holes and has immobile ions only.
16. What is an ideal junction diode?
Ans. A junction diode, which conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse
biased is called an ideal junction diode. It offers zero resistance in forward biasing and infinite
resistance in reverse biasing.

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  137
17. A square wave (-1V to 1 V) is applied to p-n junction diode as shown below. Draw the output
waveform.
+1V
R
Output
–1V

Ans. The n-side of the diode is earthed, it is at zero potential. So the diode conducts current when
input level is +1V and does not conduct when the input level is –1V. As the diode is ideal, the
output across it will be either 0 or +1V.
+1V

0
18. A diode is connected to 220 V (rms) a.c. in series with a capacitor, as shown below. What is the
voltage V across the capacitor?

220V a.c output(V)

Ans. During the positive half cycle of input a.c. (when the diode gets forward biased), the capacitor
charges itself to the peak value of the supply voltage. Therefore, the voltage across the capacitor
is
V  VO  2Vrms  2  220  311.1V
19. Draw a circuit diagram for p-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias. Sketch the
voltage-current graph for the same.
Ans.
I(mA)

100 Forward Biasing

80
60
40
100 80 60 40 20 20
V(V)
Vbr 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Reverse Biasing

1(A)

(c)

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138 
20. Show the biasing of a photo-diode with the help of a circuit diagram. Draw graphs to show
variations in reverse bias currents for different illumination intensities.
Ans.

21. Distinguish between the light emitting diode and the photodiode.
Ans. Difference between light emitting diode and photodiode:
Light Emitting Diode (LED) Photodiode
1. It is forward biased. It is reverse biased.
2. Recombination of electrons and Energy (h) is supplied by light
holes takes place at the junction and to take an electron from valence
emits e.m. radiation. band to conduction band.

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 CBSE 139
CBSE SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER
CLASS XII
PHYSICS THEORY
TERM II
SESSION 2021 – 22

MM : 35 TIME : 2 Hours

General Instructions:
(i) There are 12 questions in all. All questions are compulsory.
(ii) This question paper has three sections: Section A, Section B and Section C.
(iii) Section A contains three questions of two marks each, Section B contains eight questions of three
marks each, Section C contains one case study-based question of five marks.
(iv) There is no overall choice. However, an internal choice has been provided in one question of two
marks and two questions of three marks. You have to attempt only one of the choices in such
questions.
(v) You may use log tables if necessary but use of calculator is not allowed.

SECTION-A
1. In a pure semiconductor crystal of Si, if antimony is added then what type of extrinsic
semiconductor is obtained. Draw the energy band diagram of this extrinsic semiconductor so
formed.
Sol. As given in the statement antimony is added to pure Si crystal, then a n-type extrinsic
semiconductor would be so obtained,
Since antimony(Sb) is a pentavalent impurity. (1 mark)
Energy level diagram of n-type semiconductor
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\CBSE Sample Question Paper with sol

Donar Energy level

(1 mark)

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140 Physics

2. Consider two different hydrogen atoms. The electron in each atom is in an excited state. Is it
possible for the electrons to have different energies but same orbital angular momentum
according to the Bohr model? Justify your answer.
Sol. No (1/2 mark)
13.6
Because according to Bohr's model, En and electrons having different energies belong
n2
to different levels having different values of n. (1/2 mark)
So, their angular momenta will be different, as
nh
L = mvr = (1 mark)
2
OR
Explain how does (i) photoelectric current and (ii) kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted in
a photocell vary if the frequency of incident radiation is doubled, but keeping the intensity same?
Show the graphical variation in the above two cases.
Sol. (i) The increase in the frequency of incident radiation has no effect on photoelectric current.
This is because of incident photon of increased energy cannot eject more than one electron
from the metal surface. (1/2 mark)

I I = photoelectric current
f = frequency of incident radiation
fO = threshold frequency

(1/2 mark)

fO f
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\CBSE Sample Question Paper with sol

(ii) The kinetic energy of the photoelectron becomes more than the double of its original energy.
As the work function of the metal is fixed, so incident photon of higher frequency and hence
higher energy will impart more energy to the photoelectrons. (1/2 mark)

KE

(1/2 mark)
fO
f
wO

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 CBSE 141
3. Name the device which converts the change in intensity of illumination to change in electric
current flowing through it. Plot I-V characteristics of this device for different intensities. State
any two applications of this device.
Sol. Photodiodes are used to detect optical signals of different intensities by changing current flowing
through them. (1/2 mark)

(1/2 mark)

(I–V characteristics of a photodiode)

Applications of photodiodes: [(1/2) × 2 = 1 mark]
1. In detection of optical signals.
2. In demodulation of optical signals.
3. In light operated switches.
4. In speed reading of computer punched cards.
5. In electronic counters
(any two out of these or any other relevant application)

SECTION-B
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\CBSE Sample Question Paper with sol

4. Derive an expression for the frequency of radiation emitted when a hydrogen atom de-excites
from level n to level (n – 1). Also show that for large values of n, this frequency equals to
classical frequency of revolution of an electron.
Sol. From Bohr’s theory, the frequency f of the radiation emitted when an electron de–excites from
level n2 to level n1 is given as (2 marks)
2 2mk 2 z 2 e 4 1 1
f
h3 n12 n 22

Given n1 = n 1, n2 = n, derivation of it
2 2 mk 2z 2e 4 (2n 1)
f
h3 (n 1)2 n 2

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142 Physics

For large n, 2n 1 = 2n , n 1 = n and z = 1 (1 mark)

4 2 mk 2 e 4
Thus, f
n 3h 3
which is same as orbital frequency of electron in nth orbit.
v 4 2 mk 2 e 4
f
2 r n 3 h3
5. Explain with a proper diagram how an ac signal can be converted into dc (pulsating) signal with
output frequency as double than the input frequency using pn junction diode. Give its input and
output waveforms.
Sol. A junction diode allows current to pass only when it is forward biased. So, if an alternating
voltage is applied across a diode the current flows only in that part of the cycle when the diode is
forward biased. This property is used to rectify alternating voltages and the circuit used for this
purpose is called a rectifier. (1 mark)

(1 mark)

(Circuit Diagram)

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\CBSE Sample Question Paper with sol

(1 mark)

Working with input and output waveforms.

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 CBSE 143
6. How long can an electric lamp of 100 W be kept glowing by fusion of 2 kg of deuterium?

Take the fusion reaction as

2 2 3
1 H 1 H 2 He n 3.27MeV

Sol. Number of atoms present in 2 g of deuterium = 6 × 1023

Number of atoms present in 2.0 Kg of deuterium = 6 × 1026 (1 mark)

Energy released in fusion of 2 deuterium atoms = 3.27 MeV

Energy released in fusion of 2.0 Kg of deuterium atoms

3.27
= 6 1026 MeV (1 mark)
2

= 9.81 × 1026 MeV

= 15.696 × 1013 J

Energy consumed by bulb per sec = 100 J

15.696 1013 4
Time for which bulb will glow = s = 4.97 × 10 year (1)
100

7. Define wavefront. Draw the shape of refracted wavefront when the plane incident wave

undergoes refraction from optically denser medium to rarer medium. Hence prove Snell’s law of

refraction.

Sol. A locus of points, which oscillate in phase is called a wavefront.

OR
A wavefront is defined as a surface of constant phase.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\CBSE Sample Question Paper with sol

(1 mark)

Proof n1 sin i = n2 sin r (Derivation) (1 mark)

This is the Snell’s law of refraction.

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144 Physics

8. (a) Draw a ray diagram of compound microscope for the final image formed at least distance of
distinct vision?
Sol. Diagram of Compound Microscope for the final image formed at D:

1
1 marks
2

(b) An angular magnification of 30X is desired using an objective of focal length 1.25 cm and
an eye piece of focal length 5 cm. How will you set up the compound microscope for the
final image formed at least distance of distinct vision?
Sol. m0 = 30, f0= 1.25 cm, fe = 5 cm
when image is formed at least distance of distinct vision,
D = 25cm
Angular magnification of eyepiece

D 25
me 1 1 6 (1/2 mark)
fe 5

m 30
Total Angular magnification, m = mome mo = 5
me 6

As the objective lens forms the real image,

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\CBSE Sample Question Paper with sol

vo
mo 5 vo 5uo
uo

using lens equation, uo = 1.5 cm, vo = 5 × ( 1.5)cm = +7.5 cm (1/2 mark)

Given ve= D = 25 cm, fe = +5 cm, ue= ?
25
using again lens equation ue
6
Thus, object is to be placed at 1.5 cm from the objective and separation between the two
lenses should be (1/2 mark)
L = vo + Iuel = 11.67 cm

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 CBSE 145
OR
(a) Draw a ray diagram of Astronomical Telescope for the final image formed at infinity.
1
Sol. Ray diagram of astronomical telescope when image is formed at infinity. 1 marks
2

(b) A small telescope has an objective lens of focal length 140 cm and an eyepiece of focal
length 5.0 cm. Find the magnifying power of the telescope for viewing distant objects when
(i) the telescope is in normal adjustment,
(ii) the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision.
Sol. (i) In normal adjustment :
Magnifying power.
fo 140
m= 28 (1/2 mark)
fe 5
(ii) When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision (25 cm) :
fo fe
m 1 (25 1.2) 33.6 (1 mark)
fe D
9. Light of wavelength 2000 Å falls on a metal surface of work function 4.2 eV.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\CBSE Sample Question Paper with sol

(a) What is the kinetic energy (in eV) of the fastest electrons emitted from the surface?
(b) What will be the change in the energy of the emitted electrons if the intensity of light with
same wavelength is doubled?
(c) If the same light falls on another surface of work function 6.5 eV, what will be the energy of
emitted electrons?
Sol. = 2000 Å = (2000 × 10–10)m
Wo = 4.2eV
h = 6.63 × 10–34 JS
(a) Using Einstein's photoelectric equation (1 mark)
K. E. = (6.2 – 4.2) eV = 2.0 eV

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146 Physics

(b) The energy of the emitted electrons does not depend upon intensity of incident light; hence
the energy remains unchanged. (1 mark)
(c) For this surface, electrons will not be emitted as the energy of incident light (6.2 eV) is less
than the work function (6.5 eV) of the surface. (1 mark)
10. The focal length of a convex lens made of glass of refractive index (1.5) is 20 cm. What will be
its new focal length when placed in a medium of refractive index 1.25 ?
Is focal length positive or negative? What does it signify?
Sol. Given a g
1.5

Focal length of the given convex lens when it is placed in air is f = + 20 cm

Refractive index of the given medium with respect to air is a m
1.25

New focal length of the given convex lens when placed in a medium is f

1 1 1
a g 1 …..(A) (1/2 mark)
f R1 R2

1 1 1
m g 1 …..(B) (1/2 mark)
f R1 R2

Dividing (A) by (B), we get

a g 1 (1.5 1) 0.5 5
f 2.5
m g 1 (1.2 1) 0.2 2

g 1.5
f = 2.5 f = (2.5 × 20) cm = + 50 cm as m g 1.2 (1 mark)
m 1.25
New focal length is positive. (1/2 mark)
The significance of the positive sign of the focal length is that given convex lens is still
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\CBSE Sample Question Paper with sol
converging in the given medium. (1/2 mark)
11. (a) Name the e.m. waves which are suitable for radar systems used in aircraft navigation. Write
the range of frequency of these waves.
(b) If the Earth did not have atmosphere, would its average surface temperature be higher or
lower than what it is now? Explain.
(c) An e.m. wave exerts pressure on the surface on which it is incident. Justify.
Sol. (a) Microwaves are suitable for the radar system used in aircraft navigation. (1 mark)
8 11
Range of frequency of microwaves is 10 Hz to 10 Hz.

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 CBSE 147
(b) If the Earth did not have atmosphere, then there would be absence of greenhouse effect of
the atmosphere. Due to this reason, the temperature of the earth would be lower than what it
is now. (1 mark)
(c) An e.m. wave carries momentum with itself and given by (1 mark)
P = Energy of wave(U)/ Speed of the wave(c)
= U/c
when it is incident upon a surface it exerts pressure on it.
OR
(a) "If the slits in Young's double slit experiment are identical, then intensity at any point on the
screen may vary between zero and four times to the intensity due to single slit".
Justify the above statement through a relevant mathematical expression.
(b) Draw the intensity distribution as function of phase angle when diffraction of light takes
place through coherently illuminated single slit.
Sol. (a) The total intensity at a point where the phase difference is , is given by (2 marks)

I I1 I 2 2 I1I 2 cos . Here I1 and I2 are the intensities of two individual sources which are

equal.
When is 0, I = 4I1
When is 90°, I = 0
Thus intensity on the screen varies between 4I1 and 0.
(b) Intensity distribution as function of phase angle, when diffraction of light takes place
through coherently illuminated single slit.
The intensity pattern on the screen is shown in the given figure. (1 mark)
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\CBSE Sample Question Paper with sol

2D
Width of central maximum =
a

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148 Physics

SECTION-C
CASE STUDY
12. MIRAGE IN DESERTS

To a distant observer, the light appears to be coming from somewhere below the ground. The
observer naturally assumes that light is being reflected from the ground, say, by a pool of water
near the tall object.
Such inverted images of distant tall objects cause an optical illusion to the observer. This
phenomenon is called mirage. This type of mirage is especially common in hot deserts.
Based on the above facts, answer the following questions:
(a) Which of the following phenomena is prominently involved in the formation of mirage in
deserts? (1)
(i) Refraction, Total internal Reflection (ii) Dispersion and Refraction
(iii) Dispersion and scattering of light (iv) Total internal Reflection and diffraction.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\CBSE Sample Question Paper with sol
Ans. (i)
Sol. Refraction, Total internal reflection (1 mark)
4
(b) A diver at a depth 12 m inside water a w sees the sky in a cone of semi- vertical angle (1)
3
1 4 1 4 1 3
(i) sin (ii) tan (iii) sin (iv) 90°
3 3 4
Ans. (ii)
1
Sol. a w (1 mark)
sin C
1 1 1
sin C C sin
a w a w

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 CBSE 149
(c) In an optical fibre, if n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the core and cladding, then which
among the following, would be a correct equation? (1)
(i) n1 n2 (ii) n1 n2 (iii) n1 n2 (iv) n1 n2
Ans. (iv)
Sol. The refractive index of the core should be greater than the refractive index of the cladding.
(1 mark)
(d) A diamond is immersed in such a liquid which has its refractive index with respect to air
as greater than the refractive index of water with respect to air. Then the critical angle of
diamond-liquid interface as compared to critical angle of diamond -water interface will
(i) depend on the nature of the liquid only (ii) decrease
(iii) remain the same (iv) increase
Ans. (iv)
1 d 1 d
Sol. l d , w d (1 mark)
sin C l sin C w

1 w

Thus, C C
(e) The following figure shows a cross-section of a ‘light pipe’ made of a glass fiber of refractive
index 1.68. The outer covering of the pipe is made of a material of refractive index 1.44. What is
the range of the angles of the incident rays with the axis of the pipe for the following phenomena
to occur.
node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\CBSE Sample Question Paper with sol

(i) 0 < < 90° (ii) 0 < < 60° (iii) 0 < < 45° (iv) 0 < < 30°
Ans. (ii)
1
Sol. 0 < i < 60°, 1 2 (1 mark)
sin C
1.44
sin C 0.8571
1.68
C 59
Total internal reflection will occur if the angle i iC

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150 Physics

i.e., if i 59 or when r < rmax where rmax = 90° – 59° = 31°.

Using Snell’s law,
sin i max
1.68
sin rmax
or sin imax = 1.68 × sin rmax
= 1.68 × sin 31°
= 1.68 × 0.5150 = 0.8662
imax = 60°
Thus all incident rays which make angles in the range 0 < < 60° with the axis of the pipe will
suffer total internal reflections in the pipe.

node06\B0BA-BB\Kota\Board Material\Physics\CBSE\Booklet\Class XII\English\Term-II\CBSE Sample Question Paper with sol

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  151

PRACTICE QUESTION BANK

SECTION-A
Very short Answer type Questions
1. When light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, the speed decreases. Does this decrease in
speed imply a decrease in the energy carried by the light wave? Justify your answer.
2. Monochromatic light of wavelength 589 nm is incident from air on a water surface. What are the
wavelength and speed of refracted light? Refractive index of water is 1.33.
3. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has greater de-Broglie
wavelength and why?
4. State Bohr's quantization condition for defining stationary orbits.
5. What is the ratio of radii of the orbits corresponding to first excited state and ground state in a
hydrogen atom?
6. Write any two characteristic properties of nuclear force.
7. A converging lens is kept co-axially in contact with a diverging lens-both the lenses being of
equal focal lengths. What is the focal length and power of the combination?
8. A ray of monochromatic light passes from medium (1) to medium (2). If the angle of incidence
in medium (1) is  and the corresponding angle of refraction in medium (2) is /2, which of the
two media is optically denser? Give reason.
9. Two convex lenses of same focal length but of aperture A1 and A2 (A2 < A1), are used as the
objective lenses in two astronomical telescopes having identical eyepieces. Which telescope will
you prefer and why?
10. The graph shows the variation of stopping potential with frequency of incident radiation for two
photosensitive metal A and B. Which one of the two has higher value of work-function? Justify
your answer.

Metal B Metal A

Stopping
potential
(V0)
O
Frequency of
incident radiation ()

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152 
11. Write the expression for the de-Broglie wavelength associated with a charged particle having
charge 'q' and mass 'm', when it is accelerated by a potential V.
12. You are given following three lenses. Which two lenses will you use as an eyepiece and as an
objective to construct an astronomical telescope?
Lenses Power Aperture
L1 3D 8cm
L2 6D 1cm
L3 10D 1cm

13. Draw a diagram to show refraction of a plane wave front incident in a convex lens and hence
draw the refracted wavefront.
14. What happens to the width of depletion layer of a p-n junction when it is
(i) Forward biased ?
(ii) Reverse biased ?
15. What is the most common use of photo diode ?
16. Name the electromagnetic waves which
(i) maintain the earth's warmth and
(ii) are used in aircraft navigation.
17. For the same value of angle of incidence, the angles of refraction in three media A, B and C are
15°, 25° and 35° respectively. In which medium would the velocity of light be minimum ?
18. Define intensity of radiation on the basis of photon picture of light.
19. How does the power of a convex lens very if the incident red light is replaced by violet light.
20. What type of wave front will emerge from a
(i) point source
(ii) distant light source ?
21. What happens to the width of depletion layer of a p-n junction when it is
(i) forward biased ?
(ii) reverse biased ?
22. A plane electromagnetic wave travels in vacuum along z-direction. What are the directions of
electric and magnetic field vectors.
23. Refractive index of diamond with respect to glass is 1.6 and the absolute refractive index of glass
is 1.5. Find out the absolute refractive index of diamonds.

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  153

SECTION-B
Short Answer type Questions
1. Draw a sketch of a plane electromagnetic wave propagating along the z-direction. Depict clearly
the direction of electric and magnetic field varying sinusoidally with z.
2. Find the energy equivalent of one atomic mass unit, first in Joules and then in MeV. Using this,
express the mass defect of 8O16 u in MeV/c2 given M = 0.13691 u.
3. Describe briefly, with the help of a diagram, the role of the two importance processes involved in
the formation of a p-n junction.
4. Draw the energy band of p-type and n-type semiconductors.
5. (i) Draw a neat labelled ray diagram of a compound microscope.
(ii) How does focal length of a lens change when red light incident on it is replaced by violet
light? Give reason for your answer.
6. (i) Draw a schematic diagram of a reflecting telescope (Cassegrain). Write two important
advantages that the reflecting telescope has over a refracting type.
(ii) Plot a graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation for a triangular prism.
7. Draw a graph between the frequency of incident radiation () and the maximum kinetic energy of
the electrons emitted from the surface of two photosensitive materials A & B. State clearly how
this graph can be used to determine (i) Planck's constant and (ii) work function of the material.
8. Using Bohr's postulates, obtain the expression for total energy of the electron in stationary state
of hydrogen atom and also. Draw the energy level diagram for hydrogen atom.
9. (i) Explain briefly with the help of a circuit diagram how V-I characteristics of a p-n junction
diode are obtained in : (a) forward bias & (b) reverse bias.
(ii) Draw a circuit diagram showing the biasing of an LED. State the factor which controls.
(a) wavelength of light. (b) intensity of light emitted by the diode.
10. (i) Discuss working principle of full wave rectifier with circuit diagram. Draw its input &
output wave forms.
(ii) Why is a photo diode operated in reverse bias mode? Draw its I-V characteristics for
different intensities of illumination.
11. (i) With the help of ray diagram derive an expression for the linear width and angular width of
the central maxima due diffraction of light at a single slit.
(ii) Draw a graph showing the variation of intensity with phase difference or path difference in a
single slit experiment.
(iii) What happens to the width of the central maxima if the whole apparatus is immersed in
water and why ?

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154 
12. (i) Write two essential conditions for sustained interference pattern to be produced on the
screen. Two slits in Young's double slit experiment are illuminated by two difference sodium
lamps emitting light of the same wavelength. Why is no interference pattern observed?
(ii) Write the conditions for constructive and destructive interference & Draw a graph showing
the variation of intensity versus the position on the screen in Young's double slit experiment.
(iii) If s is the size of the source and S its distance from the plane of the two slits, what should be
the criterion for the interference fringes to be seen ?
13. Draw a labelled diagram of a full-wave rectifier circuit. State its working principle. Show the
input-output wave forms.
14. State one feature by which the phenomenon of interference can be distinguish from that of
diffraction. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally on a slit of width
'a'. If the distance between the slits and screen is 0.8m and the distance of 2nd order maximum
from the centre of screen is 1.5 mm, calculate the width of the slit.
15. Draw a schematic ray diagram of reflecting telescope showing how rays coming from distant
objects are received at the eye-piece. Write its two important advantages over refracting
telescope.
16. The given graph shows the variation of photo electric current (I) with the applied voltage (V) for
two different material and for two different intensities of the incident radiations. Identify and
explain using Einstein's photoelectric equation for the pair of curves that correspond to
(i) different materials but same intensity of incident radiation
(ii) different intensities but same materials.
I

1
2
3
4

V
17. A proton and a deuteron are accelerated through the same accelerating potential. Which one of
the two has
(i) greater value of de-Broglie wavelength associated with it, and
(ii) less momentum ?
Give reasons to justify your answer.

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18. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV.
(i) What is the potential energy of an electron in the 3rd excited state?
(ii) If the electron jumps to the ground state from the 3rd excited state, calculated the wavelength
of the photon emitted.
19. Figure shows a ray of light passing through a prism. If the refracted ray QR is parallel to the base
BC, show that
(i) r1 = r2 = A/2
(ii) angle of minimum deviation Dm = 2i – A
A
M N
Q R
i e
r1 r2
P S
N M

B C
20. A convex lens made up of glass of refractive index 1.5 is dipped in,

(i) a medium of refractive index 1.6 (ii) a medium of refractive index 1.3.

(a) Will it behave as a converging or a diverging lens in the two cases ?

(b) How will its focal length change in the two media ?

21. (i) State Huygen's principal. Using this principle draw a diagram to show how a plane wave

front incident at the interface of the two media gets refracted when it propagates from a rarer

to a denser medium. Hence verify Snell's law of refraction.

(ii) When monochromatic light travels from a rarer to a denser medium, explain the following,

giving reasons :

(a) Is the frequency of reflected and refracted light same as the frequency of incident light ?

(b) Does the decrease in speed imply a reduction in the energy carried by light wave ?

22. In young’s double slit experiment, deduce the condition for (a) constructive and destructive

interference at a point on the screen. Draw a graph showing variation of intensity in the

interference pattern against position ‘X’ on the screen.

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23. (a) How is the size of a nucleus experimentally determined ? Write the relation between the
radius and mass number of the nucleus. Show that the density of nucleus is independent of
its mass number.
(b) Distinguish between nuclear fission and fusion. Show how in both these processes energy is
released.
Calculate the energy release in MeV in the deuterium-tritium fusion reaction :
4
2
1 H  13H 
 2He  n

Using the date :

m( 12H)  2.014102 u, m( 13H)  3.016049u

m(24 He)  4.002603 u, m n  1.008665u

2
1u = 931.5 MeV/c
24. (a) Write two important limitations of Rutherford model which could not explain the observed
features of atomic spectra. How were these explained in Bohr's model of hydrogen atom ?
Use the Rydberg formula to calculate the wavelength of the H line.
R = 1.1 × 10–7m–1.
(b) Using Bohr's postulates, obtain the expression for the radius of the n th orbit in hydrogen
atom.
25. State the reason, why GaAs is most commonly used in making of a solar cell.
26. Draw a ray diagram for the formation of image by a compound microscope. Write the expression
for total magnification when the image is formed at infinity.
27. A convex lens of focal length 25 cm is placed coaxially in contact with a concave lens of focal
length 20 cm. Determine the power of the combination. Will the system be converging or
diverging in nature?
28. Write the expression for the de-Broglie wavelength associated with a charge particle having
charge q and mass m, when it is accelerated by a potential.
29. (i) The mass of a particle moving with velocity 5 × 106 m/s has de-Broglie wavelength
associated with it to be 0.135 nm. Calculate its mass.
(ii) In which region of the electromagnetic spectrum does this wavelength lie?
30. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV. If an electron makes a transition from an
energy level –1.51 eV to –3.4 eV, calculate the wavelength of the spectral line emitted and name
the series of hydrogen spectrum to which it belongs.

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31. A ray of light passing through an equilateral triangular glass prism from air undergoes minimum
deviation when angle of incidence is 3/4th of the angle of prism. Calculate the speed of light in
the prism.
32. Three light rays red (R), green (G) and blue (B) are incident on a right angled prism 'abc' at face
'ab'. The R refractive indices of the material of the prism for red, green and blue wavelengths are
1.39, 1.44 and 1.47 respectively. Out of the three which colour ray will emerge out of face 'ac'?
Justify your answer. Trace the path of these rays after passing through face 'ab'.

B
G
R
45°
b c

33. (a) Describe Young's double slit experiment to produce interference pattern due to a
monochromatic source of light. Deduce the expression for the fringe width.
(b) In young's double slit experiment, the two slits 0.12 mm apart are illuminated by
monochromatic light of wavelength 420 nm. The screen is 1.0 m away from the slits.
(c) Find the distance of the second
(i) bright fringe, (ii) dark fringe from the central maximum.
(d) How will the fringe pattern change if the screen is moved away from the slits?
34. (a) Write the conditions under which light sources can be said to be coherent.
(b) Use Huygens' principle to show how a plane wavefront propagates from a denser to rarer
medium. Hence verify Snell's law of refraction.
35. (a) Derive lens maker's formula for biconvex lens.
(b) A biconvex lens made of a transparent material of refractive index 1.25 is immersed in water
of refractive index 1.33. Will the lens behave as a converging or a diverging lens? Give
reason.
36. (a) Using Bohr's second postulate of quantization of orbital angular momentum show that
the circumference of the electron in the nth orbital state in hydrogen atom is n times the
de-Broglie wavelength associated with it.
(b) The electron in hydrogen atom is initially in the third excited state. What is the maximum
number of spectral lines which can be emitted when it finally moves to the ground state ?

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SECTION-C
Case Study Based Questions
1. Sparking Brilliance of Diamond

Critical angle

Diamond
Total Air
reflection
The total internal reflection of the light is used in polishing diamonds to create a sparking
brilliance. By polishing the diamond with specific cuts, it is adjusted the most of the light rays
approaching the surface are incident with an angle of incidence more than critical angle. Hence,
they suffer multiple reflections and ultimately come out of diamond from the top. This gives the
diamond a sparking brilliance.
(i) Light cannot easily escape a diamond without multiple internal reflections. This is because :
(1) Its critical angle with reference to air is too large
(2) Its critical angle with reference to air is too small
(3) The diamond is transparent
(4) Rays always enter at angle greater than critical angle
(ii) The critical angle for a diamond is 24.4°. Then its refractive index is
(1) 2.42 (2) 0.413 (3) 1 (4) 1.413
(iii) The basic reason for the extraordinary sparkle of suitably cut diamond is that
(1) It has low refractive index (2) It has high transparency
(3) It has high refractive index (4) It is very hard
(iv) A diamond is immersed in a liquid with a refractive index greater than water. Then the critical
angle for total internal reflection will
(1) will depend on the nature of the liquid (2) decrease
(3) remains the same (4) increase
(v) The following diagram shown same diamond cut in two different shapes.

The brilliance of diamond in the second diamond will be :

(1) less than the first (2) greater than first
(3) same as first (4) will depend on the intensity of light

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2. Solar Cell
Solar cell is a p-n junction diode which converts solar energy into electrical energy. It is basically
a solar energy converter. The upper layer of solar cells is of p-type semiconductor and very thin
so that the incident light photons may easily reach the p-n junction. On the top face of p-layer,
the metal finger electrodes are prepared in order to have enough spacing between the fingers for
the light to reach the p-n junction through p-layer.
(i) The schematic symbol of solar cells is
Anode Anode Anode

P P n
(1) (2) (3) (4)
+ n n P
–
Cathode Cathode Cathode
(ii) The p-n junction which generates an emf when solar radiations fall on it, with no external bias
applied, is a
(1) light emitting diode (2) photo diode (3) solar cell (4) none of these
(iii) For satellites the source of energy is
(1) solar cell (2) fuel cell (3) Edison cell (4) none of these
(iv) Which of the following material is used is solar cells ?
(1) Barium (2) Silicon (3) Silver (4) Selenium
(v) Photovoltaic cell or solar cell converts
(1) Thermal energy into electrical energy
(2) Electromagnetic radiation directly into electricity
(3) Solar radiation into thermal energy
(4) Solar radiation into kinetic energy

3. Intrinsic & extrinsic Semiconductor

A pure semiconductor germanium or silicon, free of every impurity is called intrinsic
semiconductor. At room temperature, a pure semiconductor has very small number of current
carriers (electrons and holes). Hence its conductivity is law. When the impurity atoms of valance
five or three are doped in a pure semiconductor, we get respectively n-type or p-type extrinsic
semiconductor. In case of doped semiconductor nenh = ni2. Where ne and nh are the number density
of electron and hole charge carriers in a pure semiconductor. The conductivity of extrinsic
semiconductor is much higher than that of intrinsic semiconductor. Answer the following
questions :
(i) Which of the following statement is not true ?
(1) The resistance of intrinsic semiconductor decreases with increase of temperature
(2) Doping pure Si with trivalent impurities gives p-type semiconductors.
(3) The majority charges in n-type semiconductors are holes.
(4) A p-n junction can act as semiconductor diode.

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(ii) The impurity atoms with which pure Si should be doped to make a p-type semiconductor in.
(1) Phosphorus (2) Boron (3) Arsenic (4) Antimony
(iii) Holes are majority charge carriers in
(1) Intrinsic semiconductors (2) Ionic Solids
(3) p-type semiconductors (4) Metals
(iv) At absolute zero, Si acts as
(1) Non-metal (2) Metal (3) Insulator (4) None of these
(v) Doping is done to
(1) Decrease conductivity (2) Increase conductivity
(3) Increase ni (4) Increase resistance

ANSWER KEY
1. (i) (2) (ii) (1) (iii) (3) (iv) (4) (v) (1)
2. (i) (1) (ii) (3) (iii) (1) (iv) (2) (v) (2)
3. (i) (3) (ii) (2) (iii) (3) (iv) (3) (v) (2)