INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC

questions, commands or sentences expressing

wishes) that are capable of being true and false.
OUTLINE
I What is Logic o It is not concerned with the psychological
II Logic as Science
processes connected with thought, or
III Logic As Art
IV Logic and Correct Thinking with emotions, images and the like.
V Why Study Logic? o It covers core topics such as the study
VI Basic Logical Concepts of fallacies and paradoxes, as well as specialized
A Proposition analysis of reasoning using probability and
B Argument arguments involving causality and argumentation
C Conclusion theory.
D Premises
E Ideas
  The Field of Philosophy
F Terms o Philosophy is classified into practical and speculative.
VII The Use of Language  Practical philosophy includes:
VIII Definition o Logic - the science and art of correct thinking.
o Ethics - the study of standards of right and wrong.
o Axiology - the study of the nature, types, criteria and
WHAT IS LOGIC status of human values.
 Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to
distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning. LOGIC AS SCIENCE
 When we reason about any matter, we produce  It is a body systematized knowledge, and
arguments to support our conclusions.  It investigates, discourses, expresses, systematizes, and
 Our arguments include reasons that we think justify our demonstrates the laws of correct thinking (Gualdo, 2000)
beliefs.  A science is a systematic study of some aspect of the
 However, not all reasons are good reasons. natural world that seeks to discover laws (regularities,
 Therefore we may always ask, when we confront an principles) by which God governs His creation.
argument: Does the conclusion reached follow from the  Whereas botany studies plants, astronomy studies the
premises assumed? sky, and anatomy studies the body, logic studies the mind
 To answer this question there are objective criteria; in the as it reasons, as it draws conclusions from other
study of logic we seek to discover and apply those criteria. information.
 Logic (from the Greek "logos", which has a variety of  Logic as a science seeks to discover rules that
meanings including word, thought, idea, argument, distinguish good reasoning from poor reasoning, rules that
account, reason or principle) is the study of reasoning, or are then simplified and systematized.
the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference o These would include the rules for validity, of inference
and demonstration. and replacement, and so on.
o It attempts to distinguish good reasoning from bad o For example, logic as a science could study the
reasoning. apostle Paul’s reasoning in 1 Cor. 15, “If there is no
 Reasoning is not the only way in which people support resurrection of the dead, then Christ has not been
assertions they make or accept. raised… But Christ has been raised, and is therefore
o However, when someone wants to make judgments the first fruits from among the dead.” It then simplifies
that can be completely relied upon, their only solid this into a standard pattern: If not R then not C, C,
foundation will be correct reasoning. therefore R. This rule can be further simplified,
o Using the methods and techniques of logic—one can named, and organized in relation to other rules of
distinguish reliably between sound and faulty logic.
reasoning. LOGIC AS ART
 Aristotle defined logic as "new and necessary  Logic guides man's reasoning so he can proceed with
reasoning", "new" because it allows us to learn what we order and ease and without error in the constructive
do not know, and "necessary" because its conclusions are activity of making definitions of terms, propositions and
inescapable. inferences (Gualdo, 2000)
o It asks questions like "What is correct reasoning?",   An art is a creative application of the principles of nature
o "What distinguishes a good argument from a bad for the production of works of beauty, skill, and practical
one?", use. The visual arts apply their principles to the production
o "How can we detect a fallacy in reasoning?“ of paintings, sculptures, and pottery. The literary arts
 Logic investigates and classifies the structure produce poems and stories. The performing arts produce
of statements and arguments, both through the study operas, plays, and ballets.
of formal systems of inference and through the study of  Logic is one of the seven liberal arts, which include the
arguments in natural language. Trivium of grammar, logic, and rhetoric.
o It deals only with propositions (declarative  These arts are the skills which are essential for a free
sentences, used to make an assertion, as opposed to person (liberalis, “worthy of a free person”) to take an
active part in daily life, for the benefit of others.

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 Specifically, logic as an art seeks to apply the principles of  EXAMPLES. The following are propositions:
reasoning to analyze and create arguments, proofs, and o the reactor is on;
other chains of reasoning. o the wing-flaps are up;
o John Major is prime minister.
IN SUMMARY:  whereas the following are not:
 Logic is the science and art of reasoning well. o are you going out somewhere?
 Logic as a science seeks to discover rules of reasoning; o 2+3
 logic as an art seeks to apply those rules to rational ARGUMENT
discourse  Any group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow
LOGIC AND CORRECT THINKING from the others, which are regarded as providing support
 As a Correct Thinking or grounds for the truth of that one.
 Correctness implies:  With propositions as building blocks, we construct
o Right order arguments. In any argument we affirm one proposition on
o Reasonable procedure the basis of some other propositions.
o Valid inference  An argument is a collection of statements or propositions,
o Consistency some of which are intended to provide support or evidence
o Necessary relationship in favor of one of the others.
 Thinking implies:  Inference - A process by which one proposition is arrived
o Conformity to certain valid rules and laws and at and affirmed on the basis of some other proposition or
propositions
o Connectivity of truth about all available experiences.
 Some Example Arguments
 Logic, then, is a philosophical tool that helps in the o P1. If Bush lied to Congress, then Bush should be
formation of ideas, comparing them through accurate
impeached.
judgement and inferring from them valid and sound
o P2. Bush lied to Congress.
conclusions.
o C. Therefore, Bush should be impeached.
o P1. If everything it says in the Bible is true, then the
WHY STUDY LOGIC
world was created in six days.
 The study of Logic contributes to the quality of human life
o P2. The world was not created in six days.
to improve human civilization.
 The art and science of creative thinking is helpful in the o C. Therefore, not everything it says in the Bible is
practice of any profession, and in analyzing or making true.
decisions in one's daily life.  Some Example Arguments
 Logic builds confidence in oneself, and provides man a o P1. All toasters are items made out of Gold.
sense of direction, order, validity, truth, and accuracy. o P2. All items made out of Gold are time travel
 Knowledge of Logic helps in preventing the commission of devices.
errors. o C.Therefore, all toasters are time travel devices.
 It also helps us to avoid making conclusions, based on o P1. Every wizard uses a wand.
false and biased assumptions. o P2. Dumbledore uses a wand.
 Knowledge of Logic is best tested in argumentation and o C. Therefore, Dumbledore is a wizard.
debate when and where discussion for and against any o
issue is involved. CONCLUSION
 Conclusion In any argument, the proposition to which the
BASIC LOGICAL CONCEPTS other propositions in the argument are claimed to give
support, or for which they are given as reasons
PROPOSITION  The conclusion is that statement or proposition for which
 A statement; what is typically asserted using a declarative the premises are intended to provide support. (In short, it
sentence, and hence always either true or false—although is the point the argument is trying to make.)
its truth or falsity may be unknown.
 Propositions are the building blocks of our reasoning. PREMISES
 A proposition asserts that something is the case or it  Premises In an argument, the propositions upon which
asserts that something is not. inference is based; the propositions that are claimed to
 We may affirm a proposition, or deny it—but every provide grounds or reasons for the conclusion.
proposition either asserts what really is the case, or it  Premises are those statements or propositions in an
asserts something that is not. argument that are intended to provide the support or
o Therefore every proposition is either true or false evidence.
o Every statement must be either true or false,  (Important note: premises are always intended to provide
although the truth or falsity of a given statement may support or evidence for the conclusion, but they don't
be unknown. always succeed. It’s still an argument either way.)
 The simplest, and most abstract logic we can study is  A statement is a declarative sentence, or part of a
called propositional logic. sentence, that can be true or false. How many statements
 A proposition is a statement that can be either true or are there in this example?
false; it must be one or the other, and it cannot be both.

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 o The Winter Olympics are in Italy this year, but four o independent of our mind.
years from now they will be in Vancouver, Canada.  Ex. Humans have two legs.
o 2. Second Intention: a concept by which we
CONCLUSION INDICATORS AND PREMISE conceive a thing in reality in so far as the mind
INDICATORS understands it.
  Ex. The Philippines is the Pearl of the Orient
 Conclusion indicator
Seas.
o A word or phrase (such as “therefore” or “thus”)
  Second Classification
appearing in an argument and usually indicating that
what follows it is the conclusion of that argument.  Two kinds:   
o 1. Concrete – It creates a form and subject in the
Table No 1. Partial List of Conclusion indicators mind.
Therefore for these reasons  Ex. Black dress, Red lips, Green shirt
o 2. Abstract – A concept endowed with form only.
Hence It follows that
 Ex. blackness, loyalty
So I conclude that
 Third Classification – a concept which could either be”
Accordingly which shows that
absolute” or “connotative”.
In consequence which means that
 Two kinds:         
Proves that which implies that
o 1. Absolute – a concept that manifests itself to the
As a result which allows us to infer that
mind as a substance and as an independent reality.                 
For this reason which points to the conclusion
 Ex. Man, God
that
o 2. Connotative – a concept that manifests itself to the
Thus we may infer
mind as an accident connected to a substance.
 Premise Indicator       Ex. Debater, speaker, kind, beautiful
o In an argument, a word or phrase (like “because” and
 Fourth Classification - it depends on the quality of the
“since”) that normally signals that what follows it are sentence.
statements serving as premises
 Two kinds:          
o 1. Positive – an essential characteristic of this
Table No 1. Partial List of Premise indicators
classification is that it formulates the concept in an
Since As indicated by
affirmative form.                       
Because The reason is that   Ex. She is an honest person.
For For the reason that o 2. Negative – It expresses an object that lacks
As May be inferred from something or that which is stated in negative form.
follows from May be derived from  Ex. Pedro is not happy.
As shown by May be deduced from
In as much as In view of the fact that IDEAS, TERMS AND PROPOSITIONS                  
 Ideas and Concepts are abstract representation of
CONCEPT reality. It focuses on the nature or essence of things. Ideas
 A concept is a representation of an object by the intellect are mental signs whereby humans grasp and understand
through which man understands or comprehends a thing, the essences of things.
a principle or idea.  Classifications of Ideas:
o The concept of free speech is unknown to them. o Ideas may refer to an actual reality or to the idea
o It is very difficult to define the concept of beauty. itself.
o I failed to grasp the film's central concept. o Other ideas may be as they are or as product of the
o Kleenbrite is a whole new concept in toothpaste! imagination.
 More examples o They may refer to the universal or to the particular
o In this country, time is an elastic concept. extension.
o It is sometimes easier to illustrate an abstract concept IDEAS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO:
by analogy with something concrete.  A.1. First Intention – ideas that express objects not only
o The whole concept of democracy, she claimed, as they are in the mind but also as they are in reality.
was utterly foreign to the present government. o Examples: The idea of a clinic, a hospital, or a house.
o Many voters are staunch anti-federalists, opposed to  A.2. Second Intention – ideas that express what they are
the concept of regional government. in the mind. Concepts that express things that has mental
o This is a very difficult concept to get hold of. existence These things that exist as a result of being
o don't think you have any concept of the pain you have thought of.
caused her. o Examples: Pegasus, Batman, and Superman 
 B.1. Concrete – an idea that expresses a form as inhering
CLASSIFICATION OF CONCEPTS in a subject.
 First Classification o Examples: beautiful lady, brilliant lawyer, excellent
  Two kinds:   teacher and caring nurse
o 1. First Intention: a concept by which we know a  B.2. Abstract - an idea that expresses form only,
thing separated from its subject.

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 o Examples: beauty, brilliance, health and wealth  The supposition of the term “runs” is
 C.1. Absolute – an idea that expresses a thing as a manages.
substance or an independent reality.  Predicaments 
o Examples: man, planet, ocean o Predicaments refer to the set of fundamental ideas in
 C.2. Connotative – an idea that expresses an accident or terms of which all other ideas can be expressed.
quality inhering in a substance. o This is otherwise known as categories or first
o Examples: teacher, anesthesiologist, pediatrician and intentions.
driver o Predicaments are applied to universal concepts by
 D.1.  Positive – an idea that expresses a thing according which other concepts can be expressed or classified.
to what it is or what it has.
o Example: rich, educated, perfect, skilled  LANGUAGE
 D.2. Negative – an idea that expresses a thing according  Language is the means by which humans learn, interact
to what it is not or what it lacks. and bond.
o Examples: poor, uneducated, imperfect, unskilled  Both verbal and non-verbal forms of language
o communicate subtle nuances that affect the meaning of
TERMS: THE EXPRESSIONS OF IDEAS words and phrases.
 A term is an external representation of an idea. For every  Communication can be categorized into three primary
idea there is a corresponding term. purposes for language: informative, expressive and
 Words, however, are not necessarily terms. directive.
 Thus, there is no one to one correspondence between INFORMATIVE:
terms and words.  The informative use of language involves information
 A word may not necessarily represent an idea but all giving and receiving.
terms are words that contain corresponding ideas.  The general assumption is that the content is believable
and valuable.
PROPERTIES OF TERMS  For example, language is used to offer opinions, give
 Comprehension advice, make announcements, lecture, admonish, report
o the sum total of all qualities, which constitute the news, solicit input or ask questions.
meaning of a term. The comprehension of a term  Everyday conversations center around information
expresses the essence of the object. The sharing.
comprehension therefore is the meaning.
 Example: Man = rational animal EXPRESSIVE
 Extension  Language expresses and evokes ideas, thoughts and
o the sum total of all individuals or objects to which the feelings.
comprehension of a term is applied.  Expressive language may or may not include any real
 Example: Man = Peter, Paul,  John information because the purpose of expressive use of
KINDS OF TERMS ACCORDING TO language is to convey emotion.
COMPREHENSION  For example, the expression “Yuck” connotes disgust, but
the word itself isn't necessarily used to inform.
 Univocal 
o a term that is used in exactly the same sense and DIRECTIVE
meaning in at least two occurrences. Example: Peter  Language is used to establish and maintain social order.
is a nurse. John is a nurse. Man is in this case is  Directive use of language establishes norms of
univocal. expected behavior in certain situations.
 Equivocal   Traffic signs, laws, rules and policies are among the
o a term that is used with totally different meanings in common forms of directive language that promote health
at least two occurrences. and safety in society.
 Example: The rebel base is located at the base  “Eat your vegetables” is an example of directive use of
of the mountain. Base in this case is equivocal. language used in informal communication.
 Analogous
o a term that expresses not exactly the same but not
MULTIPLE USES
totally different meanings.
 In many cases, use of language serves multiple purposes.
 Example: good teacher, good clinical instructor,
 For example, the statement “Stop that” is both directive
and good robber. Good in this case is analogous.
and expressive.
OTHER PROPERTIES OF TERMS AND IDEAS
 Yawning and uttering “I’m tired” is informative, expressive,
 Supposition and possibly directive if used to imply that another person
o Supposition refers to the specific meaning of the should leave because it's late.
term as used in the statement, the meaning of the
term according to its context. It is the actual idea or ETYMOLOGY OF DEFINITION
reality being meant by the term.
 The term “DEFINITON” came from the Latin word definire
 Example: Dr. Garcia  runs a flourishing
meaning “to lay down”
pharmaceutical business. 

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 Thus etymologically, to define means “to lay down the o Example: An “airplane” is “flying machine used for
markers or limits” transportation”.
 Real definition  Scientific
o Definition is a conceptual manifestation either of the o Definitions that are usually technical description of the
meaning of the term or of the formal features of an terms.
object. o In the field of medicine and physical science, terms
DEFINITION and objects or instruments, body parts and diseases
 A definition is a statement which explains what a thing is. are given scientific definitions.
 It is a statement that answers the question “What is o
this thing?” KINDS OF DEFINITIONS
 In giving the definition of the term, it is presupposed that  Kinds of Definition – Irving M. Copi
the comprehension of the term is understood, because the  The most common way of preventing or eliminating
definition is based on its comprehension. differences in the use of languages is by agreeing on
 A real definition is one which explains and reveals the the definition of our terms.
complete nature of a thing or object. However, this is quite  Since these explicit accounts of the meaning of a word or
impossible. phrase can be offered in distinct contexts and employed in
 Therefore, it explains the normal acceptance of a simple the service of different goals, it's useful to distinguish
description as definition of an object. definitions of several kinds:
o A LEXICAL DEFINITION simply reports the way in
KIND OF DEFINITION which a term is already used within a language
 Nominal community.
 A definition that simply explains the means of a term or  The goal here is to inform someone else of the
word. It may be the root word or an equivalent term accepted meaning of the term, so the definition is
o Synonym more or less correct depending upon the
 An equivalent term or word, e.g., joy means accuracy with which it captures that usage.
happiness; President means the chief  An example of lexical meaning is the meaning of
o Etymology the word "port" in the words import or
 The origin or root word, e.g. “Biology” came from portable.
the word bio meaning life and logos meaning  Examples are cat, traffic light, take care of, by the
“study”, thus “biology” meaning study of life way, and it's raining cats and dogs. 
 Real  Lexical items can be generally understood to
 A definition that explains what a thing or subject is. It convey a single meaning, much as a lexeme, but
explains the nature of the object by giving its essential are not limited to single words
features or by simply describing the object. o A lexical definition (Latin, lexis which means “word”)
o Essential is the definition of a word according to the meaning
 Explains the very nature of the object by giving its customarily assigned to it by the community of users.
proximate genus and specific difference. o It simply reports the meaning which a word already
 The proximate genus consists of the essential has among the users of the language in which the
elements w/c makes the object or individual word occurs.
similar o others o A dictionary or lexicon comprises this kind of
 The specific difference is the distinctive elements definition.
w/c distinguishes it from others.  E.g.:   Lexicon - dictionary: a reference book
o Descriptive that alphabetically lists words and their
 Explains what a thing or object is by giving the meanings, e.g. of an ancient language
positive but non-essential features of the object.  River -     large natural channel of water: a
Sometime it is difficult to give the essential natural stream of water that flows through land
features of objects or things, this explains the and empties into a body of water such as an
general acceptance of a simple description of its ocean or lake
characteristics. o Examples of Lexical Definitions
o Descriptive Definition is further divided into three:  Here are two examples of lexical definitions of
 Distinctive – w/c explains an object or a thing by the word atheist:
giving the set of distinctive characteristics of an  1. atheist:
object or external features. - one who disbelieves in or denies the
 Genetic-w/c explains an object by giving its existence of God or gods.
origin or process of production.  2. atheist:
 Casual- w/c explain a thing or object by giving its - one who knows that God exists, but is in
efficient cause. denial for some reason.
o The first is a correct definition in the lexical sense
 Popular because it accurately describes how the term atheist
o A definition that is based on the common knowledge is used in a wide variety of contexts.
or idea of people about a thing or object. o The second, however, is an incorrect definition in
the lexical sense. You won't find it in any dictionaries

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 or in widespread use, but it is a definition used in  Take, for instance, the definition of table salt as sodium
narrow circles of evangelical Christians. Rather than a chloride.
lexical definition, this more properly an example of a  Unless the persons involved have some acquaintance with
persuasive definition. elementary chemistry, this would be a bad definition, for it
 At the other extreme, a STIPULATIVE would define the familiar in terms of the unfamiliar.
DEFINITION freely assigns meaning to a completely new  For those acquainted with the principles of chemistry,
term, creating a usage that had never previously existed. however, this definition is the best one, for it reveals the
o Since the goal in this case is to propose the adoption real nature of salt.
of shared use of a novel term, there are no existing  Other familiar theoretical definitions are “force equals
standards against which to compare it, and the mass times acceleration,” or “light is electromagnetic
definition is always correct (though it might fail to energy (of a certain range of wavelengths).”
win acceptance if it turns out to be inapt or useless).  For scientific purposes, theoretical definitions are
o A STIPULATIVE DEFINITION is when an necessary and cannot be replaced by other types of
argument inserts a new or different definition for a definitions. A theoretical definition answers the question,
term than what is generally understood or what is in “What really is x?” where “x” is the object whose name is
standard dictionaries -- what we'd call their lexical to be defined.
definition.  Philosophers, too, are interested in theoretical definitions.
o A stipulative definition is announced as such (by  The desire to know what is really the nature of “human
saying something like ''Let's say, for the sake of this person”, “knowledge”, “existence”, “being”, “beauty” etc.,
argument, that blue means red. . ."'), and therefore is  Theoretical definitions are special cases of stipulative or
neither ''correct'' or ''incorrect'' because it has been precising definition, distinguished by their attempt to
established as different or provisional. establish the use of this term within the context of a
o A stipulative definition is a kind of definition in which broader intellectual framework.
a new word or term is coined in order to signify a PERSUASIVE DEFINITION
meaning or object for which no word in the language  Some definitions are intended either mainly or at least
has previously been given. partly to influence attitudes.
 For example, the word selfie has been invented  Persuasive definition, under which these definitions are
in order to signify a person who loves to take categorized, incites either favourable or unfavourable
picture of himself or herself. responses to the object so defined.
o Suppose that another living creature was found in
 Persuasive is not really concerned with revealing the true
another planet. Surely, there is no word in our nature of the concept defined but of influencing attitude by
language to signify such creature. using phrases that appeal to one’s emotion.
o We, then, have to stipulate that the creature shall be
 Here are examples of persuasive definitions:
known by this or that particular name. Doing this o Democracy is a government of the weak, inferior race.
means making a stipulative definition.
o Democracy is a government of the people by the
 Combining these two techniques is often an effective way
people for the people.
to reduce the vagueness of a word or phrase.
o A dictator is one who achieves greatness by violence
 These PRECISING DEFINITIONS begin with the
in the political sphere.
lexical definition of a term but then propose to sharpen it o Love is only an illusion on people who do not know
by stipulating more narrow limits on its use.
the difference between reality and fantasy.
 Here, the lexical part must be correct and the stipulative
o Contraception is the deliberate prevention of
portion should appropriately reduce the troublesome
unwanted pregnancy so that families may be able to
vagueness.
give the best care to their children.
 The purpose of a precising definition is to reduce the
o Contraception is the wilful interference of God’s will so
vagueness of a word.
that children who would have seen the light of day are
 There are terms in our language which must have precise
deliberately prevented from doing so.
definitions because some future actions are based on our
knowledge of them. DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION
o For example, the arguments for or against  In logic, the uses of denotation and connotation are very
contraception requires a clear, precise, and different.
unambiguous definition of life of human organism  The denotation, or extension, of a term, is the list of a
because such definition implies the moral bearing of class of objects referred to by the word (think of it as “how
contraception. far does this word extend?”).
o Other examples which need precising definitions are  Thus the word “planet” denotes specific objects such as
legal terms like “theft”, “murder”, “private property”, Venus, Earth, Jupiter, and Neptune.
“rights”, and “sovereignty” since the definition sets the  Whether it also denotes an object like “Pluto” is a matter of
condition of understanding laws and legislative praxis. some debate among astronomers.
THEORETICAL DEFINITION  The debate over whether the word “planet” denotes “Pluto”
is because astronomers disagree on what sorts of
 THEORETICAL DEFINITIONS attempt to define an attributes are connoted by the word “planet,” and hence
object according to its true nature, and not necessarily whether “Pluto” has the right attributes to qualify as a
according to the way the word is used by a community of planet.
users.

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 The connotation, or intention, of a word, is the list of
attributes shared by all members of the class named by
the word (think of it as “by using this word, what do I
intend?”).
 Thus the word “planet” connotes certain
characteristics which astronomers have decided to
differentiate certain objects from other objects like comets,
stars, and asteroids.

REFERENCES

Introduction to Logic
 Irving M. Copi Carl Cohen Kenneth McMahon
Fourteenth Edition
Source: Joven, J.R.(2006)Teaching and learning
logic.Manila: Rex Book Store

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