Subject: Logic

Course outline
 Chapter – 1 the study of logic
 Chapter – 2 Terms and Meaning
Prilime
 Chapter – 3 Propositions
 Chapter – 4inference
Midterm
 Chapter – categoricalsyllogisms
 Chapter – 6 the figures and moods of categirical syllogisms
 Chapter – 7 three variations of the categorical syllogism
Pre-final
 Chapter – 8 hypothetical syllogism
 Chapter – 9 fallacies
 Chapter – 10 philisophical analysis
Fianal
Chapter I. Nature and Definition of Logic
A. Basic Concepts Logic may be defined as the organized body of knowledge, or science,
that evaluates arguments. All of us encounter arguments in our day-to-day experience. We
read them in books, in newspapers, hear them on television and formulate them when
communicating with friends and associates. The aim of logic is to develop a system of
methods and principles that we may use as criteria for evaluating the arguments of others and
as guides in constructing arguments of our own. Among the benefits to be expected from the
study of logic is an increase in confidence that we are making sense when we criticize the
arguments of others and when we advance arguments of our own
Logic is regarded as the indispensable foundation for all types of knowledge. This is so
because it is used not only in the acquisition and interpretation of knowledge but also in the
expansion and application of knowledge. People of ancient times considered logic as
preparatory to the study of all sciences which explains why they called it the organon, or
instrument, of science. To the Greek philosopher Aristotle, logic is an instrument which
facilitates the knowing of “intelligible connections in concepts and in things”.
An argument in its simplest form, is a group of statements, one or more of which (the
premises) are claimed to provide support for, or reasons to believe, one of the others (the
conclusion). Every argument may be placed in either of two basic groups: those in which the
premises really do support the conclusion and those in which they do not, even though they
are claimed to. The former are said to be good arguments (at least to that extent), the latter
bad arguments. The purpose of logic, as the science that evaluates arguments, isthmus to
develop methods and techniques that allow us to distinguish good arguments from bad.
B. Logical vs. Illogical
Another way to understand logic is to know and differentiate the two commonly-used terms
from the word logic.
All of us are familiar with the words “logical” and “illogical”. For instance, we refer to a
“logical “candidate, a “logical” procedure or a “logical” choice. In these contexts, the word
 Logical- means, it is “in accordance with what one would reasonably expect in view
of the events or circumstances. - It refers to a man whose thinking is orderly and
consistent as a “logical “thinker and to an argument that clearly proves its conclusion
as a “logical “argument.
 Illogical- it is an action that is not called by the circumstances, or a person whose
thinking is disorderly and inconsistent, or an argument that does not prove its
conclusion but it is irrelevant, circular, or self-contradictory.
 In every instance, the words “logical” and “illogical” refer to CORRECTTHINKING.
 A choice is logical or illogical depending on whether or not it results from correct
thinking.
 person is logical or illogical depending on whether or not his thinking is correct.
 An argument is logical or illogical depending on whether or not it expresses correct
thinking
C. What is Logic?
LOGIC- the science and art of correct thinking.
Based on this definition, there are four important words to understand clearly:
1.Thinking- the word “thinking” does not include absolutely all mental operations but only
those mental operations (a). that are directly toward the truth and (b)by which we elaborate
upon knowledge previously possessed. Thinking then, includes analysis, comparison,
classification, definition, logical division, and so on, and especially the various kinds of
inference. Logic studies these operations insofar as they are instruments of knowledge and
means of attaining truth.
2. Correct Thinking- Our thinking is correct when it conforms to the laws or rules
investigated by logic. For instance, definition is correct if it conforms to the rules of
definition; logical division is correct if it conforms to its rules; and the various kinds of
inference are correct if they conform to their rules. Since very much of logic is a study of the
conditions of correctness of thought, we cannot understand the meaning of “correct thinking”
unless we first have studied logic.
3. A science- Logic is a science in the traditional “Aristotelian” and “Thomistic” sense of
science although not quite in the same sense as physics, chemistry, and soon. Hence, we do
not ordinarily call a logic course as a science course. Logic is a science because it is certain
and systematized knowledge of the principles governing correct thinking- it does not give us
mere mechanicalrules but gives us insight into why its rules must be as they are and cannot
be otherwise. Logic, as a science, investigates, discovers, expresses, systematizes and
demonstrates or explains the laws of correct thinking.
4. An art- Logic is an art because it guides man’s reason so he can proceed with order and
ease without error in the constructive activity of making definitions, propositions, syllogisms
and so on. Indeed, logic is the “Art of Arts” (ArsArtium), or a sort of super-art, for it directs
reason itself, which is the director of the other arts. Yet it is an art only in a secondary sense
of word, for its products (unlike those of sculpture, painting, building, etc.) are purely mental
and imperceptible to the senses. Since logic perfects the intellect, which is the root of
freedom (Libertas), and since free men (liberi) should beeper-eminent in things of the mind,
logic has traditionally been called a liberal art.
D. Logic and Reason
Are you a logician? Why or why not?
All of us are logicians by nature- at least to some extent. We must not suppose that we know
nothing at all about logic before we have made a formal study of it. We are logicians simply
because we are a rational being, we spontaneously know the more general laws of correct
thinking and are necessarily subject to them
E. Limits of Logic
does not give us knowledge of the real world, at least not directly, but only of certain aspects
of our thought. It does not consider real things but certain aspects of our knowledge of
real things. Hence, (a) logic in as much as it is a mere tool of reason, it has no direct
contribution to the content of our thoughts and emotions and (b) logic presupposes means of
attaining truth over which it has no control.
F. Reasons of Studying Logic
1. Logic gives us norms for recognizing correct or God thinking.
2. It helps us know for certain whether or not our evidence justifies our conclusions.
3. It teaches us what to look for in order to test the validity of arguments.
4. It helps us think with order and ease without error.
5. It enables us to discover defects in the thinking of others and to avoid defects in our
own thinking.
6. Logic is an apt introduction to Philosophy.
Exercises No. 1
1. Give at least two examples of a logical action or argument.
2. 2.Give at least two examples of an illogical action or argument.
In one sentence each, explain why Logic is:
1. A science:
2. An Art:
Give only two reasons why the study of Logic is important to you.
1. Why are you a logician?
2. Give one specific reason to support your answer
Why Study Logic?
• To sharpen the minds in the world saturated by stream of propaganda and advertising.
• To know when a pitchman in conning you and when some expert or Panduit is
proponing and dubious philosophy.
• To develop a tenable argument and respect for good reasoning.
 • To become more adept at problem solving, whether it counters in business , science,
computer science or politics.
Benefits of Studying Logic • Supports the use of our reasoning powers • Helps to make them
more dependable • We learn how to defend judgments • Using logic we bring our intellectual
capacities to maturity and fruitfulness • We learn to distinguish good arguments from bad
ones.
Definition • Derived from the Greek word” logos” which means - study, reason or
discourse
• LOGIC is the science and art of correct thinking - it is a SCIENCE because it is a
systematized body of logical truths and principles governing correct thinking. as an ART,
logic is a “techne” and it teaches how to make a good argument - often called the arts of arts
because it develops and perfects the intellect which all artists need in their work.
CHAPTER 2: LOGIC
Logic – is a philosophy subject that deals with the reasoning of human beings.
• Philo” – love
• Sophia” – wisdom
1. Philosophy – Love of wisdom
2. Philosophy – means to look for something, to look for the truth and to look for the
value of a subject- Asks a lot of questions. Questions that will lead an individual to
see or to find the truth
OTHER PHILOSOPHY SUBJECTS:
1. Ethics – the morality of human acts
2. Epistemology – the theory of knowledge
3. Ontology – the search for ultimate reality
4. Cosmology – the study of nature, universe and heavenly entities
5. Aesthetics – the study of the beautiful
6. Theodicy – philosophical study of God
7. Social Philosophy – the study of the relationship of man and the family, state and
church
8. Philosophy of man – the inquiry into a human as a person
9. Philosophy of language – study of language, signs and symbols
LOGIC -is not only the ability to reason out but the ability to reason out CORRECTLY and
EFFICIENTLY. - It is all about the person who possesses the art by which he effectively
arrives at the truth.
HOW IS LOGIC?
✓ Express ideas with clarity
✓ judicious choice of words or terms
✓ Sound arguments
✓ Distinguish correct and incorrect reasoning with coherence and confidence
LOGIC AS A SCIENCE HAS BENEFITS:
 1. Guides a man in his search for truth
2. Develops and perfects his reasoning power
3. Assures better relationship among human beings
4. Very helpful in the study of other philosophy subjects
KINDS OF LOGIC
1. Formal Logic – Concerned with the aspects of form which has to do with correctness or
sequence of the following rules
2. Material logic – is concerned with the subject matter or content or truth
3. Deductive logic – the premises flow logically into the conclusion.
In the field of Criminology how crime scene analysis works

1. The first step to crime scene analysis is making observations.

2. Observation lead to questions or problem statements.
Example
1. What crime was committed
2. Who committed this crime?
3. How was this crime committed?

Using logic - logic a system of reasoning and inference conclusion that are based on
observations in context of forensics does the evidence and the description make sense.

Example: a body was found in an alley the body had multiple stab wounds but there is very
little blood at the crime scene.

What is one logical explanation inference of the crime that you can make with this
information?

Deductive Reasoning - a thought process that investigators use to assemble the pieces of a
criminal puzzle to reach a logical conclusion.

Looking at facts Example of deductive reasoning

Facts:
- Ice cream sales go down in the winter
- Statistic show that are fewer instance of domestic’s violence in the winter
Facts:
- Ice cream sales go up in the summer
- Statistic show there are fewer instance of domestic violence in the summer

What is the logical thinking

- When ice cream sales go up domestic violence goes up.
- When ice cream sale go down domestic violence goes down
- Conclusion the more ice cream that is sold the more domestics violence there will be
less ice cream sold the less domestic violence
Cause and effect
- Describe the cause and effect of ice cream and domestic violence.
- If ice cream sales stop the domestic violence will also stop
- Do the two really go together?
 - While it may seem like the two goes mean that ice cream sales really effect domestic
violence
- What we see when we look at facts is a relationship that really does exits because we
are only seeing a part of the whole picture… leading to misinterpretation
- What are some other pieces of the puzzle that we have seen yet?
Reasoning
- False reasoning as we just saw can lead to errors and misunderstandings or
misinterpretation when evaluating evidence and results.

Sound Reasoning
- As experts with a lot of experience many forensic scientists use a combination of
suspicion and reasoning to help solve crimes.
- Using sounds reasoning allows for valuable allows for valuable interpretation of
evidence while still maintaining objective
- Combination of suspicion and reasoning to help solve crimes
- Using sounds reasoning allows for valuable interpretation of evidence while still
maintaining objectivity

Level of expressions
1. Term
2. Proposition
3. Inference
Term
- A term is a word that denotes a particular object, by denoting a term brings us an
object or idea.
Types of TERM
- Simple and complex
- Significant and non- significant
- Distributive and collective
- Univocal equivocal and analogical
- Contrary and contradictory

Simple and Complex

- Simple – when the term used consist of a word,for instance jesus ,such is called a
simple term.
-
Complex – composed of many term but standing one idea,example ,the lady in red walking
down the street.

Significant and Non – Significant

- Significant – when a term is used to directly express a concept ,it is called a
significant term.
- Non – significant – when it is not points directlyt to the nature of a thing .

Distributive and Collective

- Distributive – a term is distributive when it show the essence of entities singularity

- Collective – term is collective when it show the essence of entities as a group
Univocal Equivocal and Analogical

1. Univocal – a term is said to be univocal when it has the same meaning.

2. Equivocal – a term is said to be equivocal when it is used in ewntirel different sense.
3. Anlogical – aa term is siad to be analogocsl when it is sude in disticnt but related
senses.

Contrary and Contraditory

1. Contrary – termas are ones that represent two extremes of the same genus.
2. Contradictory – term are ones that are totally opposed to each other

Proposition

A propositition is a sentence in which the subject and predicate are combined in order subject
and predicate are combined ib order to state someting as true of fasle , a proposition therefore
aither affirem or denies.

The valid proposition sentence excluded excelamatory interogar=tive and the imperative

- Exclamatory sentence – exprtess emotional Example Give me liberty or give me

death
- Interrogative sentence – ask question Example am i my brother keeper.
- Imperative sentence – give orders Example send this order to the mayor

Parts of the propositions

1. Subject – is a but which something is affierned or denied

2. Predicate – is what affirmed or denied to the subject
3. Copula – is either is am are if affirmed or is not am not are not if negative

1. TYPES OF PROPOSITION
Categorical Propositions The Nature of the Categorical Proposition

A categorical proposition is restricted to two alternatives: true or false. A proposition is true if

it affirms something, false if it does not. One says, for instance, that the color of the sky is
green, when in fact, it is blue. He is false, and to verify, he can simply be presented with the
color sample of blue. It can be said that he committed an error. Error exists due to the misuse
of the faculty of the senses. But let us examine the statement "God is love." There is no
empirical data that would affirm or deny the truth of the statement. The statement, in this
regard, is a mere statement. It is not a proposition. It offers no knowledge about the world or
condition of the states of affairs of things. It is meaningless. Meaningfulness is based on
factual content.

A proposition is true if it is a picture of a fact. It is false when it does not picture a fact. Its
sense then comes from the fact that it pictures. Meaning, thus, is derived from the states of
affairs of things. Thus, a proposition is an observation-statement of a fact. It expresses only
truth or falsity.

In form, a proposition is a declarative statement. Let us consider the following:

1. Is it possible that water is present in Mars?
 This is a sentence P.
 P is a question about Q (water in Mars).
 P says nothing about Q (water in Mars). T
2. There is water in Mars.
 This is a sentence P.
 P is a statement about Q (water in Mars).
 P says something about Q (water in Mars).

According to Alfred Jules Ayer, whose book, Language, Truth and Logic, influenced the
Vienna Circle, the movement popular for promoting logical positivism, examining a fact like.

the one asserted by the sample propos verification. In explaining the criterion of verifiability,
he says that "the meaning of a statement is the method of its verification."

Thus, the claim "There is water in Mars" can only be proven by way of probing the surface of
Mars for traces of water. If a statement is factual, then corresponding empirical evidence must
be available. This means that we can be acquainted with the reality it purports to express. In
the case of finding traces of water in Mars, the evidence from Mars rover missions can serve
as our source of data. During the 1940s, the idea of weak and strong verifiability was used by
Ayer since humans had never been into space. Strong verifiability would refer to evidence
that is easily accessible and weak verifiability would refer to verifiability in principle, for in
principle, man can also examine objects in space. Today, such a distinction may no longer be
necessary with the use of state-of-the-art space technology.

The meaningfulness of any proposition, thus, should be based on evidence or the empirical
observation of reality. Therefore, propositions are declarative statements about reality, for
they purport to express facts. What are facts? Facts are physical. Facts refer to the states of
affairs of the world, and propositions give us a clear picture of them. Facts are tangible.
Consider the following examples:

1. In 2008, China was responsible for 19% of CO₂ emissions. Earth temperatures will rise by
2.5% in 2050 due to climate change.
3. India produces 135,000 MW of power from coal.
4. China will have produced 30 GW of energy from wind in 2012.
5. South Africa is the 13th largest CO, emitter in the world.

The above examples show that propositions express facts. They give us the particulars of
certain things, events, or people. Thus, facts, being the hard data of human experience, are
statements about the reality of the world. Facts, in this sense, inform us about what can be
said about the world. Statements like "Who am I?", "What are we in power for?", and "Being
is the being of beings" are not factual assertions. They state nothing about the world. What
can be said about the world are the states of affairs of things.

Guide Questions
1. What is meaning according to Bertrand Russell?
2. What is factual meaning?
3. How is meaning derived according to logical atomism?
4. What is the criterion of verifiability of meaning?
5. What is the distinction between weak and strong verifiability?

Parts of the Categorical Proposition Now, let us consider the parts of the proposition. The
proposition consists of a subject, a predicate, and a copula. The subject is about which
something is being affirmed or denied. The predicate is what is affirmed or denied by the
subject. The copula (i.e., am, is, are, was, were) is that which connects the subject and the
predicate.

Properties of the Categorical Proposition

a. Quantity of a Proposition
The quantity of a proposition depends on the quantity of the subject term. A
proposition is singular if the subject term is singular; a proposition is particular if the
subject term is particular; a proposition is universal if the subject term is universal.
Propositions like "Filipinos love their motherland" and "Asians hate Western food"
are general propositions. They express something that is held to be true generally.
General propositions, however, are not universal but particular. This is because
exceptions will have to be admitted. Below are examples of singular, particular, and
universal propositions.

Examples of singular propositions:

1. The Philippines is the land of my birth.
2. "Every Child is Special" by Aamir Khan is a great film.
3. My world is a mystery to an alchemist.
4. This day is very important for the two of us.
5. The largest planet in the solar system is Jupiter,
Examples of particular propositions:
1. Some children are victims of abuse.
2. An old house was torn apart
3. A few students were listening to the lecture of Professor Giordano.
4. Many politicians are corrupt.
5. Several persons were arrested after the fiasco at J
Examples of universal propositions:
1. All men are equal.
2. A whale shark is a mammal.
3. Iguanas are not felines.
4. Every man is rational.
5. Whatever is beautiful is pleasing.
Exercise Classify the following propositions as singular, particular, or universal. These are
excerpts from The Da Vinci Code by Dan 1 Brown.
1. The precious truth is lost forever.
2. I am returning to England victorious.
3. The Rose is the compass that guides the way.
4. These are not the original symbols for the male and female.
5. Sophie was silent for several seconds.
6. The world is crumbling to an end.
7. This City is lost forever.
8. Some are hopeful.
Quality of a Proposition
In terms of quality, propositions are either positive or negative. Propositions like "The
rainbow is something that intrigues children" and "My love is real" are positive while
propositions like "Anne Frank was not an American" and "Roosevelt was not a friend of
Einstein" are negative.

The determinant of the qualities of such propositions is the copula. A negative copula
signifies that a proposition is negative. A positive copula qualifies the proposition as positive.
The following propositions are positive:
1. The pithecophage jeffery is an endangered bird.
2. some philosophers are atheits
3. all that is immoral is evil
4. every tree is a finite substance
5. i am the master of my fate
The following propositions are negative
1. The cartoon series "South Park" is not for general patronage.
2. Some sharks are not man-eaters.
3. No galaxy is infinite.
4. Every dead star is not a billion years old.
5. Not all powerful men are good.

The A-E-I-O Matrix The symbols A, E, I, and O designate the quantity and quality of
propositions. An A proposition is the symbol for the universal ..
Hypothetical Propositions
Hypothetical propositions are logical statements of conditions or possibilities, options or
speculative relations of facts or supposed facts. It comes as conditional, disjunctive, or
conjunctive.

1. Conditional Propositions - A conditional proposition states a relationship of fact and

its necessary condition. It is distinctively marked by the "if" and "then" clauses. The
"if" clause, which is referred to as the antecedent, contains the condition to a fact. The
"then" clause, which is referred to as the consequent clause, states the possibility
given the antecedent.

(Consequent) (Antecedent) The first quantity of the ratio is called antecedent

whereas the second quantity of the ratio is called consequent

2. Disjunctive Propositions - Disjunctive propositions are about the alternative

possibilities or varieties of choices, marked by the "either- or" clause. There are two
types: strict and broad.

a. Strict Disjunctive Propositions Strict disjunctive propositions present

possibilities or options that exclude each other. The occurrence of one possibility
or option directly denies the other simply because they are incompatible with each
other. For example:

Either you will be absent or attend the class tomorrow.

The possibility of one's being present in class cannot come alongside one's
absence. Absence and presence are incompatible with each other. Other examples:
 b. Broad Disjunctive Propositions - Broad disjunctive propositions present
possibili- ties or options that may probably include each other. The occurrence of
one possibility or option need not deny the others as they are presumably
compatible with each other. For example:

Either he is good in math, or science, or in philosophy.

An individual may be good in either math alone, or solely in the sciences, or just
in philosophy. Howev- er, one can possibly be good in both math and science, or
in math and philosophy, or perhaps in philosophy, science, and so on. Here, one of
the possibilities need not exclude all the others.

3. Conjunctive Propositions A conjunctive proposition speaks of possibilities that

cannot be both true at the same time, marked by the article and, which combines in
the proposition the conflicting and incompatible possibilities. As an example,

You cannot be guilty and innocent at the same time. If a person is "guilty" to a crime,
then he cannot be "innocent" at the same time.

Chapter – 4
INFERENCE What makes knowledge possible? For Immanuel Kant, mind is like an active
apparatus. The world is a set of raw data cast in the net of space and time. The mind arranges
this set of raw data through the categories of understanding. Knowledge proceeds from the
act of perception. Perception makes us see the data outside.

Henri Bergson states, "The eye only sees what the mind is prepared to comprehend." It is this
task that we intend to pursue here. A human being, as an analytical being, is capable of
intellectually uniting the diversity of experiences. It is this ability that allows him/her any
useful investigation, understanding, and introspection of reality.

Inference refers to the process of drawing conclusions or making deductions based on

evidence, reasoning, or prior knowledge. It involves using available information to come to a
logical conclusion or to fill in gaps in understanding. In various fields such as logic,
mathematics, statistics, and science, inference plays a crucial role in making predictions,
forming hypotheses, and understanding relationships between different variables. It's
essentially the act of reasoning from known facts or evidence to reach a new understanding or
belief.

The hypothecal inference occurs when the (premise the assumed fact) which is disjuctive
conjunctive or conditional becomes the basis for a conclustion that is categorical . for
example.