Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/iebm20

Electromagnetic pollution alert: Microwave

radiation and absorption in human organs and
tissues

Nantakan Wongkasem

To cite this article: Nantakan Wongkasem (2021): Electromagnetic pollution alert: Microwave
radiation and absorption in human organs and tissues, Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine, DOI:
10.1080/15368378.2021.1874976

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15368378.2021.1874976

Published online: 10 Feb 2021.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE
https://doi.org/10.1080/15368378.2021.1874976

Electromagnetic pollution alert: Microwave radiation and absorption in human

organs and tissues
Nantakan Wongkasem
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering and Computer Science, the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley,
Edinburg, Texas, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Electromagnetic radiation from communication and electronic devices, networks, systems and base Received 16 November 2020
stations has drawn concern due to excessive global usage with increasing power and operating Revised 17 December 2020
frequency level. Numerous previous researches only focus on how the radiation from certain Accepted 20 December 2020
frequency ranges of particular devices could harm specific human organs and tissues, resulting in KEYWORDS
distinct symptoms. In this research, electromagnetic propagation and properties in 14 human Electromagnetic; microwave;
organs and tissues were analyzed and investigated based on the organs and tissues’ electromag­ radiation; pollution;
netic and mechanical parameters, and chemical composition. Counting the organs and tissues as absorption; human organs;
electromagnetic materials, their permittivity and conductivity, computed by a 4-Cole-Cole mode, tissues; 5G
directly respective to the operating frequency, are interrelated to wave behavior and hence
influence the organs’ response. Tests were conducted in 1 GHz to 105 GHz system settings, covering
most microwave frequency uses: 2.4 GHz of 4G-LTE, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee and the 5G ranges:
28 GHz of 5G-mmW and 95 GHz of 5G-IoT. Trial human organs and tissues were placed in the wave
propagation direction of 2.4 GHz and 28 GHz dipole antennas, and a waveguide port operating from
95 to 105 GHz. The quantitative data on the effects of 5G penetration and dissipation within human
tissues are presented. The absorbance in all organs and tissues is significantly higher as frequency
increases. As the wave enters the organ-tissue model, the wavelength is shortened due to the high
organ-tissue permittivity. Skin-Bone-Brain layer simulation results demonstrate that both electric
and magnetic fields vanish before passing the brain layer at all three focal frequencies of 2.4 GHz,
28 GHz and 100 GHz.

Introduction
Electromagnetic (EM) spectrum in the radio frequency Based on their free-space radiation characteristics to
(RF) and microwave frequency ranges have been utilized serve numerous users in a wide-open space, wireless
for wireless communications since World War II (1939– technologies require far more energy than wire technol­
1945). The radar-frequency bands covering the EM spec­ ogies do. Although the energy efficiency of wireless
trum according to IEEE standards are classified from High access networks has been improving significantly, it
Frequency (HF), in the range of 0.003–0.03 GHz (or 3– still cannot keep up with rapidly increasing data usage
30 MHz), to Millimeter (mm) in the range of 110–300 GHz and new functionalities at the network level (Pihkola et
(IEEE 521-2002IEEE Standard Letter Designations for al. 2018). The available estimates of the internet energy
Radar-Frequency Bands 2020). The frequency band usage intensity ranges from 136 kW/GB to 0.0064 kW/GB
is strictly regulated by each country’s national laws and (Coroama et al. 2015). Setting the mid-point at 78 kW/
coordinated by the International Telecommunication GB, we could consume circa 4.89 MW monthly world­
Union (ITU) (International Telecommunication Union´s wide in 2022 by mobile usage alone. Energy consump­
Radio Regulations 2012). ITU regulations focus on the tion of wireless devices is directly connected to the
prevention of user, generation and transmission interfer­ device efficiency in both radiated or transmitter power
ences. Based on a global mobile data traffic forecast and data speed. The transmitter power is rated based on
(Haripriya 2020a), by 2022, there will be 5.7 billion global a 0-dB antenna load of the receiving device or the
mobile users, with the average smartphone generating portable transmitters, e.g. cell phones, internet of thing
11GB of mobile traffic per month and the video streaming (IoT) wireless wearable units, smart home accessories,
accounting for 79% of the total mobile data traffic. walkie-talkies, where the resistance and output of the

CONTACT Nantakan Wongkasem nantakan.wongkasem@utrgv.edu Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering and
Computer Science, the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Edinburg, Texas 78539, USA
© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 N. WONGKASEM

received antenna are assumed to be exactly the same as communication states, antenna types and RF circuits/
those of the transmitter feeding it (Norman 2014). These networks. Figure 1 (a) presents the power consumption
portable transmitters can have a high-radiated power of different mobile phone parts (Kalic et al. 2012;
when they are located close to their susceptible or broad­ Perrucci et al. 2011; The Power of Wireless Cloud.
casting equipment. Typical field strengths from a hand­ ceet- Centre for energy-efficient telecommunications
held transmitter are 5 V/m to 7 V/m at 0.5 m distance Bell Labs and University of Melbourne 2012). The data
(Ferguson and Williams 1993). communication measurements were focusing on
At a cellular tower or a cell site, an effective-radiated Bluetooth (BT), Wi-Fi and cellular with 3G technology.
power (ERP) of up to 500 W per radio channel or BT is widely used for short-range communications and
transmitter, depending on the tower height, was per­ is commonly integrated in smartphones. The power
mitted by the Federal Communications Commission value of 6 states: off, on, connected and idle, discovery,
(FCC) (Haripriya 2020b). The majority of cellular or receiving and sending, were investigated (Perrucci et al.
Personal Communications Services (PCS) cell sites in 2011). While having the BT on, the power consumption
urban and suburban areas operate at an ERP of 100 W increases by 3 mW, from 12 mW to 15 mW. However,
per channel or less. An ERP of 100 W corresponds to an the power is close to 500 mW when the BT is either in
actual-radiated power of 5–10 W, depending on the type receiving or sending stage. Airpods and wireless head­
of antenna used (Stutzman and Thiele 2012). As with all sets use BT for data communication. The power con­
forms of EM energy, the power density from a cellular or sumption of Wi-Fi IEEE802.11 for infrastructure and ad
PCS transmitter decays proportionally to 1/R2 as the hoc mode were measured in the range of 3–5 m between
distance from the cell site increases. Therefore, for a the WLAN access point and a testing cellphone (Nokia
common 40 W of the power density of about 10 mW/ N95). For the ad hoc mode, the power is about 1 W with
m2 at 100 m from the antenna tower, the power density the phone in idle mode. Making or receiving video calls
will be 1 mW/m2, as the distance increases to 300 m requires slightly more than 2 W. It was shown that Wi-Fi
away from the base station and the device will receive consumes 1.79 and 5.40 times more power than 3G
1μW, based on the effective antenna area of 0.001 m2. while downloading and uploading with 1 Mbps data
Having several mobile phones active in the same area, speed, respectively (Kalic et al. 2012). The power con­
the total EM radiation can get close to 2 W, the same sumption of devices used to access the internet is listed
level as the maximum power radiation of 5 mW/cm2 at at 2.5 W (tablet), 3 W (mobile phone 4G LTE), 70 W
2 inches from the microwave oven surface permitted by (Mid-range PC), 15 W (Laptop) and 11 W (Netbook)
federal regulations (Haripriya 2020c). Besides the afore­ (The Power of Wireless Cloud. ceet- Centre for energy-
mentioned cellular emission, there is also EM radiation efficient telecommunications Bell Labs and University of
from wireless networks, smart and wearable devices, Melbourne 2012). With the 5G technology, the data rate
unceasingly scattering around, whether or not you are and capacity can be delivered up to 1000 times more
connected to their networks. Take for example the myr­ than the 4G-LTE; however, in order to support the extra
iads of Wi-Fi connections in urban areas, or the in-flight number of small cells and massive multiple-input multi­
Wi-Fi where anyone can video stream with a high data ple-output (MIMO) antennas, its energy consumption is
rate passing through their body. A few aircraft Wireless rated approximately 1,000 times higher.
Local Area Network (WLAN) units, typically with a Most commercial wireless RF communications oper­
power of 30–50 W per unit (Fleischman et al. 2008), ate within 2.5 GHz, e.g. 2G: up to 1.9 GHz, 3G: up to
are designed to deliver a good RF propagation within the 2.1 GHz, 4G: up to 2.5 GHz, Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11 b/g):
aircraft cabins. Information on WLAN performance 2.4–2.497 GHz, BT: 2.402–2.483 GHz, ZigBee: up to
inside aircraft passenger cabins was initially studied by 2.4 GHz, etc. The maximum RF power of personal
NASA in 2005 (Whetten et al. 2005). Moreover, accord­ devices varies depending on the type of RF power class
ing to the forecasts, in 2021 there will be 928 million and the type of the over-the-air protocols, specified by
connected wearable units worldwide (Serio et al. 2018). device manufacturers, for example, 29–39 dBm (power
These multimillions of wireless devices and their enor­ class 2–5) for GSM900, 23 dBm (power class 3) for LTE.
mous power consumption generate plenty of unused Although different technologies operate at the same
residual EM radiations all around us. In this research, frequency, their power consumption and radiation
we tag these unwanted and unnecessary EM radiations power can be diverse, depending on the communication
as ‘Electromagnetic Pollution’ (Bandara and Carpenter range or distance, for example, less power consumption,
2018; Fernandez-Garcia and Gil 2017, 2019; Lin 2016). BT (e.g. wireless headsets) covers less distance than
Radiated power varies with respect to the operating ZigBee (e.g. wireless smart home accessories). The
frequency and its system, depending mainly on different range of BT depends on its class, specified by its
 ELECTROMAGNETIC BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 3

Figure 1. (a) Power consumption of different mobile phone parts (Perrucci et al. 2011). (b) Communication system operating frequency
of different band class indices.

transmitting power. Primarily there are three classes of According to Planck’s equation: E ¼ hv, the energy
BT, Class 1–3, transmitting at 100 mW, 2.5 mW and (E) of a photon particle is directly proportional to the
1 mW with a range of 100 m, 10 m and fewer than 10 m, frequency level (v), where the Planck constant (h) is
respectively (Haripriya 2020d). The ZigBee is designed fixed at 6.62607004 × 10−34 m2kg/s. At lower operating
to carry small amounts of data, with a maximum speed frequency, for instance, in the MHz range, the energy at
of 250 kbps (Wi-Fi has a max speed of 54 Mbps), hence the 10−6 eV produces only an induced current, hence
it consumes very little power, over a short distance with there is nonionizing radiation, yet it is not recom­
an average of 10–30 m. As opposed to Wi-Fi, with its mended to be exposed to machines operating in
mesh networking standard, each node in the network is this range (e.g. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
connected to others, equalizing the coverage. It is impor­ at 1–300 MHz) too long and often (Haripriya 2020e).
tant to stress that as the operating frequency gets higher, Nonionizing radiation is generated at frequencies below
the power consumption is typically higher. the ultraviolet regime, where f < 1015 Hz and E < 10eV.
Figure 1 (b) presents the operating frequency of differ­ This nonionizing radiation corresponding to the energy
ent band class indices. Besides the Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11 a/n) level creates different elements and effects, i.e. 1)
which operates at 5.725–5.875 GHz, all the 5G technologies low currents (f < Microwave), 2) high currents (f:
work at much higher frequencies: High Frequency 1 (HF1) Microwave-Infrared) and 3) electron excitations (f >
at 3.1–3.55 GHz, High Frequency 2 (HF2) at 3.7–4.2 GHz, infrared). There are numerous applications operating
Millimeter Wave (mmW) Hot Spots at 27.5–28.35 GHz, within these frequency ranges, where nonionizing radia­
and Internet of Things (IOT) up to 95 GHz. tion is unavoidably polluting. The thermal effects of RF
4 N. WONGKASEM

radiation focusing on the absorption range and tem­ 28 GHz dipole, is employed to launch the EM source to
perature elevation, from various mobile phone frequen­ investigate electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields propa­
cies and different usage patterns, in the human head gating inside human organs and tissues. The organs and
(Bhargava et al. 2019) and different human organs tissues are also tested with a 95–100 GHz waveguide
(Wessapan and Rattanadecho 2018, 2016) were studied. port. Three broad frequency ranges of 1–4 GHz, 23–
It normally takes an extended time to track any long- 33 GHz and 95–105 GHz are set up to further investigate
term effects of these nonionizing radiation on humans. the absorbance, transmittance and reflectance in studied
Several short term or even immediate side effects have organ and tissue models including far-field radiation.
been reported, including psychiatric effects (depression, An example of layered structure: skin-bone-brain, is
anxiety, neurodegenerative issues), cardiac arrhythmias, studied focusing on E-field and H-field intensity propa­
tachycardia, fertility, affected eyesight or changed cell gating and absorbing in each layer. CST Microwave
development, to name a few (Altun et al., 2018; Abdel- Studio (Haripriya 2020g) is implemented for the real-
Rassoul et al. 2007; Ahlbom and Feychting 2003; Baan et time simulations.
al. 2011; Benson et al. 2013; Danker-Hopfe et al. 2016;
Elliott et al. 2010; Gruber et al. 2018; Hardell et al. 2005;
Haripriya 2020f; Johansson and Redmayne 2016;
Water Content, Elemental Composition and
Kazemi et al. 2015; Kim et al. 2019; Kivrak et al. 2017;
Electromagnetic Properties of Human Tissues
Ohtani et al. 2015; Pall 2018; Phillips et al. 2009; Singh All human tissues, organs and fluids, except bones,
and Kapoor 2014). Similar to some serious diseases, contain more than 70% water. What they have in
where the symptoms do not show until they have already common is the high percentage of Hydrogen (H),
reached a certain stage, when the stray cells are comple­ Oxygen (O) and Carbon (C), with Nitrogen (N),
tely saturated, the EM pollution has to be taken much Sodium (Na) and Magnesium (Mg) found in most
more seriously, until it becomes irreparable. At ETHz, or organs. Human organs and tissues, % water content
1018 Hz of the X-ray radiation, the energy can be as high (Haripriya 2020h; Mitchell et al. 1945), % element
as 104 eV, considered as ionizing radiation, which can composition, thermal conductivity, heat transfer rate
easily damage human DNA. To protect from this and heat generation rate are listed in Table 1
extreme harmful radiation, special materials, composed (Gabriel 1996).
of high atomic mass elements, e.g. lead, bismuth, etc. The water content of 93.33% in liquid tissues (blood)
(Sonsilphong and Wongkasem 2014) are used as is the highest, followed by lungs (83.74%), kidneys
shielding. (79.47%) and muscles (79.52%). The brain has the high­
In this research we numerically analyze how human est content of H, while C, N and O, are found highest in
tissues, organs and fluids react with these EM pollutants, breast, bone and lungs, respectively. Thermal conduc­
focusing primarily on the EM propagation and absorp­ tivity, heat transfer rate and heat generation rate are the
tion. We do not draw a conclusion on the extent of highest in the heart. The correlation between these para­
human-related damage (Altun et al., 2018; Abdel- meters and the EM propagation and absorbance is
Rassoul et al. 2007; Ahlbom and Feychting 2003; Baan investigated.
et al. 2011; Benson et al. 2013; Danker-Hopfe et al. 2016; EM materials can be fundamentally classified as a
Elliott et al. 2010; Gruber et al. 2018; Hardell et al. 2005; conductor, dielectric and magnetic materials, and free-
Haripriya 2020f; Johansson and Redmayne 2016; space, based on their EM properties, i.e. complex per­
00
Kazemi et al. 2015; Kim et al. 2019; Kivrak et al. 2017; mittivity (ε ¼ ε0 þ jε ) and complex permeability
Ohtani et al. 2015; Pall 2018; Phillips et al. 2009; Singh 00
(μ ¼ μ0 þ jμ ), specified at their operating frequency
and Kapoor 2014). We investigate how human organs, ω
(f ¼ 2π ). Loss tangent, the ratio of the real part of the
tissues and fluids react, while resonated by the EM permittivity and the imaginary part of the permittivity is
excitation or radiation in the microwave ranges from 00
connected to the material’s conductivity: tanθ ¼ εε0 ¼ ωε σ
1 GHz to 105 GHz, focusing on the communication
. The conductivity value (σ, S/m) is commonly used to
frequencies of 2.4 GHz (4G-LTE, Wi-Fi, ZigBee,
discern if the material is either a lossless (σ � ωε or
Bluetooth, etc.), 28 GHz (5G-mmW) and 95 GHz (5G-
small θ) or a lossy (σ � ωε or large θ) dielectric. Due to
IoT). Dispersive EM parameters, including thermal and
conductor's extreme conductivity and hence high dielec­
mechanical parameters, and chemical element contents
tric loss (ε00 ), waves almost totally reflect back when
of human organs and tissues are discussed. The EM
reaching the conductor surface, while some can pene­
propagation properties and absorbance of the organs,
trate inside the conductor with the distance, δ ¼ pffi1ffiffiffiffiffiffi ,
tissues, and fluids from the EM emission are also closely πf μσ
observed. A commonly used antenna type, 2.4 GHz and defined as skin depth or penetration depth. At δ, the
 ELECTROMAGNETIC BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 5

Table 1. Water content, elemental composition, thermal conductivity, heat transfer/generation rates of different human organs and
tissues (Gabriel 1996; https://itis.swiss/virtual-population/tissue-properties/database/heat-generation-rate/; Mitchell et al. 1945).
Elemental Composition (%)
Thermal
Human Organs and Conductivity Heat Transfer Heat Generation
Tissues Water Content (%) H C N O Na Mg (W/m/°C) Rate (ml/min./kg) Rate (W/kg)
Blood 93.33 60 10 1.3 28 0.037 0.0005 0.52 10000 0
Bone (Cancellous) 31.81 43 14 3.3 30 0.025 0.094 0.31 30 0.46
Brain 73.33 65 6.2 0.57 27 0.048 0.0037 0.51 559 11.37
(including Spinal Cord
and Nerve Trunks)
Breast NA 50 37 0.30 13 0.018 0 0.21 47 0.73
Eye (Lens) NA 61 10 2.5 26 0.014 0 0.43 0 0
Eye (Retina) NA - - - - - - 0.55 240 4.89
Gallbladder NA - - - - - - 0.52 30 0.46
Heart Lumen 73.69 60 10 1.3 28 0.037 0.0005 0.52 10000 0
Heart Muscle NA 64 7.2 1.3 28 0.027 0 0.56 1026 39.45
Kidneys 79.47 63 6.9 1.3 28 0.054 0 0.53 3795 18.05
Large Intestine NA 64 7.1 1.3 28 0.027 0 0.54 765 11.85
Liver 71.46 63 7.3 1.3 28 0.054 0 0.52 860 9.93
Lungs (Inflated) 83.74 64 5.3 0.71 30 0.053 0.0095 0.39 401 6.21
Muscle 79.52 63 6.9 1.5 28 0.025 0.0020 0.49 37 0.91
Skin 64.68 62 1.1 1.9 25 0.041 0.00038 0.37 106 1.65
Spleen 78.69 64 5.9 1.4 29 0.027 0 0.53 1557 24.11
Urinary Bladder Wall NA 64 4.9 1.1 29 0.054 0 0.52 78 1.21
Air NA 0 0.015 78 21 0 0 0.026 0 0
(at 30 C)
Water NA 67 0 0 33 0 0 0.60 0 0

wave amplitude is attenuated by the factor e 1 or about the dielectric properties are strongly related to the mole­
37% of its original peak. Contrasting to conductors, cular dynamics of dipoles and charges, for both ions and
waves can always propagate passing dielectric materials, electrons, under any oscillating EM fields. Here, the
depending on the attenuation constant, α.Figure 2. pre­ dielectric losses were assumed to be induced by conduc­
sents the real part of the permittivity (ε0 ) and conductiv­ tion processes. This simplifying hypothesis is valid, as
ity (σ) of human organs and tissues at radio and biological media such as tissues contain many ions,
microwave frequencies, from 100 MHz to 100 GHz, unlike pure water in which dielectric relaxation is the
computed by a 4-Cole-Cole model (Gabriel 1996; predominant mode of dissipation around 18 GHz.
Haripriya 2020h), where the spectrum extends from Hence, both the molecular dynamics of dipoles and
Hz to GHz and shows four dispersion regions. The charges under EM fields, as well as the degree of the
complex permittivity of the model, described in EM wave susceptibility of the material, are taken into
Equation (1), was specifically derived for the frequency account while obtaining the dielectric properties of a
dependence of the dielectric properties of the investi­ material (Buchner and Hefter 2009; Gabriel et al. 1998;
gated tissues (Gabriel 1996). Mingos and Baghurst 1991; Nie et al. 2018; Tsubaki et al.
2018).
X
4
Δεn jσ i
εðωÞ ¼ ε0 þ jε ¼ ε1 þ ð1 α n Þ
(1) Based on the aforementioned 4-Cole-Cole model,
n¼1 1 þ ðjωτ n Þ ωε0 the relative permittivity of all listed organs and
tissues decreases exponentially with an e x function,
in which, ε1 is the permittivity in the THz range,
below 10, at 100 GHz. The top five permittivity
and σ i is the ionic conductivity, for each dispersion
values, from high to low, come from: gall bladder,
region. τ is the relaxation time and Δε is the drop
heart lumen, breast (gland), heart muscle and mus­
in permittivity in the frequency range corresponding
cles. The lowest values are seen in the breast (fat),
to 1 � ωτ � 1: With a choice of parameters appro­
bones (cancellous), urinary bladder wall, lungs and
priate for each tissue, Equation (1) corresponding to
eye retina. On the other hand, the conductivity
the whole spectrum, could be used to predict
increases exponentially with a e x function. The
its dielectric behavior over the desired frequency
imaginary part of the permittivity is linked to the
range.
It is important to stress that in order to improve the conductivity: ε00 ¼ σωεðωÞ
0
. The order of organs and
accuracy of the complex permittivity values of any tissues regarding to their conductivity values is
water-based materials, the ionic conduction should be almost identical to the organ order, considering
applied to the Cole-Cole model (Tsubaki et al. 2018), as the permittivity values. At higher frequency, the
6 N. WONGKASEM

Figure 2. Permittivity and conductivity of human tissues and organs calculated from 100 MHz to 100 GHz (Gabriel 1996; https://itis.
swiss/virtual-population/tissue-properties/database/heat-generation-rate/).

permittivity and conductivity of all organs and tis­ *

Eðz; t Þ ¼ E0 e αz
cosðωt βzÞax
*
(2)
sues are lower and higher, respectively, resulting in
a higher attenuation constant, which leads to less
transmission and more absorption. These EM para­ * E0 αz *
H ðz; t Þ ¼ e cosðωt βz θη Þay (3)
meters are added in the CST material database, jηj
where only the values up to 3 GHz are provided.
These time-varying E- and H-fields are the main EM *
*
components, where their resonating directions (ax of E
Electromagnetic Propagation in Human Tissues * *

and Organs and ay of H ), create an EM wave propagating in the

* * *
direction az ¼ ax � ay . Wave propagation properties are
Waves propagate without any attenuation in lossless
analyzed by the materials’ propagation constant:
materials, for example, free-space or vacuum. sffiffiffiffi�ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�ffiffi
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�ffiffiffiffiffi�ffiffiffi
However, in general, there is always loss in materials, γ ¼ α þ jβ, where α ¼ ω με2 1 þ ωε σ 2
1 and β ¼
where the electric (E-) and magnetic (H-) field of any
sffiffiffiffi�ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�ffiffi
transverse EM (or TEM) mode can be calculated qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�ffiffiffiffiffi�ffiffiffi
με σ 2
from: ω 2 1 þ ωε þ 1 are the attenuation and phase
 ELECTROMAGNETIC BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 7

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi �
constant, and η ¼ jωμ
¼ jηj�θη is the intrinsic 28 GHz model) diameter spherical shape. The perfectly
σþjωε
matched layer (PML) or open ‘add space,’ a specific CST
impedance. name, set for the system boundaries, ensures the least
The incident radiation or the excitation wave, and the reflected and scattered waves from the boundaries. The
object, or scatter, with which the radiation interacts, are estimated reflected level is 0.0001% or 0.01%. The dipole
the two main elements for the formulation of a scatter­ antenna is assigned as Port 1, the transmitting port,
ing problem (Frezza et al. 2017), interrelated with pro­ 42.5 mm or 0.34λ (the 2.4 GHz dipole), and 10.7 mm
pagation properties. Based on the Lorenz-Mie theory or 1λ (the 28 GHz dipole) from the observation organ or
(Lorenz 1890; Mie 1908; Tzarouchis and Sihvola 2018), tissue. The distance is chosen as an example of users
the incident radiation is corresponded to the wave prop­ holding or carrying a cellphone, tablet, wireless earbuds,
erties, including wave format and environment, while smartwatch, etc., as well as to ensure a full-wave propa­
the material and size are the key contributions of the gation. Figure 3 shows the physical domain of the
observed scatter. 2.4 GHz and 28 GHz dipole set-ups with the dimensions
We demonstrate experiments focusing on three main and boundaries.
operating frequencies: 2.4 GHz, 28 GHz and 100 GHz,
where trial human organs and tissues are placed in A) a Figure 4 presents the 3D radiating E- and H-field
wave propagation direction of 2.4 GHz and 28 GHz at a center-cut plane, captured at 2.4 GHz and
dipole antennas and B) a waveguide port operating 28 GHz from the aforementioned dipoles. The top-
from 95 to 105 GHz. view displays the wavefront, where the operating
wavelength and field intensity can be observed. As
the wave enters the organ and tissue model, where
Organs and tissues placement facing 2.4 GHz and the complex permittivity is much higher than that of
28 GHz dipole antennas air or free space, the wavelength is clearly shortened,
approximately by 5–8 times. This is based on the
A half-wavelength 2.4 GHz dipole antenna and a half- relationship between the material EM properties and
wavelength 28 GHz dipole antenna are individually TEM (Transverse EM mode) propagation phase velo­
placed in front of a human organ or tissue model in an qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
80 mm (for the 2.4 GHz model) and a 20 mm (for the city: vp ¼ ωβ ¼ ε0 εr1μ μ . Therefore, the wave is
0 r

Figure 3. (a) 2.4 GHz and (b) 28 GHz dipole antenna placed in front of a human organ, where PML boundaries are set at all six sides.
8 N. WONGKASEM

Figure 4. E-and H-fields: 3D center-cut plane in organ models from 2.4 GHz and 28 GHz dipoles.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 9

somewhat accelerating, while it is propagating quency increases, e.g. 3,656 V/m at 95 GHz, 3,708 V/m
through and oscillating inside organs and tissues. If at 100 GHz, and 3,804 V/m at 105 GHz in the brain
the excitation frequency and power is higher, the model, or 5,161 V/m at 95 GHz, 5,277 V/m at 100 GHz
organs and tissues will need to be tolerating a and 5,378 V/m at 105 GHz in the lung model. The
much higher stimulation. Any dielectric material increasing intensity level from 95 GHz to 105 GHz radia­
becomes conducting when the applied E-field is so tion in this setting is in between 3.89% (brain) and 4.86%
high and breaks down the dielectric strength. The (liver). The 2D maximum H-field intensity is quite stable,
same E- and H-field intensity scale for all models is but shows a slight increase inclination at a higher fre­
set in a range of 5e+3 V/m to 5e-6 V/m and 10 A/m quency. The field intensity decreases as the wave propa­
to 1e-6 A/m. The 2D maximum E-field is in the gates through the model, indicating a wave attenuation
range of 9,500–9,600 V/m (of the 2.4 GHz), and of from the material absorption, as shown in Figure 6(b).
101,700–101,900 V/m (of the 28 GHz), while the 2D The H-field is 12.88 A/m when it enters the eye bulb
maximum H-field is in the range of 14.20–14.35 A/ model at the plane x = −2 and reduces to 2.587 A/m at
m (of the 2.4 GHz), and of 173–174 A/m (of the x = +2. The next section focuses on the absorbance study
28 GHz). The lowest propagation frequency (or
longest wavelength) is found in the lung model,
Electromagnetic Absorption in Human Tissues
where permittivity is lowest at 20.510+j5.9168 and
and Organs
4.002+j21.384 at 2.4 GHz and 28 GHz, respectively.
Waves are weakening or attenuating while propagating in
any lossy materials, where α�0, which directly corre­
Organs and tissues placement in front of a 95-
sponds to the material conductivity and the imaginary
105 GHz waveguide port
of the permittivity. The attenuation constant therefore
The observed organ or tissue model in a 6 mm diameter indicates material loss or absorption. Since human
spherical shape is placed in front of a waveguide port, organ and tissue conductivity increases exponentially as
where an excitation is launched to investigate EM pro­ the frequency increases, for example: σ Brain = 0.790, 2.069,
pagation in a broad high-frequency range of 95 GHz- 27.570 and 48.194 S/m at 100 MHz, 2.4 GHz, 28 GHz and
100 GHz, shown in Figure 5. The PML boundaries are 100 GHz, respectively, besides the higher power and E-
set for the system to ensure the least reflected and and H-field strength, our organs and tissues are also deal­
scattered waves from the boundaries. The estimated ing with higher absorption at higher frequency levels.
reflected level is 0.0001% or 0.01%. The distance from EM absorbance (AðωÞ) in materials is defined by the
the port to the model is automatically set by CST to amount of residual waves in materials, excluding the
ensure a full plane wave propagation. transmitting and reflected waves, where their field
As illustrated in Figure 6(a), the 2D maximum E-field strength is defined as transmittance (T ðωÞ) and reflec­
intensity increases significantly as the EM source fre­ tance (RðωÞ.), respectively. Based on the wave propaga­
tion theory, the transmittance and reflectance are,
respectively, obtained from the scattering parameters, i.
e. the transmission coefficient (S21 ) and reflection coeffi­
cient ((S11 )). Equation 4 presents the relationship among
the absorbance, transmittance and reflectance in terms
of the scattering parameters:

AðωÞ ¼ 1 T ðωÞ RðωÞ ¼ 1 jS21 j2 jS11 j2 (4)

The absorbance, transmittance and reflectance of
any material depend directly on the operating fre­
quency (ω ¼ 2πf ). It means that the same material
behaves electromagnetically different while being
excited by waves of different frequencies. At one
frequency, the EM waves can simply propagate
through a material without any lingering in the
Figure 5. Brain model placed in front of a 95–105 waveguide
material, at another frequency they can resonate
port, where PML boundaries are set at all 6 sides. heavily in the material with very high absorbance,
10 N. WONGKASEM

Figure 6. (a) E- and H-fields: 3D center-cut plane in organ models from a 95–100 GHz waveguide port. (b) 3D center-cut plane (y = 0) H-
field at 105 GHz of eye bulb at x = −2, −1, 0 and 2 mm.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 11

investigate the absorbance, transmittance and reflec­

tance of the human organs and tissues.
Significantly higher E- and H-field intensity, around
10 times, are observed in the three organs as the operat­
ing frequency increases from 2.4 GHz (4G-LTE) to
28 GHz (5G-mmW), presented in Figure 8. These higher
values are not exact numbers, but are directly connected
to their power requirement for any higher frequency
systems/networks. Similar to the previous propagation
demonstration, the EM wavelength inside the organs is
shortened (higher frequency). The cut-plane E- and H-
fields along the propagation direction are dramatically
attenuated and vanish before passing the models. The
transmittance (solid line) of the three organs is signifi­
cantly low in the e-3 level in the 1–4 GHz range and the
e-5 level in the 23–33 GHz range. The absorbance
(dotted line) is found the highest in the lung, i.e.
66.49% at 28 GHz and 58.69% at 2.4 GHz, while the
lowest is in the heart, i.e. 47.24% at 28 GHz and
39.83 GHz. These great absorbance values contribute
to its inflated structure, in the majority composed of
Figure 7. Brain placed in between (a) 1–4 GHz and (b) 23–33 GHz air. Its complex permittivity, conductivity, material
waveguide ports along z-axis, where periodic boundaries are set density (1020 Kg/m3), blood flow coefficient
in x- and y- axes. (9,500 W/K/m3), as well as Basel metabolic rate
(1,700 W/m3), is the lowest among all observed models
(Elliott et al. 2010). On the other hand, the heart
and at other frequency, they can all be reflected back reflects the large portion of the waves in both frequency
to the launching source. ranges approximately at 50% and 60%, respectively. It
To test them for the EM absorption, organ and tissue is also linked to its higher EM dispersion, thermal,
models in flat shape with the infinite surface (width and mechanic and density values.
length) are placed in between two waveguide ports, The transmittance and reflectance also indicate the
operating in three different frequency bands. A special scattering behavior and multiple absorbing possibility,
skin-bone-brain layer case is also investigated. as the wave can transmit to, reflect from other tissues
and organs, and then launch back onto other organs or
tissues. Further investigation of complex models where a
Flat shape organ and tissue model with infinite
set of tissues and organs are integrated will definitely
surface placement in between waveguide ports
provide more information on this matter.
Organs and tissues are examined by flat shape struc­ Fourteen organ and tissue models are tested for their
ture analysis. The studied model is placed in between absorbance, reflectance, and transmittance in the 95–
two waveguide ports, where port 1, Zmin, and port 2, 105 GHz range. The models with the finite 2 cm thick­
Zmax, are the transmitting and receiving port, respec­ ness and an infinite x-y plane (perpendicular to the
tively, as shown in Figure 7. The 1–4 GHz and 23– excitation) are created for EM full-wave analysis. The
33 GHz waves are launched from the Zmin location absorbance is found greater than 60% in all models, and
toward the Zmax port in the +z radiation direction. higher as the frequency increases, shown in Figure 9-top.
These EM waves are created by the Ey and Hx com­ At 100 GHz, bone (83.01%), urinary bladder wall
ponents for a standard-free space propagation, TEM (82.95%), lung (80.02%), liver (68.18%), brain (66.18%)
mode. The heart, brain and lung, selected based on and eye (64.46%) are the highest absorbing organs. The
their EM parameters (Table 1 and Figure 2), with a rest of the EM field is mostly reflected, as the transmit­
finite 125 mm and 10.7 mm thickness (along the z- tance values are extremely low, below the e-20 level. The
axis), or one wavelength of 2.4 GHz and 28 GHz, and absorbance increases significantly as the frequency
an infinite x-y plane (perpendicular to the excitation) increases, e.g. in the brain model, the absorbance is
set by the periodic boundaries, are modeled for this 43.78% at 2.4 GHz, 51.95% at 28 GHz and 66.16% at
full-wave analysis. This setting is designed to 100 GHz. Figure 9-bottom presents the far-field pattern
 12
N. WONGKASEM

Figure 8. Top: E-and H-fields: 3D center-cutting plane in organ models in between 1–4 GHz and 23–33 GHz waveguides. Bottom: Transmittance (solid line), reflectance (dashed line) and
absorbance (dotted line) of heart, brain, and lung in the 1–4 GHz and 23–33 GHz ranges.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 13

Figure 8. (Continued).

through bone, brain and heart. A green-yellow-red bal­ three frequencies, and all disappear inside the brain
loon indicates the EM strength along the propagation layer. This observation is confirmed by the E-field and
directly, easily noticed by the radius and color intensity. H-field values recorded behind the skin, bone and brain
The radiation efficiency (Rad. Eff.) at −6.894 dB (bone), layer at Probes 1–4, presented in Figure 10-middle. It is
−2.919 dB (brain), and −2.023 dB (heart) is observed. clearly shown that both the E-field and H-field are highly
The low negative values of the radiation efficiency reflect absorbed inside each layer at higher frequencies. As one
the low or poor transmission between the transmitting said, ‘nature does nothing uselessly,’ the skin and the
and receiving port, indicating high loss or absorption in bone layers do indeed protect our brain: at 28 GHz, the
the organ. The total radar cross-section (RCS) of bone E-field of 1326 V/m and H-field of 11.92 A/m in the
(−58.16 dBm2), brain (−55.17 dBm2) and heart (−54.60 middle of the skin layer are reduced to 238.8 V/m and
dBm2) is also measured. RCS is a property of the target’s 1.93 A/m at the middle of the bone layer, before entering
reflectivity. A low negative RCS value indicates low the brain, or at a 82.0% (E-field) and 83.8% (H-field)
reflected wave intensity. The RCS is directly correlated decreasing rate. At 100 GHz, the E- and H-fields are
with the reflectance. The highest reflectance is 38.8%. lessened by almost 99%. However, as there is almost no
Based on this data, there is no clear correlation E-field and H-field radiating passed the brain layer, all
between the EM absorbance and heat transfer and gen­ the remaining EM-field remains inside the brain. As
eration rate (Table 1). Contrastingly, the absorbance is shown in Figure 10-right, the overall layer absorbance
highly connected with the permittivity and conductivity. (dotted line) is greatly elevated at all three frequencies at
The top five highly EM absorbing organs all have low 69.18% (2.4 GHz), 65.69% (28 GHz) and 71.49%
complex permittivity and conductivity. (100 GHz). The reflectance (dashed line) of all three
frequency points is around 30%, while the transmittance
(solid line) is significantly low in the e-3 (1–4 GHz), e-41
Skin-Bone-Brain layer placement in between (23–33 GHz) and e-131 (95–105 GHz) level.
waveguide ports
A flat uniform layer of 0.12 mm skin (Avg. face skin
Conclusion
thickness), 6 mm bone and 60 mm brain is tested for E-
field and H-field propagation, as well as EM absorption, Eight human organ and tissue models (blood, brain,
by placing it in between the 1–4 GHz, 23–33 GHz, and breast, eye bulb, heart, kidney, liver and lung), while
95–105 waveguide ports. The infinite structure plane is tested with electromagnetic excitation from 2.4 GHz
set perpendicular to the excitation. Therefore, the trans­ and 28 GHz dipole antennas, and 95–105 GHz wave­
mitting wave (Back) from the transmitting port will per­ guide ports, show that the wavelength of the E- and H-
ceive the layer model, in the Skin-Bone-Brain order, as an fields propagating inside the models is shortened or the
infinite plane with finite thickness. The distance from the wave frequency is accelerating, approximately 5–8 times.
ports to the layer is set for full plane wave excitation. The lowest propagation frequency is found in the lung
As shown in Figure 10-left, the propagating E- and H- model, where the permittivity and conductivity are low­
fields are hardly passing through the bone layer at all est among those of the eight studied models. The E-field
 14
N. WONGKASEM

Figure 9. Top: Absorbance, reflectance, and transmittance of 13 organ and tissue models in 95–105 GHz range. Bottom: System setting and far-field radiation at 100 GHz through a 2 cm
layer of bone, brain, and heart.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE

Figure 10. Left: E-and H-fields: 3D center-cut plane through a layer of 0.12 mm skin, 0.6 mm bone and 60 mm brain skin-bone-brain layer in 1–4 GHz, 23–33 GHz, and 95–105 GHz ranges.
15

Middle: E- and H-fields collected at 0.06 mm@skin, 3.06 mm@bone, 9.06 mm@brain1, and 36.06 mm@brain2. Right: Reflectance (dashed), absorbance (dotted), and transmittance (solid) of the
organ layer in the 3 frequency ranges.
16 N. WONGKASEM

Figure 10. (Continued).

intensity boosts significantly as the EM source frequency Further study of the EM radiation and propagation,
increases, approximately 10 times between 2.4 GHz and either on specific complete human parts, for example, an
28 GHz. The E-field intensity (from 95 GHz to 105 GHz eye bulb with cornea, anterior chamber, pupil, iris, lens,
radiation) rises from 3.89% (in the brain) to 4.86% (in ciliary and vitreous body, macular, retina, choroid and
the liver). The field intensity dramatically decreases as optic nerve, or the whole human body, will definitely
the wave propagates passing the model, indicating high provide more insight and correlation of the EM radia­
wave attenuation from the material absorption. tion and its effects amid all human organs.
The EM absorbance is found to be greater than
60% in all 14 organ and tissue models. At 100 GHz,
Acknowledgments
the bone (83.01%), urinary bladder wall (82.95%),
lung (80.02%), liver (68.18%), brain (66.18%) and This work is supported by NSF ADVANCE Grant (1209210)
eye bulb (64.46%) present the highest absorbance at the University of Texas Rio Grande Valley. NW thanks to
level. The absorbance increases significantly as the Patricia Briea, environmental engineer, for the fruitful discus­
sion on RF radiation and regulations.
frequency increases, for instance, 43.78% at
2.4 GHz, 51.95% at 28 GHz and 66.16% at
100 GHz in the brain model. The transmittance in Funding
all models is below e-20 level. At all three operating
frequencies: 2.4 GHz, 28 GHz and 100 GHz, the E- This work was supported by the NSF Advance [1209210].
and H-fields vanish before passing through the brain
layer of the Skin-Bone-Brain layered model. The
ORCID
overall layer absorbance is greatly elevated at all 3
frequencies: 69.18% at 2.4 GHz, 65.69% at 28 GHz Nantakan Wongkasem http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6580-
and 71.49% at 100 GHz. The reflectance is around 485X
30%, while the transmittance is significantly low.
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